3

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT

3.1

DEFINITION................................................................................................................... 3-1

3.2

STRATEGIC APPROACH................................................................................................... 3-1

3.3

WATER CYCLE MANAGEMENT IN URBAN AREAS.............................................................. 3-1

3.3.1

Urban Water System ......................................................................................... 3-1

3.3.2

Need for Integrated Management Approach....................................................... 3-3

3.4

OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................... 3-4

3.5

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES ..................................................................... 3-4

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.5.1

Accepting Shared Responsibility......................................................................... 3-4

3.5.2

Integrated Landuse Planning............................................................................. 3-4

3.5.3

Water-Sensitive Urban Design ........................................................................... 3-5

3.5.4

Multi-Purpose Use of Stormwater Infrastructure ................................................. 3-5

3.5.5

Promoting Ecologically Sustainable Development ............................................... 3-5

3.5.6

Developing the Best Mix of Strategies ................................................................ 3-6

3.5.7

Encouraging Innovation..................................................................................... 3-6

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT ISSUES ............................................................................ 3-6

3.6.1

Urban Stormwater as a Resource....................................................................... 3-6

3.6.2

Community Values and Participation .................................................................. 3-7

3.6.3

Fragmented Jurisdiction .................................................................................... 3-7

RUNOFF QUANTITY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES ............................................................ 3-7

3.7.1

Conveyance-Oriented Approach ......................................................................... 3-7

3.7.2

Storage-Oriented Approach ............................................................................... 3-8

RUNOFF QUALITY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES ............................................................... 3-9

3.8.1

Housekeeping BMPs .......................................................................................... 3-9

3.8.2

Source Controls BMPs........................................................................................ 3-11

3.8.3

Treatment Controls BMPs .................................................................................. 3-11

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

3-i

Stormwater Management

3.1

DEFINITION

Urban stormwater management, simply stated, is

everything done within a catchment to remedy existing
stormwater problems and to prevent the occurrence of
new problems (Walesh, 1989).
It involves the
development and implementation of a combination of
structural and non-structural measures to reconcile the
conveyance and storage function of stormwater systems
within the space and related needs of an expanding urban
population.
It also involves the development and
implementation of a range of measures or Best
Management Practices (BMPs) to improve the quality of
urban stormwater runoff prior to its discharge to receiving
waters.
Typical measures used for stormwater
management are represented in Figure 3.1.
There is increasing recognition in developed countries that
stormwater management needs to be undertaken in a
safer and more ecologically sustainable manner.
Stormwater should be regarded as an asset and a resource
to be valued, rather than the traditional attitude of
regarding it as a nuisance to be disposed of as quickly as
possible. Many rivers, lakes, and coastal waters are
currently degraded by urban stormwater due to excessive
flows, poor water quality, removal of riparian vegetation,
and the destruction of aquatic habitats. This has resulted
fundamentally from a primary focus on a rapid
disposal/conveyance-oriented approach to stormwater
management. Stormwater management practices need to
be broadened to consider environmental issues such as
water quality, aquatic habitats, riparian vegetation, and
social issues such as aesthetics, recreation, and economics.

3.2

STRATEGIC APPROACH

In a number of developed countries, greater awareness of

the sensitivity and importance of the natural environment
has led to a marked change in the approach to managing
the environment by governments and communities at
large. This change has been embodied in the concept of
ecologically sustainable development, which is aimed at
ensuring that development can occur without long-term
degradation of natural resources and the environment.

the establishment of objectives which will achieve

required levels of flood protection and water quality
enhancement;

the establishment of water quality management

strategies;

the development and implementation of monitoring

and surveillance programs to ensure that runoff
quantity and water quality (or environmental)
objectives are being maintained; and

the implementation of research programs to gain a

better understanding of the behaviour of aquatic
systems in order to improve water quality design and
management techniques.

