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    Spring Constant

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    amanda1810
    The spring constant was defined by k = |F/z|, where F is the force acting on the spring and z the resultant deflection.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Spring Constant

    Uploaded by

    amanda1810
    142 views17 pages
    The spring constant was defined by k = |F/z|, where F is the force acting on the spring and z the resultant deflection.

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    spring constant

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    The spring constant was defined by k = |F/z|, where F is the force acting on the spring and z the resultant deflection.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    142 views17 pages

    Spring Constant

    Uploaded by

    amanda1810
    The spring constant was defined by k = |F/z|, where F is the force acting on the spring and z the resultant deflection.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 17

    Noise

    1- Effective Spring Constant


    The spring constant was defined by k = |F/z|, where F is the force acting on the spring
    and z the resultant deflection. Another definition of the spring constant k can be derived
    from the potential energy W of a deformed spring, or lever,
    (1)
    by taking the second derivative of the energy W in respect to z,
    (2)
    Equation (2) is convenient for finding the effective spring constant in the presence of a
    force F(z) that has a derivative in the direction of deflection of the spring. In this case we
    can expand the force to first order,

    and get an effective spring constant, k',


    where F1 = F/z. Usually the probe that senses the vibration of the tip is above the tip
    while the sample is below the tip.
    For convenience, we denote a force derivative pointing toward the sample as
    positive. Therefore, a tip-sample attractive force with a positive derivative decreases the
    resonance frequency of a lever.

    - Fluctuation theory of statistical mechanics - Nyquists Theorem


    Fluctuations in the entropy of the RC circuit; since there is no free energy in
    the resistor (I = 0) itself, the variation in entropy is the negative of the energy
    delivered to the capacitor
    1

    F T ( S S 0 )

    CE 2

    where E is the thermal noise voltage across C. Since the circuit in thermal
    equilibrium with the reservoir the probability of finding a value of voltage between E
    and E + E is

    P ( E )dE Be

    CE 2
    2 KT

    P ( E )dE 1

    Be

    CE 2
    2 KT

    dE

    2KT
    C

    where P(E) is the probability of finding the voltage between E and E + dE. Therefore,
    the mean square value of the voltage is

    E 2 P( E )de

    C
    E 2e
    2KT

    CE 2
    2 KT

    dE

    KT
    1
    1
    CE 2 KT
    C
    2
    2

    2- Sources of Noise
    i- Introduction
    A typical scanning force microscope consists of a lever and its
    force sensing tip; a bimorph, and a tip deflection probe, each of which
    contributes noise to the system. The primary sources of the laser-diode
    noise (Petermann 1988 and Agrawal and Dutta 1986) include shot
    intensity, and phase noise, which is converted into amplitude noise in an
    interferometric configuration.
    Initially, we address the thermal noise of the detector and the
    limiting effect it has on the sensitivity of the measurements. We then
    discuss the noise at the insulation table and finally at the cantilever.

    ii- General Discussion of Noise


    A time-dependent optical power, P(t), can be written as a sum of two
    terms:
    where P0 = P is the average power defined as

    and P(t) is the noise term. The spectral density of the power, Wp(m), where
    m is the operating frequency can be obtained from P(t) in terms of a
    Fourier transform by

    and the mean square of the noise, P2(t), is given by

    The noise, passing through a filter that has a bandwidth of B and


    transmission of unity around the center frequency m, is

    A widely used definition of noise is given in terms of the relative intensity


    noise (RIN), defined by

    iii- Noise in Laser Detection


    Since an optical power incident on a photoconductive detector
    generates a current given by
    where is in mA/mW, we can write the RIN as

    a- Shot Noise
    The RIN arising from statistics of photons incident on a
    photoconductive detector can be obtained from

    From the definition of shot noise,

    where e is the electronic charge, we get the shot-noise-limited RIN,

    The RIN of any experimental system will therefore obey

    We find that a shot noise current

    generates a voltage across a load resistor R given by

    b- Resistor Johnson Noise


    The agitation of electrons in the load resistor R in the first stage of
    a photodetector amplifier gives rise to a RIN, noise current, and noise
    voltage given by

    and

    Here K is Boltzmann's constant and T is the absolute temperature.

