RAINWATER HARVESTING

GUIDEBOOK
PtAI{I{II{G AI{D DESIGI{

PREFACE Rainwater technology presents a new business field for manufacturers, suppliers, designers, planners and other users. The Government of Malaysia has instilled this program as one of focal activity and policy for the nation to achieve better quality of life and at the same time brings the nation forward towards sustainable development. In supporting this national vision, and to provide reference for the various practitioners in this field, the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) has taken this vital step to publish this guidebook. It is hope that this guidebook will help our noble intention of achieving three percent of national water supply by stormwater utilization and reuse technique for all major towns by 2020. This guidebook highlights the principles and technologies that can be used to harness the huge untapped potential of rainwater for professionals. The content herewith is of an inestimable value to the architects, civil engineers, developers and other users to explore this new field in Malaysia. DID hopes the various case studies, design examples and posters provided with this guidebook shall be of invaluable guideline for practitioners and serves as a standard reference for rainwater harvesting system in Malaysia. DID would like to express our appreciation for the support provided by Perunding Azman, Ooi and Rao Sdn Bhd, Hashim Design, others Government Agencies and NGOs in materializing this guidebook.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Introduction................................................. General Principles. Environmental Advantages.... Qualitative Advantages.. CHAPTER 2 Rainwater Harvesting System.. Water and Environmental Management Quantity Control Consideration Quality Control Consideration... CHAPTER 3 Rainwater Harvesting System for Landscape. General Principles. Rainwater Harvesting System Components... Simple Rainwater Harvesting System. Complex Rainwater Harvesting System. Roof Garden. Typical Rooftop Garden Roof Garden Soil Profile System Maintenance.. CHAPTER 4 Rainwater Harvesting System for Building General Principles. Rooftop Catchment Collection System.. Conveyance System... Storage Tanks CHAPTER 5 Plumbing for Rainwater Harvesting System.. Plumbing Guideline... Plumbing Water Closet Cisterns CHAPTER 6 Pump and Filter for Rainwater Harvesting System General Principles. Reciprocating Pumps. Centrifugal Pumps. Vertical Submersible Pumps.. Fully Submersible Pumps... Jet Pumps.. Rainwater Pump Rainwater Filters... CHAPTER 7 Design Example for Rainwater Harvesting System .. Case Study. Rainwater Tank. Pipe Sizing for Rainwater Installation Effective Length of Pipe.... Pipe Sizing Example..

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REFERENCE APPENDIX Design Criteria Minimum Standard Ibu Pejabat JPS Kuala Lumpur

CHAPTER 1 Introduction Background Urban Stormwater Management Manual of Malaysia, 2000 (MSMA - Chapter 23) has mentioned the provision for rainwater harvesting system integration with on site detention tank. This Guidebook covers the design of rainwater harvesting system for non potable water supply for Malaysian applications. General Principles Rainwater Harvesting is the technique of capturing the rainfall with particular emphasis on residential and commercial applications. The planning and development of rainwater harvesting system should be executed by following the principles and guidelines recommended by the authority and professionals. This is to ensure that the system complies with the safety, water quality and construction standard. The rainwater harvesting system is a supplementary source of water supply for household, commercial, landscape, livestock, and agriculture. The product of the rainwater harvesting system may be used either as a drinking water or for non-drinking purposes. However, the used of rainwater harvesting system for source of drinking water and other direct human purposes require a long-term commitment in term of operation and maintenance. This is to ensure that the system is continuously operating in safe condition. The non-drinking purpose of rainwater harvesting system may include landscape irrigation and for toilet flushing. The system should be designed and developed with innovative approaches for effective and affordability. The complexity of the rainwater harvesting system is closely related to the function and needs of the owner. Rainwater harvesting system provides a source of soft, high quality water and the system can range in size from a simple water tank to a complicated designed and built system. The rainwater harvesting system is inherently simple in design and easy to maintain. This system should be planned and design to be assembled with readily available materials by the owner or builder with a basic understanding of plumbing and construction skills. Environmental Advantages The interest on rainwater harvesting system has gained considerable attention in many countries throughout the world. This is attributed to the escalating environmental and economic costs of providing centralized water systems. In developed countries, the majority of the populations receive water via main network and disposal of wastewater via pipe sewerage system. These systems require tremendous amount of investment by both public and private sectors. They have been linked to increase water demand, resources not located in areas of high demand and increase surface water runoff volumes and discharge rates due to urbanization. The sustainable strategy which is based on the decentralised technologies such as the use of

green roofs and stormwater facilities such as on site detentions may result in partial retention and reduction in peak flow discharge of the drainage system; yet at a macro scale conserves energy. The system which collects rainwater from roofs can be used for non-portable applications potentially reducing the utilization of portable water. The application of rainwater utilization for flushing and garden watering will include the benefits of conservation of water resources, relief of demand on public water supplies and potential attenuation of peak runoff into the stormwater drainage system. Rainwater harvesting may reduce the land erosion and flooding caused by runoff from impervious cover such as pavement and roofs. This can be attributed to the some proportion of rainfall being captured and stored. The normal behavior of stormwater runoff which picks up contaminants and degrades the waterways and receiving waterbody is bypassed by capturing the rainfall at source for productive uses. This is an effective measure to reduce the degradation of water quality in waterway and receiving waterbody. Qualitative Advantages The rainwater captured at source is considered as one of the purest water sources available. Rainwater quality always exceeds the surface water and comparable to that of ground water. The harvested rainwater does not come in contact with soil and rocks where it can dissolve salts and mineral which is harmful for portable and non-portable uses and at the same time not exposed to various pollutants that often transported with surface water into the river. The rainwater quality can be influenced by geographic location and economic activity in the area. The city dominated by heavy 2

industry or localized industrial emissions may affect rainwater purity. Rainwater falling in rural and nonindustrialised area can be superior to that in area dominated by heavy industrial and agricultural activities. It is essential that the rainwater harvesting system is planned, designed and constructed conforming to this guideline to ensure the discharged of the polluted first flush is taken care of. Rainwater is soft water compared to typical municipal tap water and not utilizing it as a supplementary water supply is a total waste of natural resources.

CHAPTER 2 Rainwater Harvesting System Water and Environmental Management The country is subjected to continuous growth of population, expansion in urbanization, industrialization and irrigated agriculture. This phenomenon is imposing growing demand and pressure on water resources while contributing to water pollution. A new development of water resources such as new water supply scheme results in rising costs and significant impact to the environment. The potential problems include deforestation, rise in sea level, decreasing crop yields, water conflicts, increase severity/frequency of tropical storms and declining fish population. An integrated approach is essential to pursue a more effective water management. A multifunctional approach that can be adapted widening the scope of water quantity and quality controls in urban drainage system and integrating it with the rainwater harvesting system for non-consumptive uses. The increase demand for clean water supply is on the rise in parallel with the economic growth of the country. The practicable limit of surface water resources development has already been reached in region of high demand. Current approaches towards water management in cities are supply driven, where a new resource will be developed to manage a water shortage. As there will be an ever increasing demand, there is a possibility that the major cities will face a water crisis situation. Hence, water demand management that focuses on conservation measures utilizing demand driven approaches will make better use of our limited potential water supply. Water demand management that seeks to maximize the usage of water also conserves water and thus limits the needs for new water supply schemes. An approach of rainwater harvesting collected from the roof of a building provides the practical and effective utilization of rainwater. This is appropriate as more than 30% of domestic water use does not require treated water quality. Quantity Control Consideration The rainwater harvesting system should be integrated with on-site detention facilities to serve a minor storm event. On-site detention storage-cum-rainwater harvesting system may be provided as above-ground storages, below-ground storages, or a combination of both. The main advantages of above-ground storages are, they can generally easily incorporated into the site by slight modification to the design and are relatively inexpensive compared to below ground storages. Landscape areas such as lawns and garden beds, impervious area such as car parks, driveways, paved storage yards, and other paved surfaces offer a wide range of possibilities for providing surface storage for on-site detention-cum-rainwater harvesting storage and can enhance the aesthetic of a site. The below-ground storages can be concealed and occupy less physical space as illustrated in Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1 Typical On-Site Detention Storages Stormwater can be detained on flat roof provided that adequate protection against leakage is provided in the structural design of the building. This type of storage has limited application in residential areas and is more suited to commercial and industrial buildings where flat roof are more common as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.3 Typical Multi-Purpose Surface Tank Surface tanks are normally provided on residential, commercial or industrial lots for rainwater harvesting system. These tanks collect rainwater from the rooftop of the building and store it for intended domestic use. Surface tanks may be integrated as onsite detention and rainwater harvesting as illustrated in Figure 2.3. Typical below-ground storage tanks are either circular or rectangular in plan and/or cross section (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.2 Typical Rainwater Harvesting for Multi-Storey Building.