Public involvement is emphasised at all stages of this

approach. This reflects the philosophy that all
organisations and individuals (stakeholders) who influence,
or are affected by the stormwater system, should have a
say in its management.
This approach is based on the following set of broad and
holistic principles for effective stormwater environment
management within a catchment and its receiving waters:

hydrological : minimising changes to the hydrological

characteristics of a catchment, including wet and dry
weather flows, to achieve appropriate flow objectives

water quality : minimising the amount of pollution

entering the stormwater system (housekeeping/source
control) and removing an appropriate amount of any
residual pollution by implementing treatment BMPs

vegetation : maximising the value of indigenous

riparian, floodplain, and foreshore vegetation

aquatic habitat : maximising the value of habitats for

aquatic fauna within the stormwater system

These principles are inter-related and the failure to

consider any one of them may compromise the values of a
stormwater system. The relative importance of these
principles can, however, vary within and between
catchments and some compromises between them may be
needed at any particular site to achieve a balanced
environmental outcome.

Management of water resources has traditionally focused

on protecting human health-oriented values. The control
of both the quantity and quality of urban runoff is now
being seen to be also of major importance in the
management of catchments and receiving waters. A
different approach to the management of urban
stormwater that has been evolving over the past decade
has involved:

An appropriate hierarchy for stormwater management

based on these principles is shown in Figure 3.2.

the establishment of a storage-oriented approach for

controlling runoff quantity from development sites;

the identification of the environmental values (or

beneficial uses) of particular water bodies which are to
be protected;

Chapter 2 has described the hydrologic cycle. This natural

process has been very extensively modified in urban areas
(Musiake, 1991).

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

3.3

WATER CYCLE MANAGEMENT IN

URBAN AREAS

3.3.1

Urban Water System

Figure 3.3 gives a representation of the urban water

3-1

Stormwater Management

QUANTITY
POST-CONSTRUCTION

QUALITY

Reservoirs / Lakes

REGIONAL LEVEL

Regional Ponds

Wet Ponds / Wetlands

COMMUNITY LEVEL

Dry Detention Basins

Infiltration Basins

Gross Pollutant Traps

X
X

Detention Storage

ON-SITE LEVEL

Media Filtration

On-site Traps,
Oil Separators

Swale, Infiltration
Sump,Trench, Porous /
Modular Pavements

Regulatory / O&M / Housekeeping BMPs

Public Education

Development and Building Control/ Administration

Contractor Activity BMPs

CONSTRUCTION

Erosion and Sediment Control BMPs

LEGEND:

Detention

Source Control

Retention

Treatment

Figure 3.1

3-2

Not Applicable

Typical Stormwater Management Measures

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Stormwater Management

system. The flows taking place in the system can be

classified into three streams:

increased impervious areas which increase flash

flooding and reduce natural groundwater recharge,

the natural processes of

evapotranspiration and runoff;

infiltration,

the artificial paths for drainage of stormwater such as

gutters, pipes, open drains, detention basins and
engineered waterways; and

reduction in flow of river systems due to urban water

supply diversions. Much of the flow is conveyed in
sewers to discharge points further downstream,

the water supply system, which feeds into the

sewerage system

the economically wasteful use of high-quality drinking

water, for low-value uses such as toilet flushing and
garden watering

wet weather wastewater overflows, caused

infiltration and impacting on receiving waters.

Major problems in Malaysia related to urban water

management include the shortage of water, pollution of
water bodies, urban flood hazards, and deterioration of the
environment surrounding rivers. To date a piecemeal
approach has been adopted to solving these problems.

Retain (and restore if degraded) valuable

Retain
(and
if degraded)
valuable
features
ofrestore
the stormwater
system
features of the stormwater system
Manage the quantity and quality of
Manage theatquantity
quality of
stormwater
or near and
its source
stormwater at or near its source
Install facilities for runoff quantity
Installand
facilities
runoff quantity
qualityfor
control
and quality control

Stormwater Management Hierarchy

These flow paths are not fully independent but are partly
connected to each other. To fully understand the urban
water system, it is necessary to quantify each of these
components and their interrelationships in the cycle.
3.3.2

