MODULE 4

Design for X

When a company is given the task of designing a new product or redesigning an

existingproduct, it is important to keep in mind the three main goals of cost, quality and
speed. Thesegoals can be further split into more quantitative criteria which are relevant
throughout the product’s life cycle. Designing for manufacture and assembly are typical
examples of twocriteria which will have a large impact on the cost, quality and speed at
which the product isdeveloped. The methodology of design that meets an all-encompassing
range of criteria is known as designing for ‘X’.

A successful design must satisfy many requirementsother than functionality, appearance, and
cost.Durability and reliability have been recognized a needed attributes for many years. As
more attentionwas focused on improving the design process, efforthas been given to
improving many other “ilities” such as manufacturability, maintainability, testability, and
serviceability. As more life-cycle issues came understudy, the terminology to describe a
designmethodology became known as Design for X, where Xrepresents a performance
measure of design, as inDesign for Manufacture (DFM), Design for Assembly(DFA), or
Design for the Environment (DFE). The development of the DFX methodologieswas
accelerated by the growing emphasis on concurrent engineering. It also
emphasizesconsideration of all aspects of the product life cycle from the outset of the product
design effort.

The ability to do this has been greatly facilitated by the creation and use of computer software
design tools. These DFX tools are sometimes referred to as concurrent engineering tools.

The steps in implementing a DFX strategy are:

1. Determine the issue (X) targeted for consideration.

2. Determine where to give your focus: the product as a whole, an individual component, a
subassembly, or a process plan. 3. Identify methods for measuring the X characteristics, and
techniques to improve them. These techniques may include mathematical or experimental
methods, computer modelling, or a set of heuristics.

4. The DFX strategy is implemented by insisting the product development team focus on the
X and by using parametric measurements and improvement techniques as early in the design
process as possible.

The reason why DFX is used is simple: it works! It is limited here in space to enumerate all
successful case studies. Benefits can be grouped into three categories. These benefits
aredirectly related to the competitiveness measures, including improved quality, compressed
cycletime, reduced life-cycle costs, increased flexibility, improved productivity, more
satisfied customers, safer workplace and happier workforce, and lower adverse environment
impact. Ifanyone wants to benefit from a DFX project, then involvement and participation are
necessaryin exchange. DFX is primarily about improving a subject product. Therefore, design
engineersare almost always involved.

Design for Manufacturability (DFM)

Design for manufacturability (DFM) is the general engineering art of designing products in
such a way that they are easy to manufacture. Design for Manufacturing (DFM) and design
forassembly (DFA) are the integration of product design and process planning into one
commonactivity. The goal is to design a product that is easily and economically
manufactured. Theimportance of designing for manufacturing is underlined by the fact that
about 70% ofmanufacturing costs of a product (cost of materials, processing, and assembly)
are determinedby design decisions, with production decisions (such as process planning or
machine toolselection) responsible for only 20%. The heart of any design for manufacturing
system is agroup of design principles or guidelines that are structured to help the designer
reduce the costand difficulty of manufacturing an item. The following is a listing of these
rules. Designs that are constructed to be easy to manufacture during the conceptual stage of a
productdevelopment are much more likely to avoid redesign later when the system is being
certifiedfor production readiness. The best way to ensure a concept can be manufactured is to
haveactive involvement from the production and supply chain organizations during concept
generation and selection.DFM and DFA are systematic approaches that the DFSS team can
use to carefully analyze each design parameter that can be defined as part or subassembly for
manual or automatedmanufacture and assembly to gradually reduce waste. Waste, or “muda”,
the Japanese term, may mean any of several things. It may mean products or features that
have no function (donot add value) and those that should have been trimmed (reduced,
streamlined). It may also mean proliferation of parts that can be eliminated.

1. Reduce the total number of parts

The reduction of the number of parts in a product is probably the best opportunity
forreducing manufacturing costs. Less parts implies less purchases, inventory,
handling,processing time, development time, equipment, engineering time, assembly
difficulty,service inspection, testing, etc. In general, it reduces the level of intensity of
allactivities related to the product during its entire life. A part that does not need to
haverelative motion with respect to other parts, does not have to be made of a
differentmaterial, or that would make the assembly or service of other parts extremely
difficultor impossible, is an excellent target for elimination. Some approaches to part-
countreduction are based on the use of one-piece structures and selection of
manufacturingprocesses such as injection moulding, extrusion, precision castings, and
powder metallurgy, among others.