Figure 2.4

Typical Below-Ground Storage Tank

A pipe package is a below-ground rainwater storage consisting of one or more parallel rows of buried pipes connected by a common inlet and outlet chamber (Figure 2.5). The size of a pipe-package is determined by the storage volume requirements and the physical availability of space on the site. The pipe package shall be installed using minimum 900mm diameter pipe size to facilitate inspection and maintenance. Pipes should be laid at a minimum longitudinal grade of 2% to avoid standing pockets of water which can occur due to lack of precision during construction.

Quality Control Consideration The planning and design of rainwater harvesting system not only provide the water for various intended uses but it can also provide the stormwater quality control aspect in urban stormwater management i.e. first flush system, thus capable of providing a clean, safe and reliable water source. First flush system remove and wash accumulated contaminants such as bacteria, molds, protozoa and heavy metals e.g. lead and arsenic. For portable usage, filtration and disinfection systems are required. For non portable usage, the first flush system is sufficient.

Figure 2.5 Typical layout of Pipe Package Storage. Designers have the option to combine either above or underground system as illustrated in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 Typical of Above and Below-Ground Storage

CHAPTER 3 Rainwater Harvesting System for Landscape and Green Areas

General Principle The rainwater harvesting is an effective water conservation tool which reduces the usage of treated water for landscape irrigation. The benefit of in-situ rainwater harvesting includes minimizing the amount of money spent on water; reducing off-site flooding and erosion by holding rainwater on the site. Rainwater is a clean and salt-free source of water for plants and can reduce salt accumulation in the soil which can be harmful to root growth. Some of the collected rainwater percolates into the soil, forcing away salt from the root zone. This allows for greater root growth and water uptake, which increases the drought tolerance of plants. Typical rainwater harvesting systems have three components: a collection area, a conveyance system, and a storage area. Rainwater harvesting is the collection, diversion and storage of rainwater for plant irrigation and other uses. It is appropriate for large scale landscapes such as parks, school, commercial sites, parking lots, and apartment complexes and also small scale residential landscape. System design ranges from simple to complex. A simple system may comprise in-situ rainwater harvesting constructed from topographically low depression area to collect rainfall which can be utilized particularly for agricultural and domestic purposes. Topographic depression is suitable for collection and storage areas of rainwater. The ideal storage area consists of impermeable, underlain by clay soils that posses low infiltration capacity. A complex rainwater harvesting system for landscape that utilize storage may include roof of a building, conveyance systems, storage, and distribution system, to control the flow of water.

Rainwater Harvesting System Components A rainwater harvesting system essentially has three components: the supply (rainfall), the demand (landscape water requirement) and the system that moves the water to the plants. Storage is additional element which is optional that offers the facility to use the collected rainwater at other times. Rainwater runoff which flow over a catchment area such as roof can be harvested and used immediately to water plants or can be stored for later use. The amount of runoff depends primarily on the characteristic of rainfall namely the intensity and the duration. The intensity of rainfall varies spatially and generally higher altitude normally records more rainfall depth compared to lower ground. Thunderstorm with convective cells generates high intensity rainfall which occur in shorter duration compared to longer duration event and relatively low intensity associated with frontal rainfall activity. The impervious catchment area such as the roof generates runoff immediately for harvesting. The occurrence of surface runoff on pervious catchment area will be delayed and this is affected by several factors such as land cover, type of soil and antecedent moisture condition. In principle the runoff forms when the soil is saturated or the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. Antecedent moisture represents the wetness of the soil; surface runoff occurs much faster on wet soil where the antecedence moisture condition is higher. The planning for a healthy landscape should be based on various factors such as plant water requirement, plant selection and native plant species. The type of plant selected, their age and

size, and plants spacing affect the water requirement to maintain a healthy landscape. A region where water is scarce or it is desirable to minimize the water used for landscape requirement, it is best to select plants with low water requirements and control planting to reduce overall water need. Native plants should be included in the landscape planning as much as possible, as they are well adapted to seasonal and local condition and making them good choices for landscape planting. It is preferable to combine the landscape system to integrate with bio-retention, rain garden or any suitable types of stormwater facilities. The requirement for water collection and distribution system depends on the rainwater harvesting system which ranges from simple to complex. A simple system may utilize a depression concave ground as landscape holding areas (Figure 3.1) which collects the rainwater from surrounding catchment area. A catchment area is any area from which water can be harvested. The best catchments have hard, smooth surfaces, such as concrete or metal roofing material. The amount of water harvested depends on the size, surface texture, and slope of the catchment area.

Figure 3.2 Parking Lot Curb Cut out Directing Water into Planted Area. The distribution system connects the catchment area to the landscape holding area. Distribution directs water flow which ranges from simple to sophisticated system. The rainwater from the roof flows into the gutters and downspouts direct roof water to a holding area, and gently sloped sidewalk distributes water to a planted area. The gravity flow from a hillside provides a perfect condition for moving water from a catchment area to a holding area. Conveyance such as channels, ditches, pipes and swales all can be part of a distribution system. Elaborate open channel distribution systems may require gates and diverters to control and direct water from one area to another. Standard pipe or perforated pipes, and drip irrigation systems can be designed to distribute water. Curb cutouts can channel street or parking lot water to planted areas (Figure 3.2). In certain condition where gravity flow is not possible, a small pump may be required to move the water. Landscape holding areas are designed to store water in the soil for direct use by plants. Concave depression planted with grass or plants serve as landscape holding areas, containing the water, increasing water penetration, and reducing flooding. Depressed area can be excavated, and extra soil can be used as berms.

Figure 3.1 Series of Water Harvesting Basins on a Slope

The provision of berm or soil terracing on flat soil can also hold water. One holding area or a series of holding areas can be designed to fill and overflow into adjacent holding areas via spillway and overflow channel. Soil erosion can be a problem with fast flowing water over the soil surface. Excessive erosion can be mitigated using spillway and basins, for instance the crescent-shaped berms constructed around the base of the plant on the down-hill side (Figure 3.3) are useful on slopes for slowing and holding water. Gabions are widely used to contain water and reduce erosion (Figure 3.4).

simple system usually consists of a catchment area and conveyance as a mean of distribution, which operates by gravity. The rainwater is deposited in a landscape holding area, a concave area or planted area with edges to retain water where it can be used immediately by the plants. The simple system is designed by utilizing the natural characteristic of the landscape area. It is essential to locate the existing drainage pattern and to identify the low points and high points by observing the landscape during the rainfall event. Existing drainage pattern and gravity flow can be utilized to move water from catchment area to planted areas. A simple system may capture rainwater collected on the roofs, paved areas or the soil surface. An example of a simple roof collection system is water dripping from the edge of the roof to a planted area or diversion channel directly below (Figure 3.5). Gravity moves the water to where it can be used. In some cases, small containers are used to hold water for later usage. The rainwater harvested from the roof may include the extended downpipes (Figure 3.6 & 3.7) to reach planted area or the provision of a path, drainage, or hose to the water where it is needed. It is essential to utilize the existing slope paving to catch water and redistribute it to planted areas. For a new construction, the placement and slope of a new paving can be designed to increase runoff. The slope of the sidewalks, terraces, or driveways shall be two percent (2%) towards planting areas and utilize the runoff for irrigation.