Need for Integrated Management Approach

Appropriate adjustments of these previously piecemeal

efforts are needed in order to achieve efficient and
environmentally sustainable operation of the urban water
cycle. As noted by Musiake (1991), the inertia of the
existing fragmented administrative arrangements makes
this adjustment difficult. Nevertheless, it must be pursued.
Some examples of integrated measures which can be
adopted include:

integrated landuse planning to achieve multiple uses

for urban land,

capture and storage of roof runoff in order to reduce

demands on the household potable water supply,

ponding of surface runoff for community non-potable

water supply use,

Evapotranspiration

Many examples can be quoted of the interdependence of

the three urban water systems:

Water Supply

RAINFALL

Evapotranspiration

Figure 3.2

URBANISED LAND SURFACE

Retention

by

Detention

Pipe or
Open
Drains

Wastewater

Regional Detention,
Retention and Water
Quality Control Measures

W/W Overflow
Sewers

Wastewater Treatment Plants

SOIL

RECEIVING WATER

rainfall,

GROUNDWATER

Figure 3.3

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Urban Water System

3-3

Stormwater Management

use of infiltration facilities to reduce direct storm

runoff and increase base flows in rivers during dry
periods.

Integrated stormwater management has been adopted as

a major theme throughout this Manual.

3.4

OBJECTIVES

An idealised goal for urban water management would be

the restoration of each component of the hydrological cycle
to its natural level (Musiake, 1991). However, this is not
achievable with the present-day urban systems.
Within the broad objective of achieving an optimum urban
environment, the underlying objectives can be set for
responsible stormwater management as (ACT DUS, 1994):

to provide safety for the public,

to minimise and control nuisance flooding and to

provide for the safe passage of less frequent flood
events,

to stabilise the landform and control erosion,

to protect property,

to enhance the urban landscape,

to optimise the land available for urbanisation, and

to minimise the environmental impact of urban runoff

on water quality

These objectives will be seen as being achieved when:

the planning, design and construction of new

stormwater facilities are adequate to service the
requirements of new and future developments

there is compatibility with existing stormwater

facilities, operational methods, and maintenance
techniques

stormwater facilities provide adequate environmental,

community, and asset protection consistent with
acceptable planning, design, and construction
requirements and the principles of ecologically
sustainable development.

3.5

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
PRINCIPLES

The followings have been identified (NSW EPA, 1996a) as

important management principles for achieving the stated
objectives outlined in Section 3.4.
3.5.1

Accepting Shared Responsibility

Catchments do not normally follow jurisdictional

boundaries and will often cover a number of jurisdictional
areas.
Effective stormwater management requires
cooperation and coordination between the various
stakeholders with legitimate roles and responsibilities for

3-4

stormwater within the catchment.

Cooperation and
coordination can be difficult to achieve in large catchments
as the many stakeholders involved can cover a wide and
often conflicting range of attitudes and interests.
Compromises may need to be made in order to achieve an
effective workable arrangement.
Because a large number of stakeholders may be involved
in a catchment, stormwater management needs to
recognise and build on the important part that each
stakeholder should play in developing and implementing
stormwater management strategies. Agreeing that there
are shared responsibilities, clearly defining actual
management roles is the most fundamental requirement
for effective stormwater management. These stakeholders
are often in unique positions to solve particular parts of the
problem, and if each contributes what they are best
positioned to do, the most effective and efficient results
will be achieved.
Institutional arrangements and
management programs need to be developed in such a
way as to ensure that responsibility for the development
and implementation of management solutions is shared
equitably and efficiently.
3.5.2

Integrated Landuse Planning

Existing and future stormwater quantity and quality

problems are closely tied to existing and future landuse
patterns.
The nature and density of landuse will
significantly influence the volume and rate of runoff and
the quantity and quality of pollutants carried from the land
surface to the stormwater system. Landuse is therefore a
primary determinant of the location and severity of urban
flooding and pollution problems.
Decisions on landuse, which do not consider stormwater
quantity and quality management, may limit opportunities
and impose significant costs on the community. There are
many instances where development has been allowed in
floodplains with subsequent adverse consequences.
Stormwater management must respect the principle of the
interdependence of land and water resources. Planning
directed to the resolution of existing stormwater quantity
and quality problems and the prevention of future
problems in proposed and existing urban areas should be
done within an agreed area-wide or catchment landuse
plan. If such a plan does not exist, a forecast of likely
future landuse based on the best information available
must be undertaken.
Development must be guided by a coordinated approach
associated with:

catchment-based planning and management

integrated urban landuse planning

infrastructure provision and management practices

which reflect social, economic, and environmental
values.