2. Develop a modular design

The use of modules in product design simplifies manufacturing activities such asinspection,
testing, assembly, purchasing, redesign, maintenance, service,and so on. One reason is that
modules add versatility to product update inthe redesign process, help run tests before the
final assembly is puttogether, and allow the use of standard components to minimize product
variations. However, the connection can be a limiting factor when applyingthis rule.

3. Use of standard components

Standard components are less expensive than custom-made items. The high availabilityof
these components reduces product lead times. Also, their reliability factors are well certained.
Furthermore, the use of standard components refers to the productionpressure to the supplier,
relieving in part the manufacture’s concern of meetingproduction schedules.

4. Design parts to be multi-functional

Multi-functional parts reduce the total number of parts in a design, thus, obtaining the
benefits given in rule 1. Some examples are a part to act as both an electric conductor and as
a structural member, or as a heat dissipating element and as a structural member. Also, there
can be elements that besides their principal function have guiding, aligning, or self-fixturing
features to facilitate assembly, and/or reflective surfaces to facilitate inspection, etc.

5. Design parts for multi-use

In a manufacturing firm, different products can share parts that have been designed formulti-
use. These parts can have the same or different functions when used in differentproducts. In
order to do this, it is necessary to identify the parts that are suitable formulti-use. For
example, all the parts used in the firm(purchased or made) can be sorted into two groups: the
firstcontaining all the parts that are used commonly in allproducts. Then, part families are
created by definingcategories of similar parts in each group. The goal is tominimize the
number of categories, the variations withinthe categories, and the number of design features
withineach variation. The result is a set of standard part familiesfrom which multi-use parts
are created. After organizing all the parts into part families, the manufacturing processes are
standardized for each part family. The production of a specific part belonging to a given part
family would follow the manufacturing routing that has been setup for its family, skipping
the operations that are not required for it. Furthermore, in design changes to existing products
and especially in new product designs, the standard multi-use components should be used.

6. Design for ease of fabrication

Select the optimum combination between the material and fabrication process to minimize
the overall manufacturing cost. In general, final operations such as painting, polishing, finish
machining, etc. should be avoided. Excessive tolerance, surface-finish requirement, and so on
are commonly found problems that result in higher than necessary production cost.

Design for Assembly (DFA)

Design for assembly (DFA) is a process by which products are designed with ease of
assemblyin mind. If a product contains fewer parts it will take less time to assemble, thereby
reducingassembly costs. In addition, if the parts are provided with features which make it
easier to grasp,move, orient and insert them, this will also reduce assembly time and
assembly costs. Thereduction of the number of parts in an assembly has the added benefit of
generally reducing thetotal cost of parts in the assembly. This is usually where the major cost
benefits of theapplication of design for assembly occur. The Guide line for DFA practice are

1. Avoid separate fasteners

The use of fasteners increases the cost ofmanufacturing a part due to the handlingand feeding
operations that have to beperformed. Besides the high cost of theequipment required for
them, theseoperations are not 100% successful, so theycontribute to reducing the
overallmanufacturing efficiency. In general,fasteners should be avoided and replaced, for
example, by using tabs or snap fits. If fasteners have to be used, then some guides should be
followed for selecting them. Minimize the number, size, and variation used; also, utilize
standard components whenever possible. Avoid screws that are too long, or too short,
separate washers, tapped holes, and round heads and flatheads (not good for vacuum pickup).
Self-tapping and chamfered screws are preferred because they improve placement success.
Screws with vertical side heads should be selected vacuum pickup.

Minimize assembly directions or unidirectional assembly

Unidirectional assembly design reduce the time for assembly and hence speed up the
production. A designer can support assembly unit byarranging components in such a way that
it can beassembled form any one of the direction or avoid part insertion from different
directions.All parts should be assembled from one direction. If possible, the best way to add
parts is from above, in avertical direction, parallel to the gravitational direction(downward).
In this way, the effects of gravity help theassembly process, contrary to having to compensate
forits effect when other directions are chosen.

Unidirectional assembly become more crucial whenmanufacturing done by automated robotic

arm, byreducing the assembly direction we can reduce theunnecessary movements of robotic
arms. It will reducethe assembly time as well as programming time.