Figure 3.3 Crescent-Shaped (Berm) Landscaped holding Areas on a Slope

Figure 3.4 Typical Gabion Across Stream Bed Simple Rainwater Harvesting System The simple water harvesting system is designed to meet the existing site and the intended use of the collected rainwater. In a simple system the collected rainwater is used immediately in-situ. A 8

Figure 3.5 Simple Systems Roof Catchment, Channel and Planted Landscape Holding Area

Figure 3.6 Simple Systems Roof Catchment, Gutters, Downpipes and Landscape Holding Area

Figure 3.8 Tree Drip Line and Basin Edge Complex Rainwater Harvesting System The rainwater harvesting system is unable to provide a completely dependable source of irrigation water as it is dependent on the weather. Therefore, to get the maximum benefit from rainwater harvesting, some storage can be built into the water harvesting system to provide water between rainfall events. Heavy rainfall events can produce more water than is needed by a landscape during that rainfall. Once the root zone of the plant has been thoroughly wetted, the rainwater begins to move below the root zone. In this condition the plant is well irrigated. The surface runoff forms as the soil is saturated. The saturation point and the onset of surface runoff is dependent on the texture and condition of the soil, for instance, sandy soil has more infiltration capacity than clayey soil and thus the formation of surface runoff on clayey soil is much faster. The amount of rainwater harvested and the water needed for landscape irrigation should be in balance. Storage capacity plays a big role in the harvesting system by making rainwater available in the dry season when the plants need it. Rainfall harvesting systems that utilize storage result in large water savings, but require higher construction costs. These are more complex systems which are more appropriate for larger facilities and are required to be professionally constructed and maintained.

Figure 3.7 Simple Systems Roof Catchment, Gutters, Downpipes and Soakaway Pit It is recommended to locate and identify the existing landscape depressions that can hold water while additional new depression can be created at the location of new plants. The creation of new holding depression area around the existing plants shall be carried out by constructing berm avoiding digging that will possibly damage the roots of the plants. Holding areas around existing plants should extend beyond the drip line (Figure 3.8) to accommodate and encourage extensive root systems. A well developed root system produces a drought resistant plant as the roots have a larger area to search for water. Several holding areas for either newly developed or existing landscape can be connected via spillways and channels to distribute water throughout the site.

Components of complex systems that utilize storage include catchment areas, conveyance systems, storage, and distribution systems, to control the flow and distribution of water (Figure 3.9, 3.10 & 3.11). The amount of water or yield that the catchment area will generate depends on the size of the catchment area and its surface texture. Concrete, asphalt, or brick paving and smooth surface roofing materials provide high yields. Bare soil surfaces provide harvest of medium yield, with compacted clayey soils yielding the most. Planted areas, such as grass or groundcover areas, offer the lowest yields as the plants hold the water longer allowing it to infiltrate into the soil.

Conveyance systems direct the water from the catchment area to the storage tank. Rainwater harvested from the roof catchment system, the gutter and downpipes are the means of conveyance. Gutters and downpipes are either concealed inside the walls of buildings or attached to the exterior of buildings. Proper sizing of gutters is important to collect as much rainfall as possible. The rainwater collected from the catchment area is filtered before directed to the storage tank. The rainwater should be filtered to remove particles and debris before it can be stored. The degree of filtration is dependent on the size of the distribution pipes, for example drip systems may require more and finer filter than water distributed from a hose. Filter can be in-line or a leaf screen can be placed over the gutter at the top of the downpipes. The common practice is to divert the first flush of the collected rainwater in order to eliminate debris and particles from the harvested water. Storage allows full utilization of harvested rainwater by making water available later when it is needed. Storage can be underground or aboveground and material can be made of high density polyethylene, fiberglass reinforced plastic, reinforced concrete or metal. Underground tanks are more expensive as it involves excavation. The use of underground tank involves pumping out the water for distribution and this adds another extra cost to the system. Figure 3.12 shows an example of underground modular storage tank made from polypropylenes modular cell and wrapped in impermeable geotextile. The water flows into the tank via directly connected inlet pipe and the water is pumped out for distribution.

Figure 3.9: Complex Rainfall Harvesting System for Landscape Irrigation

Figure 3.10 Complex Rainwater Harvesting System for Landscape

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Figure 3.11 Complex Rainwater Harvesting System 11

Figure 3.12: Typical Underground Modular Storage Tank with Distribution System An example of underground modular storage tank which operates in-situ is shown in Figure 3.13 and Figure 3.14. The tank is constructed using modular cell wrapped in permeable geotextile to allow the water to enter and leave the tank. This type of tank is relatively cheaper because it is not necessary to use filter and pump. The rainwater enters into the tank and it infiltrates through the sand layer installed between the soffit of the tank and the top soil. However, the tank has limited capacity in storing the water for usage at a later time when the need arises. This tank is normally designed to function as an on-site detention where the storage should be emptied in a specified duration normally in the order of 24 hours. Figure 3.15: Typical Underground Rock Fill Storage Tank The underground rock fill tank (Figure 3.15) can also be used for rainwater harvesting system as an alternative to modular tank. The tank is constructed by excavating the desired size and filled it with the rock enclosed/wrapped with impermeable geotextile. The actual storage of the tank is determined by the void of the rock fill tank. Figure 3.13 Typical Underground Modular Storage Tank for In-Situ 12

Figure 3.14 Typical Installation of Modular Tanks Near Roots System

The above ground tanks which can be used for rainwater harvesting system include plastic drum, steel drum, barrels, tanks, cisterns, fiberglass tanks, or reinforced concrete storage tanks. The aboveground storage can be designed into the landscape by placing it in an unobtrusive place or hiding it with a structure, screen or plants. In all cases, storage should be located close to the area of use and placed at an elevated level to take advantage of the gravity flow. The use of several smaller cisterns (Figure 3.18) is more useful and flexible because they are easier to handle and camouflage. In the case that, the landscape area is extensive, several tanks can be connected to increase storage capacity. An alternative holding area consists of concave depression area can be used to retain excess rainwater during all storage tank is full.

Figure 3.16 : Typical Rainwater Harvesting System using Modular Tank

Figure 3.17: Typical Integrated Stormwater Management System The integrated stormwater management system is designed as a multi use component of a sustainable water cyclic management system (Figure 3.16 & 3.17). Rainwater is collected, purified, stored and reused. Water can be directed into the tank by infiltration through the soil or filtered from a various sources, from roofs, landscape areas or streets. Clean water is collected and made available for reuse within the storage area in the tank modules. This type of system is applicable for irrigation of commercial and domestic landscaping, domestic reuse for toilet flushing and washing machine use. 13

Figure 3.18: Typical Roof Catchment with Multiple Storage Tanks Connected with Landscape Holding area The distribution system directs the water from the storage containers to landscape areas. The distribution device can be a hose, constructed channels, pipes, perforated pipes, or manual drip system. Gates and diverters can be used to control flow rate and flow direction. A manual valve or motorized ball valve located near the bottom of the storage tank can assist irrigation. An on-line electrical pump can be used to provide sufficient pressure such as to distribute the water through an automatic drip irrigation system.

