YASHAR KHATIB SHAHIDI

Student No: 0509705

Computer Aided Product Design

Year 2 (2006-2007) Level 2

Computer Aided Design and Development 2

(ET 2003)

Module Tutor: Martin Eason

Component 1, Element 2:
Child roundabout project

1. Preface:
Nowadays in manufacturing and economic environment, companies must
manufacture greater product varieties with satisfactory quality, at lower cost,
all within a reduced product life-cycle.
In order to achieve these goals, a Concurrent Engineering approach to the
design process must be adopted, where concurrent consideration of life-cycle
constraints leads to approach product design 1 .

Central to the Concurrent Engineering philosophy, and in many cases the

main realization of it, is Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA).
To obtain great results from DFMA, companies should be able to analyse the
products with their manufacturing processes and equipment.
Next step is to analyse product designs against various process and
equipment combinations, in order to assess and estimate cost and
manufacturing lead time.
Through designing or mainly redesigning parts, or products the aim is to
reduce the manufacturing costs and increase the productivity, without
lowering the quality.
In order to become more competitive in marketplace the main priority is to
develop integrated and concurrent engineering and manufacturing systems
that address shorter product development cycles, increased product quality
and reduced product cost. Figure 1 shows the concepts of DFMA. And figure
2 shows the reduction of cost by application of DFMA 2 .

1.

O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and Assembly Page 1

2.

O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and Assembly Pages 2,3

Manufacturing Lead Time: the total length of time used to process the raw
material into end item no matter whether it is semi completed product or full
completed product. Elements of lead time consist of: order preparation,
queue, setup, run, inspection, etc.

Reduce Cost

DFMA

Design,
Assembly and
Manufacturing
simplification

Increase Reliability

Increase Quality

Figure 1

COST

DFMA - Product simplification

DFMA - Product optimization
DFMA - Supplier verification

Figure 2 4

3.

Online resource - http://www.magyc.it/dfma.htm

4.

Online resource - http://www.dfma.com/

2. What is DFMA?
DFMA is based on the following steps:

2.1 Design 5
-

Transformation of concepts and ideas into useful machinery

Considering product platform and architecture and assessing new
technologies
Investigate feasibility of product concepts

Develop industrial design concepts

Build and test experimental prototypes
Generate alternative product architecture
Define part geometry
Choose materials
Reliability testing
Life testing
Evaluate early production output

2.2 Manufacture 6
-

Act of creating designed parts

- Feasible within constraints of tools/skills
- Stable solutions Tolerances
Cost
Durability
Clarity of design drawings

Set supply chain strategy

Estimate manufacturing cost
Perform make-buy analysis
Define final assembly scheme
Define piece-part production processes
Design tooling
Define quality assurance processes
Refine fabrication and assembly processes
Train work force

Begin operation of entire production system

5.

Online resource - http://www.cems.uvm.edu/~iatridis/me183/ME183_DMFA.ppt

6.

Online resource - http://www.cems.uvm.edu/~iatridis/me183/ME183_DMFA.ppt

2.3 Assembly 7
-

Act of taking individually created parts and putting them together into a
working machine
Easy access to replaceable parts
Making small adjustments can improve quality and reliability of parts

3. Tools of DFMA
3.1 Concurrent Engineering (Product lifecycle management) 8
is the process of managing the entire lifecycle of a product from its
conception, through design and manufacture, to service and disposal.

3.1.1 Phases of Phases of product lifecycle 9

Phase 1: Conceive
The first stage in the development of a product idea is the definition of its
requirements based on customer, company, market and regulatory bodies
viewpoints. From this a specification of the products major technical
parameters can be defined.
Phase 2: Design
This is where the detailed design and development of the products form
starts, progressing to prototype testing, through pilot release to full product
launch.

7.

Online resource www.cems.uvm.edu

8.

Online resource http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/product_lifecycle_management

9.

Online resource - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/product_lifecycle_management

Phase 3: Realize
Once the design of the products components is complete the method of
manufacturing is defined. This includes CAD tasks such as tool design;
creation of CNC Machining instructions for the products parts as well as tools
to manufacture those parts, using integrated or separate CAM Computeraided manufacturing software.
Phase 4: Service

This phase contains Use, Operate, Maintain, Support, Sustain, Phase-out,

Retire, Recycle and Disposal of product.

All phases: Product lifecycle

Communicate, Manage and Collaborate.Figure 3.1 shows cost before

manufacturing stage and during manufacturing stage through the time.