2. Maximize compliance

Errors can occur during insertion operations due to variations in part dimensions or on the
accuracy of the positioning device used. This faulty behaviour can cause damage to the part
and/or to the equipment. For this reason, it is necessary to include compliance in the part
design and in the assembly process. Examples of part built-in compliance features include
tapers or chamfers and moderate radius sizes to facilitate insertion, and non-functional
external elements to help detect hidden features. For the assembly process, selection of a
rigid-base part, tactile sensing capabilities, and vision systems are example of compliance. A
simple solution is to use high-quality parts with designed-in-compliance, a rigid-base part,
and selective compliance in the assembly tool.

3. Minimize handling

Handling consists of positioning, orienting, and fixing a part or component. To facilitate

orientation, symmetrical parts should be used wheneverpossible. If it is not possible, then the
asymmetry must beexaggerated to avoid failures. Use external guiding featuresto help the
orientation of a part. The subsequent operationsshould be designed so that the orientation of
the part ismaintained. Also, magazines, tube feeders, part strips, andso on, should be used to
keep this orientation betweenoperations. Avoid using flexible parts - use slave circuitboards
instead. If cables have to be used, then include adummy connector to plug the cable (robotic
assembly) sothat it can be located easily. When designing the product, try to minimize the
flow of material waste, parts, and so on, in the manufacturing operation; also, take packaging
into account, select appropriate and safe packaging for the product.

4. Minimize the part count

Design for the minimum number of without sacrificing quality.

Fewer parts means

 a faster and more accurate assembly process

 it results in:

 Reduced inventory and number of vendors

 Reduced assembly time and savings in material costs

 Simplified assembly processes

 It can be accomplished by:

 Minimizing numbers and types of fasteners, cables, etc.

 Encouraging modular, interchangeable assemblies

 Building in self-fastening features

 Minimizing the number of levels of assembly

Poka-Yoke Error proofing assembly method:

The DFMA approach usually benefits frompoka-yoke (error-proofing) techniques, which

may be applied when components are takingform and manufacturing and assembly issues are
considered simultaneously. Poka-yoke is atechnique for avoiding human error at work. The
Japanese manufacturingengineer Shigeo Shingo developed the technique to achieve zero
defectsand came up with this term, which means “errorproofing.” A defect existsin either of
two states: (1) it already has occurred, calling for defect detection, or (2) is aboutto occur,
calling for defect prediction. Poka-yoke has three basic functions to use againstdefects:
shutdown, control, and warning. Thetechnique starts by analyzing the process for potential
problems, identifying parts by thecharacteristics of dimension, shape, and weight, detecting
processes deviating from nominalprocedures and norms.
Hustle free Joining Methods:

Snap joints are a very simple, economical and rapid way of joining two different components.

All types of snap joints have in common the principle that aprotruding part of one
component, a hook, stud or bead isdeflected briefly during the joining operation and catches
in adepression (undercut) in the mating component. After thejoining operation, the snap-fit
features should return to astress-free condition. The joint may be separable orinseparable
depending on the shape of the undercut; the forcerequired to separate the components varies
greatly according to the design. It is particularlyimportant to bear the following factors in
mind when designing snap joints:

 Mechanical load during the assembly operation.

 Force required for assembly

The design of the Snap-fit determines what it can be used for. There are three main types of
snap-fits: annular, cantilever, and torsional. Most snap-fit joints have a common design of a
protruding edge and a snap-in area. The specific name ofthe snap-fit is usually named after
the type of stress orstrain it utilizes; the torsional snap-fit uses torque to hold parts in place.

While snap-fits may reduce assembly costs, the cost of designing the parts may wipe out the
savings unless manufacturing volumes are very high. Snap-fit assembly has many advantages
over assembly with loose fasteners. Snap-fits can decrease product cost by reducing the
overall part count and lowering labour costs.

However, these savings are best realized with high-volumeproducts that have a long
manufacturing life.Unfortunately, products today have a very short shelf life, and new

models must be introduced frequently. As a result, manufacturersproduce less of a particular

model than they used to, and time tomarket has become very important. In that light, the cost
and time required to design the partsand manufacture the tooling are critical. Snap-fits often
take longer to design and tool thansimpler assembly methods. For a relatively low-volume
product, the total cost of snap-fits maactually be higher than for other assembly methods.