Roof Garden Roof Gardens are essential elements in water management and it is one of the best hydrological solutions to city floods, and reduces global warming. Roof gardens solve all the above problems by their capacity to absorb and retain water, thus acting as a natural filter and water storage area. Consequently, they act as thermal regulators and air purifiers. In major cities, roofs may cover up to 80% of the surface of the city and are an important factor in stormwater and air management. As soon as rainwater (which is the purest form of water on the planet), touches an impermeable roof it becomes contaminated by organic matters, bacteria and heavy metals. The roof catchment in a city is so immense that it creates contaminated water accumulation right through the city, creating floods and might become a health issue. A roof garden is a form of vegetation growing on substrata with an impermeable underneath platform layer (Figure 3.19, 3.20, 3.21 & 3.22). The roof garden can be designed at all levels either as an intensive or extensive green area. It can be the roof of any buildings, car park or any other structures. These roof gardens can fulfill a major recreational function for residents. The roof garden plants relevant to the function and local environment must be selected. The green spaces when integrated in combination with certain building elements: flower tubs, ponds, ornamental vases, tile patterns, benches will have a high decorative value. Such gardens require more intensive maintenance, particularly when lawns are included. Many varieties of plants can be used for roof gardens. The most important issue is placing the right plant in the right place, taking into account the specific circumstances of the climate and the fact that these plants only have a limited ground layers. Trees must be "anchored" in a specific way and pruning must be regularly carried out to ensure the tree growth shall not exceed 6m.

Figure 3.20 Typical Section of the Roof Garden Some roof gardens will only be intended as decoration, not for walking. Planting of these gardens can be more extensive. They must harmonize with the surroundings and be easy to maintain. For example, colorful flowerbeds would be out of place and demand intensive maintenance. Figure 3.19 : Typical Section through a Garden above Car Park 14

Specialists making plant selections should take into consideration wind tunnels created by narrow passages between buildings, air contamination, building reflections of sunlight, heat trap at the base of buildings and excessive shade in high density building areas. A very low moisture level will cause certain problems. During continuous dry periods, the plants can be damaged from lack of water and high temperatures, however, automatic irrigation systems combined with suitable soil can maintain moisture content in the garden. The draining system must be designed for a maximum rainfall depth of 40mm. The roof garden must be able to infiltrate water quickly; hence the horizontal water draining capacity is extremely important. Furthermore, in certain dry periods the draining cell layer can be used as a water reservoir for the plants, provided we use water stored in the soil above the cell, while the cell has only air, aerating underneath the soil layer. The use of drainage cell allows aeration of the root zone, avoiding stagnation and soil acidity (Figure 3.23, 3.24 & 3.25). Figure 3.22: Typical Roof Garden for Pitch Roof Typical Rooftop Garden Installation Detail

Figure 3.21: Typical Lightweight Roof Garden System

Figure 3.23: Typical Rooftop Garden Installation Detail

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System Maintenance The development of landscape rainwater harvesting system is an on-going process that can be improved and expanded over time. The effectiveness of landscape rainwater harvesting system should be observed during rainfall events. This is to ensure that movement of runoff; the holding areas are operating according to the plan Additional holding depression areas where water can be harvested and channeled can be added to improve the system. Landscape rainwater harvesting should be inspected before and after rainy season to keep the system operating at optimum performance. The landscape rainwater harvesting system should be maintained for optimum operation. The holding areas should be inspected before and after rain events to ensure it is free from debris. The gutters and downpipes should be inspected free from debris and blockages. The deposition of debris from the bottom of storage tank should be flushed and removed. Filter and drip filter should be maintained and cleaned regularly to avoid blockage. The landscape areas including holding depression areas and distribution channel should be controlled and prevented from erosion. Eroded surface such as holding area, distribution channel or landscape area should be repaired and replanted with suitable replacement plants.

Figure 3.24 Roof Garden Designs Roof Garden Soil Profile

Figure3.25 Roof Garden Soil

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CHAPTER 4 Rainwater Harvesting System for Building General Principle The application of rainwater harvesting system for building can provide a possible way on the utilization of rainwater as valuable water resources. Rainwater harvesting via rooftop catchment is necessary in areas having significant rainfall and can be a viable alternative to the centralized water supply system. A rainwater harvesting system consists of three basic elements: a rooftop collection area; a conveyance system, and storage facilities (Figure 4.1, 4.2 & 4.3). The collection area of a rainwater harvesting system for a building in most cases is a roof of a house or building. The effective roof area and the material used in constructing the roof influence the efficiency of collection and the water quality. A conveyance system usually consists of gutters or pipes that deliver rainwater falling on the rooftop to cisterns or other storage vessels. Both drainpipes and roof surfaces should be constructed of chemically inert materials such as wood, plastic, aluminum, or fiberglass, in order to avoid adverse effects on water quality. The harvested water is stored in a storage tank or cistern, which should be constructed of an inert material. Reinforced concrete, fiberglass, or stainless steel is suitable materials. Storage tanks may be constructed as part of the building, or may be built as a separate unit located some distance away from the building. The construction of a rooftop collection system is relatively simple with a minimum cost. The technology is flexible and the systems can be built to meet almost any requirements. Figure 4.2: Typical Rainwater Harvesting System The system consists of residential housing can start with a single small tank and add more when the opportunity and need arise.

Figure 4.1: Typical Rainwater Harvesting System for a Building

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Figure 4.3: Typical Section of a Rainwater Harvesting System

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Rooftop Catchment Collection System The catchment collection system consists of a building roof on which rain will be collected. The rainwater yield varies with the size and texture of the roof catchment surface. A smoother, cleaner and more impervious roofing material contributes to better quality and higher quantity of harvested rainfall. The amount of water loss is negligible for pitch metal roofs and the loss for concrete or asphalt roofs is of an average value of 10%. Other type of roof (flat), such as built up tar and gravel roofs may experience the water loss of about 15%. Generally, the designer assumes up to 25% loss for all type of roof material (Texas Water Development Board, 1997). These losses are due to several factors such as: the roofing material texture which slows down the flow; evaporation; and inefficiencies in the collection process. The catchment surfaces must be made of nontoxic material. Painted surfaces should be avoided if possible, or if the use of paint is necessary, only non-toxic paint shall be used (e.g. no lead-based, chromium-based, or zinc-based paints). The metal roofing is the preferred material because of its smooth surface and durability. Other alternative materials, such as asphalt, asbestos, clay tile, slate, wood base and any other local roofing materials are also appropriate for rainwater intended to be used as non-potable water. These surfaces can be treated with a special painted coating to reduce bacterial growth on an otherwise porous surface. The rainwater harvesting system for potable water sources if proposed shall not use lead as roof flashing or as gutter solder as the slightly acid quality of rain can dissolve the lead and thereby contaminate the harvested rainwater. Existing houses and buildings should be fully examined for any lead content in the planning stages of any rainwater harvesting project. Figure 4.4: Typical Conveyance Layouts for Rainwater Harvesting System The size of a roof catchment area is the building s footprint under the roof. The catchment surface is limited to the area of roof which is guttered. The width and length can be used to calculate the size of the guttered area.