DFMA in Product Life-Cycle

Manufacturing

COST

TIME
Marketing Conceptual
Info

Detail

Prototype

PreProduction
Production

Product Ends

Figure 3.1 10
10. O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and Assembly Page 41

3.2 Reducing the number of parts:

If the number of parts are supposed to be reduced, this would reduce the
number of joining operations required and hence reduce the assembly cycle
time.
The main method of reducing the number of parts is by combining two
existing parts. This might increase the complexity of the new part and the
cycle time may, instead of being reduced, be increased. thereforeThis should
be applied throughout the product life-cycle particularly during the conceptual
and detail stages 11 .

3.3 Design efficiency 12

Efficiency lets designer know when he can stop looking for a better design.
Efficiency can tell the designer when he will need a new inspiration.
=

Theoretical min number of parts Min assemblytime for each part

Estimated actual assemblytime

3.4 Selection of manufacturing processes

-

Casting

Molding

Machining

Sheetmetal stamp/bend

11. O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and Assembly Page 39
12. Online resource - http://ifacethoughts.net/2006/07/24/design-efficiency/
http://www.cems.uvm.edu/~iatridis/me183/ME183_DMFA.ppt

3.5 Selection of material

-

Functionality

Compatibility between processes and materials

3.6 Guidelines for part handling

-

Symmetry

Non-tangling parts

Prevent nesting

Design parts with orientating geometries

3.7 Guidelines for insertion and fastening 13

-

Easy insertion of parts (adding chamfers, fillets, clearances)

Standardization of parts

Benefits: min changes to the assembly process set-up

Reduced inventory problems
Reduced planning and scheduling
-

Provide alignment features

Pyramid assembly assemble about one axis. At least reduce

reorientation as much as possible

Make fasteners easy to reach (as few as possible)

Fasteners in order of cost (least to most expensive)

1) Snap
2) Plastic bending
3) Riveting
4) Screws

13. Online resource - http://www.cems.uvm.edu/~iatridis/me183/ME183_DMFA.ppt

3.8

DFMA Software 14

It is a combination of two complementary tools:

Design For Assembly (DFA)

Design For Manufacture (DFM)

DFA software is used to reduce the complexity of a product by consolidating

parts into elegant and multifunctional designs.
DFM software then allows the design engineer to quickly judge the cost of
producing the new design and to compare it with the cost of producing the
original design.
Picture 3.8.1 shows a demo picture of DFA software and picture 3.8.2 and
3.8.3 shows demo picture of DFM software.

3.8.1 Demo picture of DFA software 15

14. Online resource - http://www.dfma.com/

15. Online resource Image taken from - http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html

3.8.2 Demo picture of DFM software 16

3.8.3 Demo picture of DFM software 17

http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html

16. Online resource Image taken from - http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html

17. Online resource Image taken from - http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html

3.9 Just In Time (JIT) manufacturing:

It is collection of concepts, designs, and techniques for improving productivity
and it means manufacturing the neccassary items in neccassary quantities at
the neccassary times.
It aims following goals 18 :
1. Increasing Value-added
2. Eliminating waste
3. Simplifying the manufacturing and assembly process
4. Driving all inventory buffers toward zero
5. Achieving the ideal lot size of one unit

Key elements of JIT:

1. Reduce or eliminate set-up times:
It aim for single digit setup times (less than 10 minutes) or "one-touch" setup
-- this can be done through better planning, process redesign, and product
redesign. A good example of the potential for improved setup times can be
found in auto racing, where a NASCAR pit crew can change all four tires and
put gas in the tank in under 20 seconds 19 .

2. Reduce lot sizes:

Reducing setup times allows economical production of smaller lots; close
cooperation with suppliers is necessary to achieve reductions in order lot
sizes for purchased items, since this will require more frequent deliveries.

18. Online resource - http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/im_jit_main.html

19. Online resource - http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/im_jit_main.html

10

3. Reduce Lead times 20 :

Production lead times can be reduced by moving work stations closer
together, applying group technology and cellular manufacturing concepts,
reducing queue length (reducing the number of jobs waiting to be processed
at a given machine).
Figure 3.9.1 indicates the Manufacturing Time and Inventory value before
Just-In-Time. Figure 3.9.2 indicates the Manufacturing Time and Inventory
value after Just-In-Time. Manufacturing time for producing, for instance 25
units reduced from 15 days to 11.3 hours and Inventory value also reduced
from $670,000 to $20,000.