Example for DFMA (Design for Assembly and Manufacturability)

best DFMA based design solution because,

 Minimum number of components

 Vomited unwanted fasteners or screws

 Minimum requirements of manufacturing process and hence reduce manufacturing cost

 Reduced maintenance

Design for Reliability

Reliability is the probability that a physical entity delivers its functional requirements (FRs)
for an intended period under defined operating conditions. The time can be measured in
severalways. For example, time in service and mileage are both acceptable for automobiles,
while thenumber of open-close cycles in switches is suitable for circuit breakers. The DFSS
team shoulduse DFR while limiting the life-cycle cost of the design. The assessment of
reliability usuallyinvolves testing and analysis of stress strength and environmental factors
and should alwaysinclude improper usage by the end user. A reliable design should anticipate
all that can gowrong.If a medical device fails it can have a detrimental effect on the patient’s
safety, on revenue, andon the company’s reputation. Therefore it is important that a device is
designed for reliability, keeping its required service life in mind. Different products will have
different reliability requirements, for example: disposable needles have a short service life
over which they must be reliable. Products with longer service lives can have their reliability
increased with Preventative Maintenance.Reliability pertains to a wide spectrum of issues
that include human errors, technicalmalfunctions, environmental factors, inadequate design
practices, and material variability.

TheDFSS team can improve the reliability of the design by:

1. Minimizing damage from shipping, service, and repair

2. Counteracting the environmental and degradation factors

3. Reducing design complexity.

4. Maximizing the use of standard components

5. Determining all root causes of defects, not symptoms, using DFMEA

6. Controlling the significant and critical factors using SPC (statistical process control) where
applicable

7. Tracking all yield and defect rates from both in-house and external suppliers and
developing strategies to address them

To minimize the probability of failure, it is first necessary to identify all possible modes of
failure and the mechanism by which these failures occur. Detailed examination of DFR is
developed after physical and process structure development, followed by prototyping;
however, considerations regarding reliability should be taken into account in the conceptual
phase. The team should take advantage of existing knowledge and experience of similar
entities and any advanced modelling techniques that are available. Failure avoidance, in
particular when related to safety, is key. Various hazard analysis approaches are available. In
general, these approaches start by highlighting hazardous elements and then proceed to
identify all events that may transform these elements into hazardous conditions and their
symptoms. The team then has to identify the corrective actions to eliminate or reduce these
conditions. One of these approaches is called fault-tree analysis (FTA). FTA uses deductive
logic gates to combine events that can produce the failure or the fault of interest. Other tools
that can be used in conjunction with FTA include FMECA as well as the fishbone diagram.
Design for Maintainability

The objective of Design for Maintainability is to assure that the design will perform
satisfactorily throughout its intended life with a minimum expenditure of budget and effort.
Design for maintainability (DFM), Design for Serviceability (DFS), and Design for
Reliability (DFR) are related because minimizing maintenance and facilitating service can be
achieved by improving reliability. An effective DFM minimizes:

 The downtime for maintenance

 User and technician maintenance time

 Personnel injury resulting from maintenance tasks

 Cost resulting from maintainability features

 Logistics requirements for replacement parts, backup units, and personnel

Maintenance actions can be preventive,corrective, or recycle and overhaul. Design

forMaintainability encompasses access and control,displays, fasteners, handles, labels,
positioningand mounting, and testing.

Guidelines for Design for Maintainability

 Minimize the number of serviceable design parameters (DPs) with simple procedures and
skills

 Provide easy access to the serviceable DPs by placing them in serviceable locations. This
will also enhance the visual inspection process for failure identification

 Use common fasteners and attachment methods

 Design for minimum hand tools

 Provide for safety devices (guards, covers, switches, etc.)

 Design for minimum adjustment and make adjustable DPs accessible.

In above examples both projector bulb and watch battery are placed in such a way that they
are easily accessible for maintenance, hence a repairer can easily replace this parts without
damaging other components.

Design for Serviceability

After the DFSS team finished DFR and DFMA exercises, the next step is to embark on
Design for Serviceability, another member of the DFX family. Design for Serviceability
(DFS) is the ability to diagnose, remove, replace, replenish, or repair any DP (component or
subassembly) to original specifications with relative ease. Poor serviceability produces
warranty costs, customer dissatisfaction, and lost sales and market share due to loss loyalty.
The DFSS team may check their VOC (voice-of-the-customer) studies such as QFD for any
voiced serviceability attributes. Ease of serviceability is a performance quality in the Kano
analysis. DFSS strives to have serviceability personnel involved in the early stages, as they
are considered a customer segment.