Figure 4.5: Typical Section of a Conveyance Layout for Rainwater harvesting System

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Conveyance System Gutters and downpipes are the components which catch the rain from the roof catchment surface and transport it to the cistern (Figure 4.4 & 4.5). Standard shapes and sizes are easily obtained and maintained, although custom fabricated profiles are also available to maximize the total amount of harvested rainfall. Gutters and downpipes must be properly sized, sloped, and installed in order to maximize the quantity of harvested rain. The most common material for off-the-shelf gutters is galvanized steel or PVC. The design and size should comply with MSMA, Chapter 10. Downpipes are designed to handle minimum 40mm rainfall depth. picks up most of the dirt, debris, and contaminants, such as bird droppings that have collected on the roof and in the gutters during dry periods. These systems shall be designed so that at least 30 litres of water are diverted for every 100 square metres of collection area. Rather than wasting the water, the first flush can be used for non-potable uses such as lawn or garden irrigation. Several types of commercial first flush system are also available. Storage Tanks The storage tank represents the major cost of a rainfall harvesting system for a building. Thus, it is important to maximize the efficiency of the system during planning stage and should consider among others, optimal placement of the storage tank, the capacity of the storage and the material selection for the cistern. A slimline tank is suitable to be used for small area that can be attached to a wall side of a house and the tank can be elevated to provide additional pressure (Figure 4.7). The most common tank materials include plastic, polyethylene (HDPE) and concrete. The usage of galvanized steel is also recommended but availability for small size requires special order inclusive of rust coatings. Figure 4.6: Typical Standpipe Type Roof Washers The gutter and downpipe should be provided with leaf screen and first flush system (Figure 4.6). Roof washing, or the collection and disposal of the first flush of water from a roof, is of particular concern for any rainwater harvesting system. This is due to the fact that first flush Polyethylene tanks (Figure 4.8 & 4.9) do not corrode, are relocatable, are made from very strong material and are generally, the longest lasting tanks. Generally, high quality polyethylene materials are used, which don t give out any taste or smell, UV stabilized and food grade polyethylene is generally an industrial standard. Provided that the tanks are made of the correct thickness, algae growth does not occur.

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Rain barrel (Figure 4.10) is a smaller rainwater tank made up from food grade polyethylene and is suitable for domestic application for rainwater harvesting. Normally, the rain barrel includes with complete accessories, flow valve that connects to any standard garden hose and overflow valve. The common type of galvanized tank is Zincalume or Aquaplate variety (Figure 4.11). Concrete (Figure 4.12) and ferro-cement tanks are strong and long lasting and can be installed underground. Larger tanks often have to be cast in-situ. Fibreglass tanks (Figure 4.13), although more expensive, are longer lasting because they resist corrosion and are not generally affected by chemical or moisture. These tanks are manufactured with a food-grade coating on their interior surface. The tanks should also be manufactured to prevent the entry of light, which could encourage algal growth. The tanks can be sealed with a black covering inside or painted on the outside. The size of tank depends on the volume of water needed, and may vary from one area to another. Table 4.1 shows the amount of water uses for appliances and outdoor application. Water demand will depend on: the number of people using the water average consumption per person the range of uses (drinking, bathroom, laundry, toilet, watering etc.) the use of water conservation devices.

Figure 4.7: Typical Slimline Water Tanks

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Table 4.1 Water Use for Domestic Application USE (Appliance) Toilet TYPE Single Flush Dual Flush Washing Machine Twin Tub Front Loading Top Loading Dishwasher General Cleaning Sprinkler or Handheld Hose Drip System Hosing Paths/Driveways Washing the car with a running hose 20 litres per minute 10-20 litres per minute 10-20 litres per minute OUTDOORS 10-20 litres per minute 1000 litres per hour AVERAGE RATE OF FLOW 9 litres 6/3 litres AVERAGE TOTAL WATER USED 120 litres per day 40 litres per day 40 litres per wash 80 litres per wash 170 litres per wash 20-50 litres per load 150 litres per 24 hour day

4 litres per hour 200 litres for 10 min 100-300 litres

22

Figure 4.11: Typical Galvanized Rainwater Tank

Figure 4.8: Typical Rounded Polyethylene Rainwater Tanks

Figure 4.12: Typical Concrete Rainwater Tank

Figure 4.9: Typical Polyethylene Rainwater Tanks

Figure 4.10: Typical Polyethylene Rain Barrels 23

Figure 4.13: Typical Fibreglass Rainwater Tanks

There are a number of issues that govern what tank or tanks would be suitable in varying situations. The variables are:

Height of roof Roof catchment area identification Gutter and downpipe arrangements Space around the building Alignment of building in relation to boundaries Local Council regulations in regard to water tanks

A smaller header tank which does not collect rainwater is used to supply greater pressure in gravity fed water systems (Figure 4.17). The collection tank is at ground level, buried half way in the ground or whatever is necessary. The outlet of this tank feeds to a small low volume trickle pump, either electric or solar, that keeps the small header tank filled. A floating mercury switch in the header tank turns the trickle pump on or off depending on water level. To give substantial pressure, the header tank needs to be very high and small so that support costs are kept to a minimum. For aesthetic or other reasons, it may be an advantage to position the rainwater tank away from the building (Figure 4.18). This can be done and the area between the building and the tank can then be used. The top strainer in the tank must still be below the gutter level allowing a 4% downpipe slope into the tank. Note that water will stay in the u-shaped downpipe section after rain to the level of the strainer. To prevent algae growing in the water, it is necessary to put a bend in the top downpipe to exclude most of the light. A mosquito mesh across the downpipe top may also be necessary. The small slimline tank (Figure 4.19) is ideal if all that is necessary for example as a supplementary water sources. Rainwater can be delivered from a ball valve/tap on the side of the tank or gravity fed from the rear. The pressure can be raised by elevating the tank to fit under the eaves. These tanks are also useful for filling fish tanks or for watering special plants etc. For taking advantage of the maximum catchment available from a shed or house roof, it is ideal to place the tank(s) at the end of the building (Figure 4.20). Downpipes can be fed from both gutters into the one tank. The downpipe capacity must match the overflow capacity. For example, two 100mm downpipes would require two 100mm overflows. Note that tank overflows can go below the ground and come up again, to meet stormwater run off.

Low roof buildings may require a squat shaped tank (minimum height of 900mm). They are not as high, but they are wider, for the same storage capacity. Note that downpipes must have at least 4% fall to achieve correct flow. Positioning the tank at ground level is the most common form of installation (Figure 4.14). A small household pressure pump is placed in the outlet line to give tap pressure to several outlets. Note that the tank inlet strainer must be lower than the gutter, allowing at least a slope of 4% or more for the downpipe. Two or more downpipes can feed into one tank but the overflow volume must match the downpipe volume. In this case the tank would need to have two overflows installed, the same size as the downpipes. A tank is often partly buried in the ground (Figure 4.15) to bring the tank roof below the gutter line, so that water will drain into the tank. This may also be done for aesthetic reasons so that the tank does not block the view. Note that polyethylene tanks can only be buried in the ground up to half their height. It is often only necessary to bury a tank a nominal amount for the tank to be below gutter height. A tank on a stand (Figure 4.16) can gravity feed water to a tap without the use of a pump. If a pump is normally used, some water will still flow when power is not available. In most cases, unless the tank is very high, the pressure will be low. If a higher pressure is required, a smaller but higher header tank should be used. The smaller tank is easier to support. 24

Figure 4.14: Typical Tank at Ground Level Figure 4.18: Typical Tank Away from the Building

Figure 4.15: Typical Tank Buried Half Way into the Ground

Figure 4.19: Typical Small Kitchen Tank

Figure 4.16: Typical Tank on Stand

Figure 4.20: Typical Tank Position for Maximum Catchment Figure 4.17: Typical Header Tank for Increased Water Pressure 25