Just-In-Time (JIT) Manufacturing

15
16
14
12
Time (Days) - 10
Value
8
(100,000 $)
6
4
2
0

6.7

Manufacturing Time
(Days)

Inventory Value
(100,000 $)

Figure 3.9.1 before JIT 21

20. Online resource - http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/im_jit_main.html

21. Online resource - http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/im_jit_main.html

11

Just-In-Time (JIT) Manufacturing

16
14
12
Time (Days) - 10
Value (100,000 8
$)
6
4
0.47

0.2

0
Manufacturing Time
(Days)

Inventory Value
(100,000 $)

Figure 3.9.2 after JIT

Benefits:

Decrease manufacturing and operating cost

Greater performance

Higher quality

Increased flexibility and innovations

Improved delivery

4. Quality 22
It is based on Taguchi philosophy (It is being increasingly recognised that
the high quality of a product or service and the associated customer
satisfaction are the key for enterprise survival. Also recognised is the fact that
pre-production experiments, assuming properly designed and analysed, can
contribute significantly towards quality improvements of a product).

85% of poor quality is attributable to manufacturing, 15% to the

worker

22. Online resource - http://kernow.curtin.edu.au/www/Taguchi/SECT2.HTM

12

It is based on customer satisfaction

It should be designed into the product, not inspected into it

In terms of productivity it is best achieved by minimising the

deviation from target which is mostly cost factor

Total loss function Quality is the total loss imparted to society

from the time a product is shipped to the customer

5. Mistake-Proofing 23 :
A product's design and its manufacturing process is a key element of Design
For Manufacturability and Assembly (DFMA). Mistake proofing is also a key
element of improving product quality and reliability. A difficult to assemble
product is more likely to be assembled incorrectly.

The Japanese concept of Poka-Yoke (mistake-proofing) is oriented to

finding and correcting problems as close to the source as possible because
finding and correcting defects caused by errors costs more and more as a
product or item flows through a process.

Early work on poke-yoke by Japanese authorities like Shingo focused on

mistake-proofing the process after a product has been designed and is in
production. As time has passed, more emphasis has been placed on how the
design of the product to avoid mistakes in production. Often the benefits of
mistake-proofing not only help with production of the product, but can also
contribute to correct user operation and maintenance of the product, and
servicing of the product.
23. Online resource - http://www.npd-solutions.com/mistake.html

13

The concept of Mistake-Proofing involves:

Controls or features in the product or process to prevent or mitigate the

occurrence of errors and/or;

Requires simple, inexpensive inspection (error detection) at the end of

each successive operation to discover and correct defects at the
source

6. Childs roundabout vehicle element:

The AJS Motorcycle has been chosen as vehicle element and researches
have been carried out on the item. And finally The AJS Motorcycle is
transformed into a see-saw.

5.1. History of AJS Motorcycle 24 :

AJS was the name used for cars and motorcycles made by the
Wolverhampton, England company A. J. Stevens & Co. Ltd, from 1909 to
1931.

Joe Stevens, father of Harry, George, Jack, and Joe Stevens, first built an
internal combustion engine in 1897, although his engines did not enter
production until after 1900. His first engines, of 125 cc, were sold as
proprietary engines to other manufacturers. In 1905 the Stevens built a JAP
V-twin engined motorcycle, with leading-link front forks and a swinging fork at

the rear. This was done at the father's Stevens Screw Company, where the
family were all employed.
24. Online resource - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AJS

14

A new company, A J Stevens & Co (AJS), was founded in 1909 to

manufacture motorcycles and the first model appeared in 1911, a two-speed
292 cc side-valve. One was entered by AJS in the 1911 Isle of Man TT races
and A J Stevens came 15th in the Junior TT.

Albert John Stevens had his name on the company, but it was really a family
company, with, in 1926 for example, Harry Stevens as Engineer, George
Stevens as Chief Salesman, Joe Stevens junior as Production Engineer and
Albert John ("Jack") Stevens in charge of the design office. Figure 5.1 shows
a AJS Motorbike.

Figure 5.1 AJS Motorcycle 25

25. Online resource Image taken from - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AJS

15

6. Sheet Metal Guide Lines 26 :

6.1 Bends

Bends should be toleranced plus or minus one-half degree at a location

adjacent to the bends.

For the ease of manufacturing, multiple bends on the same plane

should occur in the same direction.

Avoid large sheet metal parts with small bent flanges.