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Stormwater Management

3.5.3

Water-Sensitive Urban Design

The form of development in new urban areas should be

based on water-sensitive design principles.
These
principles are based on minimising the impacts of
development on the total water cycle and maximising the
benefits of multi-purpose use of stormwater systems.

access to a low cost secondary water supply source,

increased real estate market values enabling a greater

return on investment, and

opportunities to commercially exploit the recreational

values of drainage corridors and waterways.

3.5.5

The overall objectives of water-sensitive urban design

include:

preservation of existing ecosystems, and topographic

and natural features

protection
resources

adoption of appropriate development forms, e.g.

reducing individual lot sizes and increasing communal
open space (and stormwater drainage) areas to
achieve the same density as a standard residential
development

of

surface

water

and

groundwater

adoption of water-sensitive development standards,

such as reduced road pavement widths and the use of
grass swales instead of hard lined open channels or
kerb and gutter and underground pipes

conservation and recreation of viable natural habitat

within a development area, primarily with open public
space areas

integration of the major stormwater system with the

residential design, e.g. by avoiding back fences
adjacent to major stormwater reserves

integration of public open space with major

stormwater drainage corridors, to maximise public
access, passive recreational activities, and visual
amenity
minimising runoff at or near its source, by directing
runoff from impervious surfaces to pervious areas to
reduce the quantity and improve the quality of runoff.

3.5.4

Multi-Purpose Use of Stormwater

Infrastructure

In many urban areas, stormwater drainage is the highest

cost component of hydraulic infrastructure. The current
practice of adopting only a conveyance-oriented approach
for runoff control is not cost-effective in either the short or
long term when external social and environmental factors
are taken into account. Substantial benefits may accrue
where facilities are planned and managed to accommodate
a number of functions such as stormwater drainage and
flow control, pedestrian movement corridors, active and
passive recreation, wildlife habitats etc.
Potential benefits of adopting a multi-use planning
approach include:

a reduction in the capital cost of providing drainage

infrastructure,

lower cost open space and recreational facilities

compared with non-drainage corridor areas,

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Promoting Ecologically Sustainable

Development (ESD)

Stormwater management practices need to be consistent

with the objectives of ESD, which aim to achieve
sustainable usage of the nations water resources by
protecting and enhancing their quality while maintaining
economic and social development.
Stormwater
management practices need to be based on ecologically
sustainable development principles and should be
integrated with total water cycle management.
The ESD definition that is the most relevant is (Australia
National Strategy for ESD, 1992):
Development that uses, conserves, and enhances
the communitys resources so that ecological
processes, on which life depends, are maintained
and the total quality of life now and in the future
can be increased.
The four core objectives of ESD are:

enhancing individual and community well-being and

welfare by economic development that safeguards the
welfare of future generations;

providing equity within and between generations;

protecting biological diversity

essential ecological processes
systems; and

improved techniques for evaluating environmental

values.

and
and

maintaining
life-support

In practical application, this definition of ESD can be

broken into four objectives:

sustainable quality of life

biodiversity conservation

pollution minimisation

resource conservation

The major challenge for stormwater management policies

is to effectively combine the multitude of sectoral policies
that affect the quality of life of city dwellers and the
ecological balance of cities. If implemented, ESD policies
can help realise the goals of a sustainable quality of life by:

providing good opportunities for open space

preserving landscape and cultural values

avoiding reductions in biologically significant resources

of any given site

conserving biodiversity

3-5

Stormwater Management

3.5.7

reducing local and regional pollutant discharges.