CHAPTER 5 Plumbing for Rainwater Harvesting System

Plumbing Guideline Rainwater tank installations may be designed, installed and maintained so as to allow a cross connection with the potable water supply. Where a property has both a rainwater tank system and a potable water supply from a reticulated system, the plumbing for rainwater tank should have a cross-connection control and backflow prevention. The need for a secure water supply means that many people want the ability to switch back to the mains water supply if their pump fails; electricity fails or the tank needs to be cleaned. Suggested plumbing configuration for rainwater tanks in urban areas with a reticulated supply direct connection with the potable supply is shown in Figure 5.1. Proximity to other services - Separation between above ground rainwater services and any parallel potable water supply must be a minimum of 100mm, below ground rainwater services must be separated by a minimum of 300mm from any parallel potable water supply pipe. Marking and labeling It is a common practice in marking and labeling of the rainwater services for identification and future maintenance purposes. Above and below ground rainwater pipes shall be continuously marked AIR HUJAN . Every rainwater tank outlet and all taps, valves and rainwater tank apertures shall be identified as AIR HUJAN with a sign complying with (refer Figure 5.2) or a green colored indicator with the letters SPAH . Alternatively, a permanent sign, at the front of the premises and visible to all visitors, may be displayed advising that rainwater is in use. Identification tape marked AIR HUJAN shall be at least 75mm wide. The identification tape shall be installed on top of the rainwater pipeline installed within the trench, running longitudinally, and fastened to the pipe at not more than three meter intervals.

Figure 5.1: Typical Direct Connection Plumbing Configuration

Figure 5.2: Typical Signage for rainwater tanks and outlets

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Plumbing Water Closet Cisterns The interconnection of rainwater and reticulated potable water for flushing purposes requires separation of the potable supply by the installation of a dual check valve (Figure 5.3). Typical installation options are shown below (Figure 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 & 5.7). A Dual Check Valve should be fitted at the cross-connection point between the two water sources. A pump is shown at the rainwater tank outlet to pressurize supply for satisfactory operation of the ball float valve in the cistern.

Figure 5.5: Installation of Check Valve for Water Cistern

Figure 5.3: Typical Installation of Dual Check Valve for Rainwater Tank.

Figure 5.6: Typical Schematic Layout for Rainwater Tank at Ground Level.

Figure 5.4: Typical Connections at or Near Cistern

Figure 5.7: Typical Schematic Layout for Rainwater Tank on Stand.

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CHAPTER 6 Pump and Filter for Rainwater Harvesting System General Principles Pumps are mechanical devices that lift water from lower to higher level by application of some form of energy. There are several types of pumps with different operating principles suitable for various conditions of use. It is important to understand these principles so that the most efficient pumps are selected for particular type of building or application. There are positive displacement reciprocating pumps, centrifugal pumps, centripetal pumps, and centrifugal jet pumps. The suction operation of the pump creates vacuum in its inlet chamber and the atmospheric pressure pushes the water up the pump inlet chamber. It gains energy due to the reciprocating or centrifugal action of the pump develops pressure within and enables the water to flow to higher elevations. Suction lift is constrained by the available atmospheric pressure, as the atmospheric pressure reduces with altitude, so does the pump suction capacity. The vapour pressure of the liquid at its operating temperature also affects the suction capacity of a pump. If the available suction head is less than the vapour pressure, water will evaporate, causing a condition known as cavitation that may damage the pump due to erosion or vibration associated with it. Vapour pressure conditions arise largely in systems handling hot water. The net available suction pressure is known as net positive suction head. It depends on various factors such as atmospheric pressure; head loss due to friction in pipe, pipe fittings and foot valve, velocity head at suction face, and vapour pressure at the operating temperature. Pumping head is the pressure required for a pump to transfer liquid from one level to another. Total head required is computed based on static head between the centre line of the pump and the high water level, frictional losses in pipes, fittings and valves, and velocity at entry point. Efficiency of a pump is the ratio of the network done by the pump in lifting water, to the energy applied to do the work. A pump has loss of energy due to the motive power of its driving mechanism, e.g an electric motor, engine, etc. The net efficiency of the total set is given by the efficiencies of the individual equipments. Each pump impeller has its own operating characteristics, which define its capability and efficiency. These can either be calculated for each individual pump and its impeller or the pump characteristic read from graphs and nomographs normally furnished by each pump manufacture for their products. Reciprocating Pumps Reciprocating pumps are plungers or cylindrical rams that are made to move to and fro by an engine or motor crank mounted on a wheel of the drive. The movement allows pressure to build up with each stroke, which is then pushed up to higher levels in subsequent strokes. A set of valves on the suction and delivery prevents back-flow and building up of pressure. Reciprocating pumps give a fluctuating flow, which is overcome by having two or more cylinders acting together to provide uniform flow. Reciprocating pumps generally have limited discharge capacity but generate very higher pressures.

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Efficiency of the pump is quite low due to several moving parts and valves. The pumps have limited applications in building water supply systems and high-pressure applications. Centrifugal Pumps Centrifugal pumps (Figure 6.1) have circular impellers mounted on a shaft inside a housing known as volute. When rotated at high speed, the impeller creates a vacuum and sucks the water in the volute. The circular motion of the impeller transfers the rotating dynamic energy to water, which then develops pressure at the outlet and the water can be transferred to a higher level. Centrifugal pumps are more efficient than reciprocating pumps as they have lesser rotating parts. Depending on the type of impellers used, the pumps have a variety of pumping applications. They are used extensively in water supply, irrigation, sewage, heating air conditioning and in domestic appliances such as air coolers, washing machines, dish washer, etc. They can pump large volumes of water and generate high pressures up to 200m and above. Centrifugal pumps can be installed in a variety of ways and conditions as per site conditions. Surface mounted pumps are universally used for all applications under positive or negative suction conditions.

Vertical Submersible Pumps Vertical wet or dry-pits submersible pumps are those in which the pump is submerged in liquids and driven by a vertically-mounted motor driven by a long shaft. The motor is normally above the high-flood level or above the maximum waterlevel in the tanks to prevent the motor from submerging in water. In dry-pit pumps, pumps are installed in a separate dry compartment and bearings of the pump shaft lubricated by specialized mechanism which pumps grease in the required positions. Vertical pumps used for clear water and sewage pumping are submerged or at some level as that of the liquid and thus have positive suction. They are ideal for automatic operations, difficult suction conditions or where priming of the pump is a problem. The vertical pump shaft length is a limitation and is normally restricted to 5-6m.

Figure 6.2: Typical Submersible Pump Fully Submersible Pumps Fully submersible pumps (Figure 6.2) have a monobloc-type pump couple to an electric motor. The entire electrical pump and motor combination is submerged in the water. The water also acts as a coolant and the pumps have no priming problems or any limitations of suction lift.

Figure 6.1: Typical Centrifugal Pump

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Submersible pumps are commonly used in tubewells, deep open-wells, canals, lakes, lift irrigation and other water supply schemes. Submersible pumps are easy to install and do not required a separate pump house above or below ground, thus saving considerably in terms of costs. Jet Pumps To overcome the suction limitations of surfacemounted pumps, a special suction device known as jet assembly is used to lift water from depths of 6-40m. The jet assembly, in principle, applies additional energy at the suction point in the form of a properly designed jet in a venture tube. The additional energy is derived from the pump itself from its delivery side. The pressure of the jet pump has to be high for the jet action, but delivery pressure is controlled by a pressure regulator. Rainwater Pump Pumps can be broken down into two major categories consists of clear or gray water pumps and solids handling pumps. Within these two broad categories, they are further differentiated by the type of impeller employed, the design of the motor, and the expected duty cycle. Clear or rainwater pumps are designed to pump water that is free of trash, sewage and other large solids. These pumps employ oil filled motors. Oil transfers heat from the motor to the pump case and also lubricate the bearings and mechanical seals. Motors are rated for either intermittent or continuous duty. Intermittent duty pumps are the most common for rainwater harvesting system.