In low carbon steel sheet metal, the minimum radius of a bend should
be one-half the material thickness or 0.80 mm (0.03 inch), whichever is
larger.

6.2 Welding

Spot welding should be restricted to joining coplanar surfaces.

The minimum distance between welds is 10 times the material

thickness. Using 20 times the material thickness is ideal.

The minimum distance between a weld and the edge is two times the
diameter of the spot weld.

The minimum distance from a weld to a form is the spot diameter plus
the bend radius.

Use PEMs instead of threaded inserts.

6.3 Holes

The minimum diameter of a hole should be equal to the materials

thickness or 1.00 mm (0.04 inch), whichever is greater.

The minimum distance between holes is directly proportional to the

size and shape for the hole feature and the material thickness

16

The minimum distance the edge of a hole should be from a form is

three times the material thickness plus the form radius.

The minimum distance the edge of a hole should be from a bend is two
times the material thickness plus the bend radius.

The minimum distance between a hole and the edge of the material is
directly proportional to the size and shape of the hole and the material
thickness.

The minimum distance between the leading edge of a hole through a

bend should be equal to the thickness of material plus the bend radius
or two times the material thickness, whichever is greater.

26. Online resource - http://www.npd-solutions.com/sheetmetal.html

17

7. Methodology for integrating DFMA into the design:

A methodology and tool set used to determine how to simplify a current or
future product design and/or manufacturing process to achieve cost savings.
DFMA allows for improved supply chain cost management, product quality
and manufacturing, and communication between Design, Manufacturing,
Purchasing and Management.
In this project the AJS Motorcycle is transformed into see-saw (following
picture):

AJS Motorcycle

See-Saw (transformed)
The main parts of this ride are made of sheet metal and round solid and
tube metal bar. The cylinder solid and tube metal bars have already
manufactured through extrusion method.
The metal bars are assembled through bolts and nuts. And sheet metals are
assembled through welding.
18

7.1. Implementing Design for Manufacture and assembly in

the design of see-saw and DFM points in the design:
1. Number of components have been minimized:
Examples:
The wheel is considered as one component. Two plates of sheet metal are
welded to the outer section of the tire.
Seats are made of two parts which are assembled together through pin and
snap-fits.

Wheel

Seat

2. Major components and totally the final product is approximately

symmetrical
Example: as shown in following picture:

Front view of See-saw

19

3. Standardize and use common parts and materials

In the design it is tried to use common parts and material which is cylinder
solid and tube bars and sheet metal.
Examples:
The size and shape of the fuel tank is the same as seat so that it is
transformed into second seat in the see-saw.
Solid bars are common in parts such as Base Base-leg Lever

Base

Base-leg

Lever

20

4. Design for ease of fabrication:

Sharp corners and or points are avoided to avoid break

Design work pieces to use standard cutters, drill bit sizes or other
tools

Example: the diameter of the holes is the same in all the parts.

Diameter of holes in Base and Lever parts

tapers & contours are avoided as much as possible in favor of

rectangular shapes

Example: the shape of the different sections of the see-saw is similar to

rectangular shape (as shown in pictures):

21

unnecessarily tight tolerances are avoided, this will require that parts
be inspected or screened for acceptability

Example: tight tolerance are avoided for joining sections and considered as
one decimal point which is 15 0.2 .The tolerance is considered in joining
lever into Base-leg (as shown in following picture)

22

Flexible parts and interconnections are minimized

Flexible and flimsy parts such as belts, gaskets, tubing, cables and wire
harnesses.

Design for ease of assembly

The product's design should enable assembly to begin with a base

component with a large relative mass and a low center of gravity upon which
other parts are added. Assembly should proceed vertically with other parts
added on top and positioned with the aid of gravity.
Example: the assembly of the see-saw is started from base and preceded
vertically with other parts on top of it. The steps of process are shown as
following pictures:

1. Base

2. Right seat
23

3. Left seat

4. Final product

24

8. Method of manufacturing and assembly process of

major parts:
8.1. Manufacturing of Base component:
Parts (numbered 1) are welded to two parallel steel bars of diameter of 15mm
(numbered 2) which forms a rectangle. Then four vertical steel bars are
welded to the base to secure the see-saw into the ground (numbered 3)

Welded Joints

Welded Joints

Top view of Base component

25

The joint sections are made by cutting ends of the bars and one hole is made
at each end these joints are to connect (through Bolt and nut) base
component to Base-leg (as shown in following picture):

Hole
Joint section

8.2 Connecting base-legs to the base:

4 Base-legs are connected to the base part through 8 Bolts and nuts (as
shown in following figures).

Base-leg
Base

Base-legs are assembled to the base

26

Bolt and nut (8)

8.3 connecting upper frame to the Base-legs:

The upper frame component is connected to the Base-legs through 8 Bolts
and nuts (as shown in following figures).