Rijsberman and Van den Ven (1999) argue that different

people have different perceptions of ESD, and that there
are at least four basic approaches to sustainability: (1) a
carrying capacity approach, and (2) ratiocentric, (3)
sociocentric and (4) ethnocentric approaches. Differences
in approach will lead to different assessments of whether
or not projects are truly sustainable. However these
theoretical arguments do not negate the basic proposition
that existing methods are unsustainable and efforts should
be made to move towards more sustainable methods.
An ecologically-based stormwater management and
planning approach aimed at protecting the ecology and
environmental values of receiving waters is represented in
Figure 3.4.
3.5.6

There is no single universal solution to managing urban

stormwater problems.
A mix of strategies including
planning, education, economic instruments, monitoring,
public reporting, and structural management principles will
be needed to address these problems on multiple fronts
and reflect the individual characteristics of a catchment
and its stormwater management issues. Choosing a mix of
strategies particular to a catchment will allow a balanced
and cost-effective outcome to be obtained.

CATCHMENT, GEOLOGY, CLIMATE,

CATCHMENT,and
GEOLOGY,
TOPOGRAPHY
SOILS CLIMATE,
TOPOGRAPHY and SOILS

Receiving Water
Receiving
Water
Body
Morphology
Body
Morphology
and Ecology
and Ecology

3-6

Urban Stormwater as a Resource

As growing urban communities approach the economically

viable limits of water supplies, opportunities associated
with use of local water sources such as urban stormwater
and groundwater are being recognised.
Better management of the water cycle at the residential lot
needs to be achieved to reduce demand for domestic
irrigation. Where urban areas are located over or adjacent
to groundwater aquifers, there is potential for stormwater
to be used to recharge aquifers provided the water quality
is protected. This requires very careful management.

Land and Water

Land
and and
Water
Use
Zoning
Use
Zoning and
Controls
Controls

Planning and
Planning
and
Management
Principles
Management Principles
Planning and
Planning and
Management
Management
Implications
Implications
Social
Social
Objectives
Objectives

Drainage and
Drainage
and
Pollution
Control
Pollution Control
Infrastructure
Infrastructure

Constituent
Constituent
Export
Rates
Export
Rates
and
Mass
and Mass

Water Quality and

Water Responses
Quality and
Ecological
Ecological Responses

Figure 3.4

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT ISSUES

The following are some issues that stormwater managers

should consider in the planning and implementation of
stormwater management programmes (ANZECC, 1996).

Constituents
Constituents

Drainage
Drainage
System
System
Discharge
Discharge
Rates
and
Rates and
Volume
Volume

3.6

URBAN DEVELOPMENT
URBAN DEVELOPMENT

Catchment
Catchment
Landuse
and
Landuse and
Management
Management
Runoff
Runoff

Current management techniques have evolved rapidly in

advanced countries over the last five to ten years. The
continued development of new and innovative
management techniques or the modification of existing
techniques to suit the Malaysian conditions should be
encouraged. These techniques can range from improved
education techniques to the design of stormwater
treatment devices.

3.6.1

Developing the Best Mix of Strategies

Encouraging Innovation

Economic
Economic
Objectives
Objectives
Environmental
Environmental
Objectives
Objectives

Off-stream
and Off-stream
In-stream
and In-stream
Water
Uses
Water Uses

Ecologically-based Stormwater Management Planning Approach

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Stormwater Management

The quality of urban open space has been compromised by

intrusive drainage structures designed without regard for
aesthetics and ecological impacts.
Some waterway
corridors have adversely affected the amenity of the
surrounding area through loss of natural vegetation, loss of
visual amenity, and minimal regard for public safety.
Long-term social, environmental, and economic benefits
can be achieved for open space drainage corridors through
planning and design approaches which recognise urban
stormwater and streams as valuable resources.
Opportunities to retrofit pollution control devices and reestablish an aesthetically appealing environment to
degraded drainage corridors by restoring flora and fauna
habitats should also be investigated.
3.6.2

Public participation programs have three objectives,

namely:

To demonstrate to the community that the responsible

authorities are aware of stormwater problems in a
catchment and want to learn more about them and
seek solutions.

To gather supplementary data and information

pertinent to the preparation of a stormwater strategy
plan for a catchment.

To build support for the implementation of a

stormwater strategy plan.
Members of the
community, who have been informed about a
stormwater management program and have been
given an opportunity to participate in the preparation
of a plan, are likely to become supporters of the plan
and add impetus for its implementation.

