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Evaporation is the process in which a liquid change to the gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling
point through the transfer of heat energy.

Transpiration is the process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reaches the atmosphere as
water vapor.
Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation from the land surface plus transpiration from plants.
Physics Of Evaporation - The physics of evaporation can be explained by the kinetic theory of gases and the
concept of vapor pressure. The kinetic theory of gases explains that all matter is made up of tiny particles
called molecules that are in constant motion. In a liquid, the molecules are closely packed together
and have strong intermolecular forces holding them together. However, some of the molecules at the surface of
the liquid have enough kinetic energy to break free from the liquid's surface and enter the gas phase. These
molecules are said to have "escaped" the liquid and become a gas or vapor.
Factors Affecting Evaporation - Vapor Pressure, Temperature, Wind, Atmospheric Pressure, Soluble Salts,
Heat Storage in Water Bodies
Factors Affecting Transpiration – Vegetation, Stomatal Resistance, Soil Characteristics, Plant Maturity
Estimation Of Evaporation - Using evaporimeter data, Analytical methods, Empirical evaporation equations
Evaporimeter - An evaporimeter is a water-containing pan which is exposed to the atmosphere and the loss of
water by evaporation measured in it at regular intervals.
How To Obtain Data
1. Install the Evaporimeter in A Suitable Location: Choose a location that is representative of the area you want
to monitor, and install the evaporimeter according to the manufacturer's instructions. Make sure it is level and
stable.
2. Fill the Evaporimeter with Water: Fill the evaporimeter's reservoir with distilled water up to the recommended
level. This water will be used to simulate the water surface being measured.
3. Record the Starting Water Level: Use a ruler or tape measure to measure and record the starting water level
in the evaporimeter. This will be the baseline for future measurements.
4. Place the Evaporimeter Cover: Place the cover on the evaporimeter to prevent wind, precipitation, or other
factors from affecting the evaporation rate.
5. Monitor and Record the Water Level: At regular intervals (e.g., daily), measure and record the water level in
the evaporimeter. Take care to record the level at the same time each day, and avoid disturbing the water
surface when taking measurements.
6. Calculate the evaporation rate: Subtract the current water level from the starting water level, and divide by
the number of days elapsed. This will give you the average daily evaporation rate.
Lysimeter is a special watertight tank containing a block of soil and set in a field the grown plants
- The plants grown in the lysimeter are the same as in the surrounding field.
- Lysimeters should be designed to accurately reproduce the soil conditions, moisture content, type and
size of the vegetation of the surrounding area.
- Lysimeters should be buried that the soil is at the same level inside and outside the container.
- Lysimeters are time-consuming and expensive.
ANALYTICAL METHODS OF EVAPORATION ESTIMATION
1. Water Budget Method - The simplest of the three analytical methods and also the least reliable
P + Vis + Vig − Vos − Vog − EL − TL = ∆S
P=daily precipitation (measurable) Vis=daily surface inflow into the lake (measurable)
Vig=daily groundwater inflow (estimated) Vos=daily surface outflow from the lake (measurable)
Vog=daily seepage outflow (estimated) EL=daily lake evaporation
TL=daily transpiration loss (estimated) ∆S=change in storage in a day (measurable)
2. Energy Budget Method ⁃ An application of the law of conservation of energy
✓ The energy available for evaporation is determined by considering the incoming energy, outgoing energy,
and energy stored in the water body over a known time interval.
3. Mass Transfer Method ⁃ This method is based on theories of turbulent mass transfer in boundary layer to
calculate the mass water vapor transfer from the surface to the surrounding atmosphere.
⁃ With the use of quantities measured by sophisticated (and expensive) instrumentation, this method can give
satisfactory results.
EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS
Most formulas are based on the Dalton-type equation and can be expressed in the general form:
EL = Kf(u)(es – ea)
EL=lake evaporation (mm/day) ea=actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a spec. height in mm of mercury
K = coefficient f(u) = wind − speed correction function
es = saturated vapor pressure at the water surface temperature in mm of mercury
1. Meyer’s Formula (1915) EL = KM(es − ea)(1 + u9/16)
U9 = wind velocity in km/h at about 9m above ground KM = coefficient accounting for various other factors
KM = 0.36 for large deep waters, 0.50 for small shallow waters
uh = Ch1/7
uh=wind velocity C=constant h=height above ground
2. Rohwer’s Formula EL = 0. 771(1. 465 − 0. 000732pa)(0. 44 + 0. 0733u0)(es − ea)
pa = mean barometric reading in mm of mercury u0 = mean wind velocity in km/h at ground level,
which can be taken to be the velocity at 0.6mheight above ground
METHODS TO REDUCE EVAPORATION LOSSES
1. Reduction of Surface Area 2. Mechanical Covers 3. Chemical Films

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Evaporation is the process in which a liquid change to the gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling

point through the transfer of heat energy.

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