Upper frame component

27

Bolts and Nuts (8)

Upper frame component is assembled to the base-legs

8.4 Connecting 4 Levers to the upper-frame:
4 Levers parts are connected to the upper-frame through 8bolts and nuts (as
shown in following figures).

Lever

Bolts and nuts (8)

28

Levers are connected to upper frame

8.5 Connecting wheels to the levers:

8.5.1 Manufacturing of wheel:
The wheel is made of two parallel plates and the tire which is a formed metal
sheet welded around the two plates. The two plates are first made through
blanking operation in circle shape and then the patterns are made through
piercing operation. Tire is made of two identical and symmetrical parts which
are formed and shaped through bending and press operation and then are
welded together (as shown in following figure).

Half of the tire

Whole tire

29

Plate

Two parallel plates

Complete Wheel

30

Two wheels are connected to the levers as shown in the following figure.

8.6 Assembling seats and securing them to the wheels:

8.6.1 Manufacturing of seat:
Seat is consists of two identical sections. These are made of sheet metals
with wall thickness of 5mm, which are formed through process of Deep
Drawing operation.

Seat part 1

Pin
31

Seat part 2
These two parts are connected together through pins (male and female) and
then secured to the wheels through bolts and nuts (as shown in following
figure).

Bolts and Nuts (8)

The seat is secured to wheel

32

This operation is the same as for the other seat (following figure).

8.7 Connecting handles:

8.7.1 Connecting left handle:
The left handle is the handle of motorbike. Its made of steel tube bars with
wall thickness of 2mm and all the parts are joined through welding (as shown
in following figures).
The whole handle is connected to upper frame through 8 bolts and nuts.

Welded

Left handle

33

8 Bolts and Nuts

8.7.2 Assembling and connecting right handle:

The right handle is made of 4 pieces. Two handle bases which are made of
steel tube bar with wall thickness of 2mm are bolted to the upper frame and
are tilted over the upper frame and hidden under the motor bikes seat (it is
shown in following figure):

Two handle bases

34

Then two handles are joined together through 8 bolts and nuts and forms the
complete handle (as shown in following figure):
8 Bolt and Nut

Complete handle
8.8 Connecting two connectors to the Seats:
The two parts are connected to the seats through 8 Bolts and Nuts. The
connectors are made from steel belts. (As shown in following figure):

Connector

35

8.9 Connecting two bumpers to the connectors:

The bumpers are made of sheet metal which is formed through forming sheet
metal equipment.

Bumper
Then the bumpers are connected to the connector parts through Bolts and
Nuts (as shown in following figure):

Bumper

36

8.10

Assembling engine to the see-saw:

The whole engine is made of thin sheet metal such as galvanized thin sheet
metal which is formed through cutting operation and press brake operation
consequently the engine is connected to the main body through 8 Bolts and
Nuts.

Engine
An electronic device is built inside the engine which produces a preclusive
pretuned sound.
The complete product is shown as following picture:

Final product
37

9. DFM guidelines and points for sheet metal 27 :

Bends

Bends should be toleranced plus or minus one-half degree at a location

adjacent to the bends.
For the ease of manufacturing, multiple bends on the same plane
should occur in the same direction.
Avoid large sheet metal parts with small bent flanges.
In low carbon steel sheet metal, the minimum radius of a bend should
be one-half the material thickness or 0.80 mm (0.03 inch), whichever is
larger.

Counterbores

The minimum distance between two counterbores is eight times the

material thickness.
The minimum distance from a counterbore to an edge is four times the
material thickness.
The minimum distance from a counterbore to a bend is four times the
material thickness plus the bend radius.

Countersinks

The maximum depth is 3.5 times the material thickness at an angle of

the hardware.
A minimum of 50% contact between the hardware and the countersink
is required.
The minimum distance between two countersinks is eight times the
material thickness.
The minimum distance from one countersink and an edge is four times
the material thickness.
The minimum distance from a countersink and a bend is four times the
material thickness plus the bend radius.