Community Values and Participation

Most urban communities enjoy a reasonable level of flood

protection due to conventional stormwater conveyance
systems constructed in the past.
These stormwater
systems need regular routine maintenance and, at times,
upgrading to continue to provide an adequate level of flood
protection for the community. Community interest in
stormwater facilities tends to fluctuate widely, usually
being most intense during and immediately after a
damaging and disrupting flood event.
Managing stormwater only for flood protection is no longer
an adequate response to changing community values in
most advanced countries, which now reflects concern for
protecting the environment, ecologically sustainable
development, and improved access to open space and
recreational facilities. Attention must now focus equally on
providing flood protection and providing improved
environmental quality and recreational opportunities.

3.6.3

Fragmented Jurisdiction

Fragmentation in political jurisdiction, and institutional and

administrative responsibilities across drainage catchments
often presents serious obstacles to coordinated and
integrated catchment planning and management. In most
jurisdictions, opportunities exist to put in place structures
and procedures enabling joint development of strategies to
address local authority boundary issues and promote
integrated catchment planning and management. Possible
approaches include:

single agency responsibility, with strong emphasis on

liaising and collaborating with other groups

joint agency based programs

establishing drainage/basin trusts or authorities

establishing total catchment management (TCM)

planning and management structures.

For these reasons, it is essential that stormwater

management programmes provide adequate opportunity
for the community to be involved in the development and
implementation of stormwater management strategies.

3.7

RUNOFF QUANTITY MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES

Community involvement helps to:

3.7.1

Conveyance-Oriented Approach

engender a spirit of openness

identify strategies which are responsive to community

concerns

explore and improve understanding of problems,

issues, and community values

generate a comprehensive range of management

options

increase public ownership and acceptance of proposed

solutions

Stormwater management in Malaysia has traditionally

focused primarily on managing the impacts of flooding by
adopting a conveyance-oriented approach. Stormwater
systems designed in accordance with this approach provide
for the collection of runoff, followed by the immediate and
rapid conveyance of the stormwater from the collection
area to the point of discharge in order to minimise damage
and disruption within the collection area. Stormwater
runoff is viewed as a nuisance to be disposed of as quickly
and efficiently as possible.

generate broader decision-making perspectives not

limited to past practices or interests

The apparent advantages of this approach are:

draw on the knowledge and skills available across the

wider community
reflect the communitys life style values and priorities.

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

rapid removal of stormwater from the service area

maximum area of land available for development by

minimising landtake requirements for drainage

3-7

Stormwater Management

accepted analysis and design procedures.

The principal disadvantages of this approach are:

conveyance systems must be sized for the total

increase in flows resulting from urbanisation

downstream conveyance systems often have

insufficient capacity to contain these increased flows
peaks and flow durations, which can result in new or
aggravated flooding and erosion and sedimentation
problems

traditional hard lined open conveyance systems can be

a hazard to the public during and after rain due to
high flow velocities

urban pollutants are transported to downstream areas.

Detention facilities (Figure 3.6) are commonly provided as

a combination of the following:

on-site storage :
small storages constructed on
individual residential, commercial, and industrial lots

community storage : larger facilities constructed in

public open space areas, or in conjunction with public
recreation and sporting facilities

regional storage : large scale community facilities

constructed at the lower end of catchments prior to
discharge to receiving waters, often provided as flood
storage within urban lakes and reservoirs

A typical conveyance channel is illustrated in Figure 3.5.

3.7.2

Storage-Oriented Approach

Stormwater management has developed to the point

where there are now two fundamentally different
approaches to controlling the quantity, and to some
extent, the quality of stormwater runoff. In addition to the
traditional conveyance-oriented approach, a potentially
effective and preferable approach to stormwater
management is the storage-oriented approach.
The
function of this approach is to provide for the temporary
storage of stormwater runoff at or near its point of origin
with subsequent slow release to the downstream
stormwater system or receiving water (detention), or
infiltration into the surrounding soil (retention).
This approach can minimise flood damage and disruption
both within and downstream of the collection area. Runoff
may also be stored for re-use as a second class water
supply for irrigation and domestic purposes.