The DFSS team should visit the following considerations of DFS:

(1) Customer service attributes

(2) Labour time

(3) Parts cost

(4) Safety

(5) Diagnosis

(6) Service simplification

(7) Repair frequency and occurrence

(8) Special tools

(9) Failures caused by the service procedures

Design for Environment (DFE)

Design for the Environment (DFE) is a design approach to reduce the overall human health
and environmental impact of a product, process or service, where impacts are considered
across its life cycle. Different software tools have been developed to assist designers in
finding optimized products or processes/services. Design for the Environment is a global
movement targeting design initiatives and incorporating environmental motives to improve
product design in order to minimize health and environmental impacts. The Design for the
Environment (DFE) strategy aims to improve technology and design tactics to expand the
scope of products. By incorporating eco-efficiency into design tactics, DFE takes into
consideration the entire life-cycle of the product, while still making products usable but
minimizing resource use. The key focus of DFE is to minimize the environmental-economic
cost to consumers while still focusing on the life-cycle framework of the product. By
balancing both customer needs as well as environmental and social impacts DFE aims to
"improve the product use experience both for consumers and producers, while minimally
impacting the environment".

Practicing Design for Environment

Four main concepts that fall under the DFE umbrella.

1. Design for environmental processing and manufacturing: This ensures that raw material
extraction (mining, drilling, etc.), processing (processing reusable materials, metal melting,
etc.) and manufacturing are done using materials and processes which are not dangerous to
the environment or the employees working on said processes. This includes the minimization
of waste and hazardous by-products, air pollution, energy expenditure and other factors.

2. Design for environmental packaging: This ensures that the materials used in packaging are
environmentally friendly, which can be achieved through the reuse of shipping products,
elimination of unnecessary paper and packaging products, efficient use of materials and
space, use of recycled and/or recyclable materials.

3. Design for disposal or reuse: The end-of-life of a product is very important, because some
products emit dangerous chemicals into the air, ground and water after they are disposed of in
a landfill. Planning for the reuse or refurbishing of a product will change the types of
materials that would be used, how they could later be disassembled and reused, and the
environmental impacts such materials have.

4. Design for energy efficiency: The design of products to reduce overall energy consumption
throughout the product's life.

Design for Life Cycle

Designing for the Life Cycle can be closely associated with economics. This is very
understandable when one considers the fact that the natural resources of the world are
limited. Therefore, the materials and natural effects of nature must be clearly understood and
considered in order for the engineer to satisfy the concerns and requirements associated with
the needs of the project he/she is designing. The challenge is for the engineer to determine
how the physical environment can be altered, or used to advantage, to create the maximum
amount of useful product at the lowest possible cost. In addition, the engineer should design
with the idea of bettering the best. To do this the design must account for tomorrow’s
technology today.

The life cycle of a product or system begins with the identification of a need. It subsequently
extends through conceptual, preliminary and detailed design, as well as production and/or
construction, installation, customer use, support, decline and disposal. Simply put, the
principal behind life-cycle engineering is that the entire life of the product should be
considered in its original design. An engineering design should not only transform a need into
an idea that produces the desired product, but should ensure the design’s compatibility with
related physical and functional requirements during manufacturing and operation. This
includes taking into account the life of the product (as measured by its performance),
reliability, and maintainability. Life-cycle engineering goes beyond the life of the product
itself. It is simultaneously concerned with the parallel life of the manufacturing process and
of the product service system. In essence, there are actually threecoordinated life cyclesgoing
on at the sametime. These parallel life cycles are initiated whenthe need for the product isfirst
recognized.During conceptual design, it follows thatconsideration shouldsimultaneously be
givento the product’s manufacture. This beginsthe second life cycle, i.e.,the creation of a
manufacturing process including production planning, plant layout, equipmentselection,
process planning, and other similar activities. The third life cycle should also beinitiated at
the preliminary design phase. It involves the development of a service system for the product
and a maintenance system for manufacturing.Traditionally, engineers have focused mainly on
the acquisition phase of the product’s life cycle. However, experience shows that in order to
produce a successfully competitive product, performance and maintenance must also be
considered at the time of the original design. When too great an emphasis is placed on the
engineering of a product’s primary function, side effects often occur. These negative impacts
often manifest themselves in problems dealing with operation. Although sufficient
specialized knowledge exists to solve many of these problems (Failure Modes and Effects
Analysis, Root Cause Analysis, Reliability Centered Maintenance, etc.), this knowledge is
most useful if it has been integrated into systematic solutions during the original design.