Curls

The minimum radius is two times the material thickness with an

opening to a minimum of one material thickness.
The minimum distance between a curl and the edge of a hole is the
radius of the curl plus the material thickness.
The minimum distance a curl should be from an internal bend is six
times the material thickness plus the radius of the curl.
The minimum distance a curl should be from an external bend is nine
times the material thickness plus the radius of the curl.

26. Online resource - http://www.npd-solutions.com/sheetmetal.html

38

Dimples

The maximum diameter should be six times the material thickness, and
a maximum depth of one-half the inside diameter.
The minimum distance that a dimple should be from a hole is three
times the material thickness plus the radius of the dimple.
The minimum distance that a dimple should be from the edge is four
times the material thickness plus the inside radius of the dimple.
The minimum distance that a dimple should be from a bend is two
times the material thickness plus the inside radius of the dimple plus
the radius of the bend.
The minimum distance between one dimple and another is four times
the material thickness plus the inside radius of each dimple.

Embossments

The maximum depth is proportional to the internal radius or material

thickness.
The maximum depth for a flat embossment is equal to the internal
radius plus the external radius.
The maximum depth for a V embossment is equal to three times the
material thickness.

Extruded Holes

The minimum distance between two extruded holes is six times the
material thickness.
The minimum distance from an extruded hole to an edge is three times
the material thickness.
The minimum distance from an extruded hole to a bend is three times
the material thickness plus the bend radius.

Flanges

The minimum height of a bent flange is directly related to the material

thickness, bend radius, and length of bend.
The minimum width of a bend relief is one material thickness or 1.50
mm (0.06 inch), whichever is greater.

Gussets

The width and depth, recommended at an angle of 45 degrees, is

directly proportional to the radius and material thickness.
The minimum distance that a gusset should be from the edge of a hole
in a parallel plane is eight times the material thickness plus the radius
of the gusset.

39

Hems

The minimum diameter of a teardrop hem is equal to the material

thickness, with a return flange height equal to or greater than four times
the material thickness, and a minimum opening of 1/4 of the material
thickness.
The minimum diameter of an open hem is equal to the material
thickness with a return flange height equal to or greater than four times
the material thickness.
The minimum return flange height of a closed hem is equal to or
greater than four times the material thickness (the diameter is zero).
NOTE: Closed hems tend to fracture at the bend and cause
entrapment of solutions during the finishing process.
The minimum distance from a hole to a hem is two times the material
thickness plus the radius of the hem.
The minimum distance a hem should be from an internal bend is five
times the material thickness.
The minimum distance a hem should be from an external bend is eight
times the material thickness.

Holes

The minimum diameter of a hole should be equal to the materials

thickness or 1.00 mm (0.04 inch), whichever is greater.
The minimum distance between holes is directly proportional to the
size and shape for the hole feature and the material thickness
The minimum distance the edge of a hole should be from a form is
three times the material thickness plus the form radius.
The minimum distance the edge of a hole should be from a bend is two
times the material thickness plus the bend radius.
The minimum distance between a hole and the edge of the material is
directly proportional to the size and shape of the hole and the material
thickness.
The minimum distance between the leading edge of a hole through a
bend should be equal to the thickness of material plus the bend radius
or two times the material thickness, whichever is greater.

Lances

The minimum width of an open lance is two times the material

thickness or 3.00 mm (0.125 inch), whichever is greater, with a
maximum length of five times the width.
The minimum width of a closed lance is two times the material
thickness or 1.60 mm (0.06 inch), whichever is greater, and a
maximum height of five times the material thickness at a 45-degree
angle.
The minimum distance from a lance to a bend in a parallel plane is
eight times the material thickness plus the radius of the bend.
The minimum distance from a lance to a bend in a perpendicular plane
is ten times the material thickness plus the radius of the bend.

40

The minimum distance from a lance to a hole is three times the

material thickness.

Notches

The minimum width is equal to the material thickness or 1.00 mm (0.04

inch), whichever is greater.
The maximum length for a straight/radius end notch is equal to five
times the width.
The maximum length for a V notch is equal to two times the width.
The minimum distance between a hole and the edge of a notch is
directly proportional to the size/shape of the hole and the material
thickness.
The minimum distance from a notch to a bend in a parallel plane is
eight times the material thickness plus the radius of the bend.
The minimum distance from a notch to a bend in a perpendicular plane
is three times the material thickness plus the radius of the bend.
The minimum distance beyond the bend on the side edge is equal to
the thickness of the material plus the bend radius, or two times the
material thickness, whichever is greater.
The minimum distance between two notches is two times the material
thickness or 3.200 mm (0.125 inch), whichever is greater.