Figure 3.6

Community Detention Facility

Detention facilities are designed principally to reduce peak

flow rates from large infrequent storm events. On-site
detention is normally provided to reduce nuisance flooding
in the surrounding local area whilst larger community and
regional facilities are provided to increase public safety and
to minimise property damage, channel erosion, and the
disturbance of aquatic habitat in the downstream
catchment and receiving waters.
Detention techniques include the temporary storage of
runoff in the following:

Figure 3.5

Vegetated Channel

The principal elements and techniques used in a storageoriented system are stormwater detention facilities and
retention facilities.

3-8

small on-site tanks and above-ground storage areas

dry detention basins

ponds and wetlands

flood reservoirs

urban lakes

Retention facilities are designed primarily to reduce the

volume of stormwater runoff from small frequent storm
events by storing collected runoff and allowing it to
infiltrate into the surrounding soil. Retention is a suitable
technique for infiltrating pre-treated runoff into areas with
relatively high permeability soils. Pre-treatment by filtering
to remove coarse sediment and debris is necessary to
minimise blockage of the infiltration media. Regular
maintenance is also essential for their effective operation.

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Stormwater Management

Retention techniques include the following:

dispersion trenches, pits, wells, and soakaways (for

infiltration of roof runoff) either on an individual or
multiple lot basis

directing roof runoff to ponding areas within lots for

infiltration

grassed swales

pervious stormwater pipes

porous pavements

infiltration trenches and basins

recharge wells

Stormwater re-use can be undertaken at either the

individual lot level or on a broader community or regional
basis. The use of rainwater tanks or similar devices for
collecting roof runoff from buildings can be encouraged.
Water collected by these devices within individual lots may
be used for non-potable purposes such as garden watering
and toilet flushing. At the community and regional levels,
runoff stored in ponds, wetlands, and urban lakes may be
used as a non-potable water supply for irrigating areas
such as golf courses, sporting fields, and public parks.
A comparison of various characteristics of conveyanceoriented and storage-oriented stormwater systems is
provided in Table 3.1.
The main advantage of using a storage-oriented approach
is that it may offer substantial cost advantages over the
traditional conveyance-oriented approach when the total
life cycle costs of the stormwater system are considered.
These cost advantages may include:

a reduction in the size required for conveyance

systems downstream of storage facilities
opportunities for multi-use of storage and conveyance
facilities by incorporating them with open space
systems, public and wildlife movement corridors,
active and passive recreational areas such as public
parks, and playing fields.

Other advantages and benefits of a storage-oriented

approach include:

purpose facilities, such as detention basins incorporating

recreational facilities and waterways with pedestrian and
cycleway corridors, can be included as part of the open
space contribution for a development whereas lined open
drains (for example) have no recreational value and should
not be included. There is a need for review of the
planning regulations in Malaysia to facilitate this change.
The conveyance-oriented and storage-oriented approaches
to stormwater management are not mutually exclusive
within the same system. Depending on the circumstances,
the two approaches may be compatible, and integrated
use of the two approaches is encouraged to give a more
optimum stormwater drainage system. An example of the
combined use of the two approaches could be to use
conveyance-oriented facilities for the minor drainage
system and storage-oriented facilities for the major
drainage system. Another example is that in existing
heavily built-up areas, the constraint of high land values
may make it impossible to retro-fit storage and there will
be no alternative to costly conveyance system
enlargement.

3.8

RUNOFF QUALITY MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES

To date, the main form of control of stormwater runoff

quality adopted in Malaysia has been the installation of
sediment basins to control the transport of sediment from
land development/construction sites. Source control and
treatment control of stormwater runoff from established
urban areas to remove urban pollutants and enhance the
quality of discharges to receiving waters has not been
addressed.
3.8.1

Housekeeping BMPs

Housekeeping BMPs are techniques that aim to change

human behaviour to reduce the amount of pollutants that
enter stormwater systems by targeting the control and/or
prevention of pollution at its source. Techniques can
include the introduction or improvement of:

community education and participation activities

management activities, such as landuse planning and

development control

improved public safety

a more aesthetically pleasing urban landscape

enhanced property values adjacent to open water

bodies such as ponds/wetlands and urban lakes

operations and maintenance activities,

garbage collection and street sweeping

improved site planning and management

enhanced flora and fauna habitats associated with

open water bodies

The main advantages of using these BMPs are:

recharge of groundwater resources.

long-term sustainability

cost-effectiveness

reduced ongoing operations or maintenance liability

compared with end of pipe techniques

effective use
community.