Design for Recycling (DFR)

The designed-for-recycling1 method incorporates recycling and recyclability criteria into the
design phase of products, with the aim of obtaining recycled and/or recyclable products. The
environmental variable is just another requirement of the product that is added to all the
others, Recycled products are those which are manufactured using recycled materials or
components from products no longer in use. Recyclable products are those that are
manufactured to be recycled at the end of their useful life. In other words, mono-materials are
used, the toxic and hazardous substances are eliminated and a modular manufacturing system
is used that produces easily-dismantled products, compatible materials are used, material that
is difficult to use is identified by means of codes, and so on.

Guidelines for Recyclability:

1. Recyclable materials: Use easily recycled materials in products and label them so recycling
partners can identify and put them toward the best possible reuse. Strive to make packaging
as eco-friendly as possible, using highly renewable, recyclable materials like mushroom and
bamboo. Also try to use recycled-content materials in products whenever possible, which
helps further the overall recycling life cycle.

2. Modularity: The majority of components found inside products should be easily

removable, with standardized parts. This makes it easier to reuse or recycle them.

3. Easy disassembly: The less complexity, the better. By designing smarter, we can cut down
on the number of screws in our products, and the ones that remain are easier to access and
more consistent in type. All parts should design wisely so that they can easily separable with
commonly found tools.

4. Minimal glues and adhesives: Glues and adhesives can create processing challenges for
recyclers, so designer should adopt other methods, such as innovative snap fits, to accomplish
the same design goals.
5. Restrictions on paints and coatings: Prefer integral finishes instead of exterior coatings,
which can interfere with the recycling process or degrade certain plastics during processing.
If paint is the only option, use paint that is compatible with recycling.

Design for Disassembly (DFD)

Design for Disassembly is a design strategy that considers the future need to disassemble a
product for repair, refurbish or recycle. Will a product need to be repaired? Which parts will
need replacement? Who will repair it?How can the experience be simple and intuitive? Can
the product be reclaimedrefurbished, and resold? If it must be discarded, how can we
facilitate itsdisassembly into easily recyclable components? By responding to questionslike
these, the DfD method increases the effectiveness of a product both duringand after its life. In
given environmental and cost constraints, our challenge is as much product de-creation as it
is creation. And DfD strategies are applied throughout the entire design cycle; designers will
need to educate the team, discover waste, set goals, create solutions, and then monitor results
through production, release, use, and end-of-life. Designing for disassembly has several
benefits. It can make it easier for your product to be repaired or upgraded, thereby prolonging
its useful life. It can also help ensure your product is recycled and enable whole components
to be reused. In fact, the degree to which your product can be disassembled easily often
determines how the product will end its life.

Guidelines to Design for Disassembly

1. The fewer parts you use, the fewer parts there are to take apart.

2. As with parts, the fewer fasteners you use, the better.

3. Common and similar fasteners that require only a few standard tools will help to simplify
and speed disassembly.

4. Screws are faster to unfasten than nuts and bolts.

5. Glues should be avoided.

6. Building disassembly instructions into the product will help users understand how to take it
apart.

7. When using electrical circuits:

 mount components on a printed circuit board with detachable leads, do not solder

 use plugs that push into place and can easily be pulled out

 when considering which fixings to use:

 be consistent in size and type of fixing screws

 use self-threading screws rather than bolts

 use fixings which snap, clip or slot into place

 avoid using adhesives which may require chemical processing to dissolve,

 if adhesives are necessary: use adhesives with low hazardous solvent emission

 minimise the use of silicone

 choose seals which can be easily removed

 remember clean surfaces facilitate recycling

8. When considering the use of labels

 avoid mixing of non-compatible polymer materials

 avoid plastic labels on metal parts if they are not critical

 consider stamping instead

 avoid PVC materials in labels