Ribs

The maximum inside radius is equal to three times the material

thickness, with a maximum depth of the inside radius.
The minimum distance from a center line of a rib to the edge of a hole
is three times the material thickness plus the radius of the rib.
The minimum distance a rib should be from an edge in a perpendicular
plane is four times the material thickness plus the radius of the rib.
The minimum distance a rib should be from an edge in a parallel plane
is eight times the material thickness plus the radius of the rib.
The minimum distance a rib should be from a bend perpendicular to
the rib is two times the material thickness, plus the radius of the rib,
plus the radius of the bend.
The minimum distance between two parallel ribs is ten times the
material thickness plus the radii of the ribs.

Semi-Pierced Hole

The minimum distance from a semi-pierced hole and a form is three

times the material thickness plus the form radius.
The minimum distance from a semi-pierced hole and a bend is two
times the material thickness plus the bend radius.
The minimum distance between semi-pierced holes is eight times the
material thickness.

41

Slots

The minimum width of a slot is equal to the material thickness or 1.00

mm (0.04 inch), whichever is greater.
The minimum distance from the inside surface of a bend to the edge of
a slot is directly proportional to the length of the slot, material
thickness, and radius of the bend.
When using slots and tabs the maximum width of the slot must be
greater than the thickness of the tab and the tab length should equal
the material thickness.

Tabs

The minimum width is equal to two times the material thickness or

3.200 mm, whichever is greater, while the maximum length is five times
the width.
The minimum distance between tabs is equal to the material thickness
or 1.00 mm (0.04 inch), whichever is greater.

Welding

Spot welding should be restricted to joining coplanar surfaces.

The minimum distance between welds is 10 times the material
thickness. Using 20 times the material thickness is ideal.
The minimum distance between a weld and the edge is two times the
diameter of the spot weld.
The minimum distance from a weld to a form is the spot diameter plus
the bend radius.
Use PEMs instead of threaded inserts.

Plating

Outside sharp corners receive twice as much plating as flat surfaces.

Allow for pitch diameters for screw threads, which can increase four
times the plating thickness.
Tapped holes may need to be re-tapped after plating to ensure
accuracy.
Projections accumulate more plating than other areas.
Recessed areas may be difficult to plate, resulting in little or no
coverage.
Lap-welded joints trap plating solutions. One solution is to raise welds
on embossed areas by 0.015 in. (0.3 mm) to allow for flushing and
blow drying between the surfaces.
Masking of stampings and fabrications to anodize certain areas is not
recommended.
Design drain holes/vent holes for plating solutions and rinsing.
Design tabs/holes for attachment to part racks.

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Metal forming processes:

Shearing: Shearing is the process that uses a punch and a die to separate
metal. Shearing is cutting without the formation of chips or the use of burning
or melting. Two types of shearing operations are:

Blanking operation

Blanking operation (http://machinetools.netfirms.com/12_Shearing%20Operations.htm)

Piercing operation

Piercing operation (http://machinetools.netfirms.com/12_Shearing%20Operations.htm)

Example: this operation used in manufacturing of two plates of wheel.
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Bending process:

If the space between the punch and the die is equal to the thickness of the
material, and the corners of the punch and the die are rounded, this material
is bent.

Online reference:
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/machineguarding/animations/die2.html

Example: this operation used in manufacturing of tyre, engine, bumper

Deep Drawing:
The operations in this process produce thin walled, hollow vessel shaped
parts from sheet metal.

Sheet metal is stretched in at least one direction but is often compressed in

other directions to give desired shape.

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Deep drawing operation (http://www.metalforminginc.com/Publications/Papers/ref133/images/Image56.jpg)

Example: this operation used in manufacturing of Seat part 1 and seat part 2

10. Improvement and development of the design

highlighting good DFMA points in the design:
After construction of the first model by considering the DFMA methods and
points such as Mistake-proofing, concurrent engineering and etc the design of
the product has been improved and developed.
Numbers of points are considered:

Reducing manufacturing time by application of spot welding on sheet

metal assembling (cost reduction)

Threaded fasteners (screws, bolts, nuts and washers) are time-

45

consuming to assemble and difficult to automate. Where they must be

used, standardize to minimize variety and use fasteners such as self
threading screws and captured washers. Consider the use of
integral attachment methods (snap-fit). Therefore the time of assembly
can be reduced by replacing self threading screws with bolt and nuts
fastening. Example: joining the lever component into base-leg

11. Alternative materials used for the see-saw

construction:
There are also different materials which can be replaced with the materials
used for the construction of see-saw, Such as ABS plastic, Polystyrene,
P.V.C or adding Glass fibers to improve the strength of the material.
The main chassis (structure) such as Base, Base-leg, Upper frame and levers
is made of steel and material used should not be changed because of
strength and most importantly safety. The materials can be replaced with
plastic materials in parts such as seats, handles, engine, bumpers which are
not playing major role in safety.