They are designed for an average duty cycle of 20 min per hour. Although they can run for longer periods, their life will be shortened. Continuous duty pumps can run 24 hours per day as long as they are located in a sump where incoming water can flow over a motor. These pumps are often found in water feature or pond where 24 hour circulation is required. The rainwater is caught in a collecting tank, from which it is pumped into a pipe system. The rainwater can then be taken from this in the same way that drinking water can. If the tank should ever run dry, it can be supplied with drinking water. The common demands on the control system for a rainwater pump are as follows:

The water must be available at all times. When the switch to drinking water takes place, no rainwater must get into the drinking water system. If there is not enough water in the rainwater tank, the pump cannot be switched on (run-dry protection).

Self-sucking pump with fixed flow control, especially designed for use in rainwater harvesting systems is shown in Figure 6.3. The pump curve shown in Figure 6.3 can be used to select an appropriate size of the pump which is based on the lifting head and desired flow. The typical equipment and accessories of the pump is as follows: Filter with hose connection for easy cleaning Sound absorptive rubber stands Inlet plugs on pressure and suction sides Cable for electric connection.

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Submersible pump designed for use in rainwater systems is shown in Figure 6.4. The pump is available in two different types: Submersible pump with float and suction pipe to be fitted into an underground tank. Flow control and control unit are mounted indoors. Pump with mounted pressure control for separate installation in a dry space.

The pump curve shown in Figure 6.4 can be used to select an appropriate size of the pump which is based on the lifting head and desired flow. The typical equipment and accessories of the pump is as follows: Float valve with suction pipe Sound absorptive rubber stands Inlet plugs on pressure and suction sides 20 m cable for electric connection.

The Configuration of the pumping system for rainwater tank is shown in Figure 6.5. The details of various pump installations and rainwater tank placement are shown in Figure 6.6, Figure 6.7, Figure 6.8 and Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.4: Typical Rainwater Pump for Indoor and Underground Installation

Figure 6.3: Typical Rainwater Pump for Indoor Installation Figure 6.5: Typical Configuration of the Pumping System for Rainwater Tank

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Figure 6.6: Typical Storage Tank and Pump Installed in the Basement.

Figure 6.8: Typical Underground Storage Tank with Submersible Pump.

Figure 6.7: Typical Underground Tank and Pump in the Basement.

Figure 6.9: Typical Underground Storage Tank with Submersible Pump and Pump in the Basement.

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Rainwater Filters Rainwater quantity varies and is affected by environmental factors and commercial activities in the area. The addition of the rainwater filter will improve the quality of the water. The rainwater filter can be part of the rainwater downpipe, be separate from a tank or be attached to a tank. The rainwater filter also can be installed below ground. The size and volume of rainwater filter are size as per following below; Table 6.1 Guidelines for residential first flush quantities Rooftops of 100m2 or smaller 25 -50 liters Rooftops of 100m2 or larger 50 liters per 100m2 Table 6.2 Guidelines for surface catchments or for very large rooftops Rooftops or surface catchments 2500 liters of 4356m2 or larger
(5000liters if surface contains excessive soil, dust or debris) Multiple first flush devices instead of a larger first flush may be required depending on slope of the catchments surface and time required for rainwater to reach the first flush device.

Figure 6.11: Floating Ball Valve Fist Flush System Maintenance of rainwater filter The rainwater filter systems are to be maintained regularly and the maintenance are to be carried out as follows: 1. Contaminated water in the rainwater filter should be drained on a regular basis after each rainfall event. 2. Remove debris whenever necessary. 3. Debris shields and vegetation traps should be cleaned regularly to allow unrestricted flows to filter storage. Figures 6.12 and 6.13 indicate the installation of the filters in the rain harvesting system. The detail cross sectional views on the filters are shown in figures 6.14 and 6.15.

Figure 6.10 : Typical Fist Flush System Figure 6.12: Typical Configurations of Rainwater Filters for Underground Rainwater Tank. 33

Figure 6.13: Typical Configurations of Rainwater Filters for Rainwater Tank at Ground Level.

Figure 6.15: Typical Downpipe Vortex Rainwater Filter.

Figure 6.14: Typical Downpipe Rainwater Filter.

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CHAPTER 7 Design Example for Rainwater Harvesting System Case Study The example of the rainwater tank sizing is based on the proposed construction of 18 storey office including 3 storey podium and one storey car park for MITI (Ministry of International Industrial for Malaysia). The rainwater will be collected from the roof of the (office and podium block) and from the proposed building and directed to the downpipe and rainwater tank located at ground level of the building (Figure 7.1). Part of the collection consists of the green roof garden landscapes with the ornamental plant and trees to meet the functional objective of the building (see Appendix for the detail drawing). The rainwater harvesting system is assumed to be used as a bathroom cistern flushing for supply up to 1,000 installation of cisterns. Rainwater Tank The sizing of rainwater tank is based on the maximum volume of the water capture from the roof area to the rainwater harvesting system. The next step is to calculate the security of supply that is the size of the tank needed to ensure the volume of water collected and stored in the tank will be sufficient to meet demand throughout the year, including during the drier months or through periods of low or no rainfall. This is particularly important in the case where the tank is to represent the sole source of water supply. Figure 7.1 Proposed Rainwater Harvesting System There are several mathematical models available for determining the size of tank needed to provide defined security of supply. In some cases, the computer-based models are used to prepare tables of calculated tank size. The simplest way of checking a tank size estimated to provide water throughout an average year, is to use monthly rainfall data and to assume that at the start of the wetter months the tank is empty. The following formula should then be used for each month: Vt = Vt-1 + (Runoff Demand) Vt = theoretical volume of water remaining in the tank at the end of the month. Vt-1 = volume of water left in the tank from the previous month

35

Starting with the tank empty then Vt-1 = 0. If, after any month, Vt exceeds the volume of the tank, the water will lost to overflow. If Vt is ever a negative figure then demand exceeds the available water. Providing the calculated annual runoff exceeds the annual water demand, Vt will only be negative if periodic overflows reduce the amount of water collected so it is less than the demand. Tank size is not necessarily based on collecting total runoff (maximum volume of water available) from the roof area. If the water demand is less than the maximum volume of water available then some overflow might occur while demand is still met. If water demand is to be met throughout the year, the tank should be large enough so that Vt is never negative.

Calculations should be repeated using various tank sizes until Vt is 0 at the end of every month. The greater the values of Vt over the whole year, the greater the security of meeting water demand when rainfalls are below average or when dry periods are longer than normal. The greater the security, the larger the size and cost of the tank shall be. The maximum tank size and related data are shown in Table 7.1, while the monthly catchment calculation is shown in Table 7.2

Table 7.1: Maximum Tank Size

Average monthly flushing Total annual rainfall Monthly average (mm) - data from 1983-1997 Catchment area Catchment efficiency Runoff Formula Tank size 456,000 liters (Assumes 1000 peoples, 3.8 liter from 6/3 cistern 4 flushes per day/person) 2520 mm Jan 107, Feb 200, Mar 266, Apr 293, May 217, Jun 153, July 150, Aug 195, Sept 237, Oct 248, Nov 235 & Dec 219. 6000 m2 75% Runoff (liters) = 0.75 (efficiency) Rainfall Roof Area eg. Jan runoff = 0.75 107 6000 = 481 500 liters 750,000 liters

Table 7.2: Monthly Catchment Calculation

Month Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Monthly Rainfall (mm) 107 200 266 293 217 153 150 195 237 248 235 219 Runoff (liter) 481 500 900 000 1 197 000 1 318 500 976 500 688 500 675 000 877 500 1 066 500 1 116 000 1 057 500 985 500 Vt (liter) 25 500 469 500 1 210 500 2 073 000 2 593 500 2 826 000 3 045 000 3 466 500 4 077 000 4 737 000 5 338 500 5 868 000