    c- Laser Intensity Noise

    The dominant source of noise in laser diodes is spontaneous


    emission. The laser diode, which behaves like a thermal source, is actually
    an amplifier for this noise. Apart from the spontaneous-emission noise we
    have to take into account the mode-partition noise, mode-hopping noise,
    and 1/f noise. The theory of these contributions is lengthy and we will not
    deal with it here. Practically, we can use the specifications accompanying a
    laser diode that give the RIN measured in a given bandwidth around a
    center frequency. A typical value for the laser intensity- related RIN,
    including the shot noise, is

    iv- Environmental Noise (1/f )


    Isolation Table
    mx Fa pl FK Fr

    dv
    Fr FK Fa pl
    dt
    t
    dv
    Fa pl m bv k vdt
    0
    dt
    v v 0 e j t
    m

    Fa pl jmv bv

    k
    v
    j

    Fa pl

    b j m j

    Z mec

    C
    v = velocity
    m = cantilever mass
    FK = elastic restoring force = kx
    Fr = dissipative force (friction) = bV
    Fapl = external force applied to the cantilever oscillation

    V
    1
    R j L
    Z elet
    I
    j C
    Equivalence of the above equation with that of an RLC circuit where b = R, m = L and k = 1/C

    Roots of the equation are obtained using the Laplace transform (s)
    Fa p l

    d 2x
    dx
    m
    b kx
    dt
    dt

    x x 0 e st
    F ( s ) ms 2 x bsx kx
    F
    ms 2 bs k
    x

    s1, 2

    b b 2 4km

    2m

    v- Cantilever Noise
    Rewriting in terms of parameter , 0 and Q we get
    F
    b
    k
    s2 s
    xm
    m
    m
    s 2 2 0 s 02

    s1, 2

    2 0 4 202 402

    2
    0 202 02
    0 j0 1 2

    b
    20 m

    w02

    k
    m

    b
    b 1

    m
    2m k
    m
    2 0
    2 0

    1 1 1

    2 0
    2Q

    b
    2

    1
    km

    S1, 2

    0
    2Q

    j 0 1 2

    1
    S1, 2

    j 0
    2

    Solution

    mx bx kx F0 e j (t )
    m(1) A0 e j (t ) 2 jA0 e j (t ) ke j (t ) F0 e j (t )
    ( m 2 k ) A0 e j (t ) jA0 e j (t ) F0 e j (t )

    2
    0

    F0 j (t )
    e
    m

    F0 / m
    j (t )
    e
    02 2 jb

    x(t )

    x(t )
    e

    2 jb x(t )

    F0 / m
    ( ) b
    2
    0

    b 2 4 2

    2 2

    cos(t )

    vi- Experimental Values


    - Vibration Isolation
    total transfer

    vii- Noise Isolation in AFM


    - good vibration isolation of the experiment
    is prerequisite for high resolution imaging
    - the
    mechanical
    stability
    of
    the
    experimental setup turns out to be a
    prerequisite for successful measurements
    on the atomic scale
    - the tip is moved in three dimensions by
    piezoelectric actuators
    - a high voltage amplifier is required to
    drive the piezoelectric scanner
    - the tunneling current is used to control the
    tip-sample distance z via a feedback circuit
    that keeps the tunneling current constant
    - the distance z is recorded by a computer
    as function of the scanned coordinates x,y
    In an STM typically two signals are acquired, namely the z-coordinate (topography)
    and the tunneling current (error signal)

    viii- Thermally Induced Lever Noise


    The lever of a scanning force microscope acts as an isolated one
    dimensional harmonic oscillator whose energy is

    Here each of the two degrees of freedom contributes 1/2 KT to the thermal
    energy of the lever, giving a total thermal energy of KT. The spectral density
    of the thermal noise of this free-running lever is

    where = m0/Q and 02 = k/m. The above equation rewritten as

    The RMS noise of the cantilever, obtained from the thermal noise
    spectral density, is

    where B is the bandwidth of the spectrum analyzer.

    The RMS noise of the cantilever can be obtained by

    ix- Flicker effect


    The surface is in a continual process of change due to such
    causes as evaporation, diffusion, chemical action, structural
    rearrangements and gas bombardment.

    x- Summary
    The main results obtained in this chapter are the contributions of the
    shot noise
    the Johnson noise of the load resistor

    the relative intensity noise of the laser

    the phase noise of the laser

    the thermal noise of the


    lever on resonance

    and the thermal noise of the


    lever off resonance

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