46

A widely used process for Thermoplastics, and to some extent for

thermosetting materials, is injection moulding.
In terms of mass production this method of manufacturing is mostly used to
produce high volume of parts such as seats, handles, engine parts, bumpers.
In fact, in order to reduce the weight the replacement of material is one of the
effective choices. By replacing the steel materials with plastic materials as
much as possible the weight of the whole product decreases.

12. Problems of tolerancing for one off production

compared to machine manufactured parts for multiple
production:
The production process capabilities of equipment and establish controlled
processes. Unnecessarily tight tolerances could be avoided that are beyond
the natural capability of the manufacturing processes. Otherwise, this will
require that parts be inspected or screened for acceptability. Also, tight
tolerances on multiple, connected parts should be avoided. Tolerances on
connected parts will "stack-up" making maintenance of overall product
tolerance difficult and increase the cost.

One of the critical problems of tolerancing in one off production compared to

machine manufactured parts for multiple productions is accuracy and
precision.

Problem for one off production is that the tolerancing is not as accurate and
precision as machine manufactured and each time to manufacture the part
tolerancing and the manufactured part must be inspected and measured but
in machine manufactured parts once the equipments and tools are set the
47

tolerancing will be carried out for a range of multiple production which reduce
the time and consequently the cost.

On the other hand, automated manufacturing will raise the cost of

manufacturing. Because the purchasing cost of machine and equipments are
high.

The more the tolerance is accurate the time and cost labor in one off
production increases compared to multiple production. Because each part
after manufacturing, needs to be inspected and measured before assembly to
ensure they fit together.

Tolerances and geometric tolerances are considered best treated as objects

associated with geometric elements. Changing tolerances will not require the
model to be reformulated and will only affect those modules that use
tolerances as data 27 (Figure 12.1).

27. O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and Assembly Page 92

48

Dimensions:

The type of machining process used will depend on a number of variables,

such as:

1. Tolerance (see Table 12.2)

2. Material
3. Surface finish required
4. Amount of material to be removed
5. number of holes to be made
49

Process

Tolerance (mm)

Drilling:

Hole diameter
(mm)
6 12

Tol Grade

0.1

IT11 IT12

Reaming:

6 25

0.02

IT7 IT8

Milling: Gang

0.8 0.12

IT8 IT10

Small Slots

0.05 0.08
IT8 IT10

Turning: Capstan

to 18

0.05

Turret Lathes

25 50

0.1

Turning

Over 50

0.12 upwards

Broaching:

Up to 25mm

0.02

IT7 IT8

Honing

Up to 50

0.01 0.016

IT6

Grinding:

Up to 25

0.007 0.012

IT5 IT6

Lapping, machine

0.02 0.01

IT4 IT5

Lapping, standards,

Less than 0.002

IT01 IT3

Reference gauges

Table 12.2 28 Tolerances Associated With Manufacturing Process

28. O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and Assembly Page 5

50

Bibliography & Reference

Books:

O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and

Assembly Page 1

O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and

Assembly Page 2,3

O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and

Assembly Page 92

O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and

Assembly Page 39

O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and

Assembly Page 41

O. Molloy, S. Tilley and E. A. Warman Design for Manufacturing and

Assembly Page 54

Websites:

http://www.magyc.it/dfma.htm

http://www.dfma.com/

http://www.cems.uvm.edu/~iatridis/me183/ME183_DMFA.ppt

www.cems.uvm.edu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/product_lifecycle_management

http://ifacethoughts.net/2006/07/24/design-efficiency/

http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html

http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/im_jit_main.html

http://kernow.curtin.edu.au/www/Taguchi/SECT2.HTM
51

http://www.npd-solutions.com/mistake.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AJS

Other resources:

First year handouts of Engineering Practice module Tutor: Dr Zakeri

52