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Pipe Sizing for Rainwater Installation The conveyance system of the rainwater harvesting should be designed to ensure the plumbing installation is economic, systematic, can be maintained efficiently and safe by following the standard guidelines and the requirement of local authority In designing for water supply installation, an assessment must first be made of the probable maximum water flow. In most buildings it seldom happens that the total numbers of appliances installed are ever in use at the same time, and therefore, for economic reasons, it is usual for a system to be designed for a peak usage which is less than the possible maximum usage. The probable maximum demand can be assessed based on the theory of probability. This method use a loading unit rating which is devised for each type of appliance, based on its rate of water delivery, the time the taps are open during usage, and the simultaneous demand for the particular type of appliance. Table 7.3 gives the loading unit rating for various appliances. In building where high peak demands occur, a loading unit rating for such appliances is not applicable and 100% of the flow rate for these appliances is required as shown in Table 7.4. The same applies to automatic flushing cisterns for urinals. The pipe sizing can be determined using a well known practical formula known as Thomas-Box equation given as follows: q= where q = discharge through the pipe (liter/s) d = diameter of pipe (mm) H = head of water (m) L = total length of pipe (m) d5 H 25 L 10 5

37

Table 7.3: Loading Unit Rating for Various Applications Loading Unit Rating Dwelling and flats W.C. flushing cistern Wash basin Bath Sink Offices W.C. flushing cistern Wash basin (distributed use) Wash basin (concentrated use) School and industrial Buildings W.C. flushing cistern Wash basin Shower (with nozzle) Public bath 2 1 1/2 10 3-5 2 1 1/2 3 2 3 3 22

Table 7.4: Recommended Minimum Flow Rate at Various Appliances Type of appliance W.C. flushing cistern Wash basin Wash basin with spray taps Bath (private) Bath (public) Shower (with nozzle) Sink with 13 mm taps Sink with 19 mm taps Sink with 25 mm taps Rate of flow (liter/s) 0.12 0.15 0.04 0.30 0.60 0.12 0.20 0.30 0.60

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Effective Length of Pipe The diameter of the pipe necessary to give a required flow rate will depend upon the head of water available, the smoothness of the internal bore of the pipe and the effective length of the pipe. An allowance for the frictional resistance set up by fittings such as elbows, tees, taps and valves must be added to the actual length of the pipe. Table 7.5 gives the allowance for fittings expressed in equivalent pipe lengths. In calculating the diameter of a pipe to supply individual fittings, the loss of head through the draw-off tap should also be taken into account. Table 7.6 gives the allowances for draw-off taps expressed in equivalent pipe lengths. Table 7.5: Frictional Resistance of Fittings Expressed in Equivalent Pipe Length Nominal outside diameter (mm) 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 Meter run of pipe Elbow Bend Tee 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.7 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 2.0 1.2 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.4 4.2 5.3 6.8

Table 7.6: Frictional Resistance of Draw-off Taps Expressed as Equivalent Pipe Lengths Fitting (BS 1010) Discharge rate tap fully open (liter/s) 0.20 0.30 0.60 Equivalent length of pipe of same diameter as tap (m) Copper Galvanised steel 2.70 8.50 20.00 4.00 5.75 13.00

15 mm diameter bibtap or pillar tap 20 mm diameter bibtap or pillar tap 25 mm diameter bibtap or pillar tap

39

Figure 7.2: Loading Units

Figure 7.3: Head Loss through Stop Valve 40

Figure 7.4: Pipe Sizing Chart Pipe Sizing Example The calculation of main pipe size for rainwater tank serving a typical bathroom of a commercial building, the appliances in the bathroom consist of 5 W.C. flushing cisterns, 10 wash basins and 5 showers with nozzle. The layout of the system is shown in Figure 7.5. The calculation of loading rating per unit appliance from Table 7.3. W.C. flushing system (WC) Wash basin (WB) Shower (SR) The calculation of total loading. 5 WC 2 10 WB 1.5 5 SR 3 Total = 10 units = 15 units = 15 units = 40 units = 5 units = 10 units = 5 units

41

The head loss in 25 mm copper pipe due to frictional resistance obtained from Figure 7.4 is 0.10. The head loss due to fitting of stop valve is equivalent to 0.6 (Figure 7.3). Hence, the total head loss can be calculated as follows: Total head loss = (19.6 0.1) + 0.6 Total head loss = 2.56 meter Figure 7.5: Example layout of the Plumbing System Serving a Bathroom The flow rate for 40 units loading is 0.70 liter/s using relationship between design flow rate and loading unit shown in Figure 7.2. The calculation of head loss due to frictional resistance for elbow and tee in equivalent pipe length from Table 7.5. Elbow Tee = 0.7 meter run of pipe = 1.8 meter run of pipe The available head is 5 meter, therefore the residual head at appliances distribution point is: Residual head = 5 2.56

= 2.44 meter the system is adequate. The calculation of the pipe size using ThomasBox equation: Effective length Design pipe flow Head Therefore d =5 0.70 2 25 19.6 10 5 = 25.04mm 2.44 = 19.6 = 0.70 liter/s = 2.44 m

The calculation of the effective length of the main pipe serving the appliances in the bathroom. Assuming the system used 25 mm (O.D) galvanized steel pipe. actual length of the main pipe effective length = 15 meters = actual length + equivalent length

The pipe size used 25 mm is acceptable.

equivalent length = 4 elbows + 1 tee equivalent length = (0.7 4) + (1.8 1) = 4.6 meters effective length = 15 + 4.6 = 19.6 meter

42

REFERENCES

Atlantis Stormwater (2002), Atlantis Stormwater Design Manual, Atlantis Stormwater Ltd. Bushmans (2004), Tank Installation Examples, Bushmans Group. CUPDR (2003), Guidelines for Plumbiong Associated with Rainwater Tanks in Urban Areas, Committee on Uniformity of Plumbing and Drainage Regulations in NSW, Circular P&D No. 18. DID (2000), Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia, Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Malaysia. Texas Water Development Board (1997), Texas Guide to Rainwater Harvesting, Texas Water Development Board in Coorperation with the Center for Maximum Potential Building System.

APPENDIX Design Criteria - Minimum Standard No. 1. Design Impervious Layer (Sidewalks, Terrace, driveways, parking) Berm Extended Holding Area ( drip line to edge of Basin) Depression slope Tree height for rooftop Rainfall depth for rooftop garden First Flush Downpipes Storage Tank Pipe Storage Storage Volume Proximity to water supply pipe line Depth/Size/ Height/Length Gradient 2%

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

300mm 2m 500mm (Maximum) 6m (Maximum) 40mm (Maximum) 50 liter per 100m2 of collection area 100mm (minimum) 900 mm (minimum height) 900mm (Minimum dia) 2 weeks (Minimum) 100mm above ground 300mm below ground

1:4 (maximum) 4% 2% -

APPENDIX IBU PEJABAT JPS KUALA LUMPUR JALAN SALAHUDDIN Capacity : Catchment Area : Demans : 80 m 2548 m Toilet Flushing & External Washing

In July 2003, JPS has installed a 80 m underground moduler tank for stormwater attenuation and rainwater reuse. Harvested rainwater from the roof catchment, collected through the gutter and downpipe was first filtered before storage in the underground tank. The water is then pump to header tank and distributed to the toilet on the various floors. The project are design as such at the pipe and fitting are exposed to provide visual to visitors.
MODULAR STORAGE TANK

JPS HEADQUARTERS

GUTTER AND DOWNPIPE

RAINWATER FILTER

PLUMBING SYSTEM