The perceived disadvantage of a storage-oriented

approach is that the area of landtake could be greater than
a conveyance-oriented approach. However, this is partly a
mis-conception caused by inadequate existing provisions
for open space and flood control. Properly designed multi-

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

of

all

resources,

such

including

as

the

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Table 3.1

Characteristic or
Feature

Comparison of Conveyance and Storage Approaches (after Walesh,1989)

Approach
Conveyance-Oriented

Storage-Oriented

Provides for the collection and rapid

conveyance of stormwater runoff to minimise
disruptive and possibly damaging surface
ponding in streets and low-lying areas and
possible inundation of residential and other
sites and structures

Provides for the temporary storage of

stormwater runoff and subsequent slow release
to downstream systems or receiving waters,
thus minimising disruption and damage within
and downstream of the urban area and
reducing the required size and cost of any
constructed downstream conveyance facilities

Principal

Open drains, pipes, lined channels, floodways

Detention and retention storage facilities

Secondary

Stormwater inlets, manholes, culverts, energy

dissipaters

Open drains, swales, pipes, stormwater inlets,

engineered waterways, manholes, culverts,
energy dissipaters

Suitable for installation in existing and in newly

developing urban areas

Most suitable for incorporation in newly

developing urban areas but may be used in
existing urban areas if suitable sites are
available

Quantity

Tends to significantly increase (relative to predevelopment conditions) downstream

discharges, stages, and areas of inundation

May be designed to cause no significant

increase (relative to pre-development
conditions) in downstream discharges, stages,
and areas of inundation. Decreased
discharges, stages, and areas of inundation are
possible

Quality

Transports suspended material and other

potential pollutants to downstream areas

Provides for removal of sediment and other

suspended material by the natural settling
process, thus reducing pollutant loadings on
receiving waters

Drains serve only a stormwater collection and

conveyance function

Quantity control, quality control, recreation,

aesthetics, water supply, and groundwater
recharge

Hard lined channels can provide a limited basis

for development of linear parkland and open
space areas

Soft lined waterways provide greater potential

for development of linear parkland and open
space areas

Operation and
Maintenance

Require periodic cleaning

Sediment and debris removal

Hazards

Minimal hazard associated with closed drains.

High velocities in open lined channels may pose
safety hazard to the public

Minimal hazard associated with storage systems

provided that due care is exercised in design

Hydrologichydraulic
analysis and
design
procedure

Requires determination only of the peak flow

rate associated with a specified design ARI

Requires determination of both a peak flow rate

and a volume of inflow associated with a
specified ARI and an estimate of an allowable
outflow rate to satisfy discharge conditions

Function

Components

Applicability

Downstream
Impact

Multi-purpose
Capability

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Weed and insect control

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3.8.2

Source Controls BMPs

Source controls BMPs are those practices that tend to keep

both runoff and pollutants contained at their source. They
are analogous to the source controls that we speak of
hydrologically. These include pervious areas and buffer
strips towards which runoff is directed, infiltration controls,
porous pavement, etc.
3.8.3

Treatment Controls BMPs

To protect the quality of local streams, lakes, and river

systems, a number of treatment controls BMPs may be
adopted as follows:

the establishment of urban lakes, primarily as

biological treatment systems

the utilisation of water quality control ponds and

wetlands, as physical and biological treatment
systems, upstream of urban lakes (Figure 3.7)

the incorporation of gross pollutant traps on inlets to

urban lakes and water quality control ponds and
wetlands to intercept trash and debris and the coarser
fractions of sediment (Figure 3.8)

the incorporation of 'off-stream' sediment basins into

land development and large building projects to
intercept (and chemically treat if necessary) runoff
prior to its discharge to stormwater systems and/or
receiving waters.

Figure 3.7

Water Quality Control Pond

Figure 3.8 Above-ground Gross Pollutant Trap

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