1

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Steel Authority of India Limited
Durgapur Steel Plant
Centre for HRD




Reading Material of Industrial Hydraulics -- I


INDEX



Sl.
No.
Subject Page

1 Introduction to Hydraulics 1

2 Basic Principles of Industrial Hydraulics 4

3 Basic Elements of a Hydraulic System 11

4 ISO Symbols 24

5 Hydraulic Oil 38

6 Pressure Relief Valve 43

7 Hydraulic Pump 52

8 Actuators 67

9 Directional Control valves 75

10 Definitions of Technical Terms 86


3
DURGAPUR STEEL PLANT
CENTRE FOR HRD
READING MATERIAL ON INDUSTRIAL HYDRAULICS

OIL OR INDUSTRIAL HYDRAULICS

The field of hydraulics which deals with the principles of power
transmission and control of mechanical motions is generally known as oil
or INDUSTRIAL HYDRAULICS.

To cope up with the rapid advancement of application of oil hydraulics
components to various types of machines, a good knowledge on this
subject is necessary, for their faultless designs and long trouble free
operations .

For want of clear understanding of basic principles, many times
maintenance personnel take longer time to locate fault in a hydraulic -
equipment, resulting in undesired production loss and labour cost etc.

Minimum knowledge which is necessary for smooth operation and
maintenance of oil hydraulic equipments will the covered in the training
programme.

The name "Hydraulics" infact comes from the Greek word "HYDOR"
meaning water & "AULOS" meaning pipe.

The importance of "hydraulics" is known to mankind since prehistoric
time. Between 200 and 100 BC, man realized that the flowing water of
river has great energy in it. That time the man converted the energy of
the flowing water into useful mechanical energy, by means of a
waterwheel, and first time "hydraulics" was put to the service of the
mankind.

After the invention of Watt's steam engine, there arose a need for
transmission of power, from the point of generation to the point of use,
more efficiently. Gradually many types of mechanical devices were
developed e.g. line shaft, belting, gearing, pulleys and chains etc.

Then the scope of transmitting power through fluid under pressure was
thought of.

This was a new field of hydraulics, dealing with power transmission,
control of motions, multiplying force and characteristics of fluids under
pressure.
4
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Function of the hydraulic system is to transmit power by converting
mechanical energy to fluid energy (through pump) and again converting
this fluid energy to mechanical energy (through actuator) for doing useful
work.

Hydraulic : HYDOR + AULOS (Water + Pipe)

Principles:

Pascal's Law - Pressure applied on a confined fluid is transmitted
undiminished in all directions, and acts at right angle to the
contacting surface.

Pressure is created by providing resistance in the flow path of fluid.

Flow through various resistances in series. Here the resistances add
up.

Flow through various resistances connected parallely. Here flow
occurs through the path of minimum resistance.

Pressure difference creates flow.

Typical application of Hydraulics :

Presses, Jacks
Motor vehicle brakes
Mobile material handling machines :
Hydraulic cranes, Bulldozer rams, Excavators, Fork lift trucks
Aeroplane under carriages and wing flap
Cold saw machine
Special purpose machine tools
Movable throat armour of Blast furnace
Reclaimer Jacks


5
Some important application of Hydraulics in Durgapur Steel Plant :

Stacker cum reclaimer - RMHP
Side arm charger & Wagon tippler - RMHP & COCC
Tap hole mud gun & drilling machine - BLAST FURNACE
Skirt Lifting hydraulics for converter - BOF
Slide gate hydraulics - BOF & CCP
42" Mill Roll Balance - BLOOMING MILL
63 MN Wheel press - WHEEL & AXLE PLANT

Advantages :

For long distances - Force & Torque
Infinitely variable speeds
Overload protection
Complete automation
Power to weight ratio, 1/5 th of electro
High response
Mechanically stiff
Self lubricating - no wear and rusting
Self cushioning - anti vibration pads, damping devices
Linkage in inaccessible position - confined areas
Safe for operation & machine
Stalling at maximum load and speed reversible
Power and torque can be changed
Instant reversibility
Compact
Simple in operation
Accurate position control

Limitations :

Initial cost high
Maintenance cost high (components)
Fault diagnosis is difficult
Housekeeping, leakage's & fire hazard
Dirt contamination


6

Pressure (Force per Unit Area) is Transmitted Throughout a Confined Fluid



Energy Can Neither be Created Nor Destroyed

7


Hydraulic Leverage
8




Pressure Caused by Restriction and Limited by Pressure Control Valve

9


Parallel Flow Path

10


Series Resistance Add Pressure


11


Pressure Drop and Flow Through an Orifice
12



Pressure Loss Requires Full Loss of Pump Output

13
Basic Elements of a Hydraulic System

The most essential basic elements with the help of which a
Hydraulic System may be run, consists of the following items.

(1) Prime Mover :- The Prime Mover is the Primary source of energy. It
may come from a

v Diesel engine
v Internal Combustion engine
v Steam engine
v Electric motor etc.
v Manual

(2) Medium :- The medium of power transmission in the hydraulic
system is the hydraulic oil. Through this oil mechanical energy from
pump is converted into fluid energy of the incompressible Hydraulic oil
and again converted to mechanical energy at actuator.

Oil may be :-
v Mineral oil
v Petroleum oil
v Water
v Emulsion etc.

(3) Reservoir :- The reservoir is the place where Hydraulic oil is stored.
Primarily it is a storage place but it also has some more important
functions e.g. cooling, filtering, sedimentation etc.

(4) Pump :- Pumps in Hydraulic System are used to create the oil flow. It
is the input component of the hydraulic system & converts mechanical
energy to hydraulic energy. They are of various types mainly rotary &
reciprocating e.g. gear pump, vane pump, piston pump etc.

(5) Piping :- The hydraulic fluid is conducted through the pipe lines,
which are of cold drawn seamless steal tubes, pipes & flexible hoses.
Different kinds of fittings are used to arrest external leakages in the
hydraulic system.

(6) Pressure control valves :- These control the maximum pressure in
a hydraulic circuit there by providing safety & regulating the force or
torque output of an actuator.

14
(7) Direction control valves :- The necessary direction of movement
of the actuator is controlled by its actuation.

(8) Actuator :- The Actuator is the output element in a H YDRAULIC
System which converts the hydraulic power available through the
Medium into fruitful mechanical output. This handles the largest amount
of face. The design of a hydraulic system starts with an actuator as the
hydraulic system is designed to do certain work & the work to be done
will decide the type of actuator to be used.


Hydraulic system has primarily 2 parts

1) Signal control section.
2) Power section.

The Power section of a Hydraulic system primarily consists of 3 main
parts.

v Power supply section
v Energy control section
v Drive section

In the power supply section hydraulic power is generated &
pressure medium is prepared.

The following component are used to for energy conversion i.e. electrical
energy to mechanical energy & then to hydraulic or fluid power.

v Electric Motor
v IC engine
v Coupling
v Pump
v Pressure indicator
v Protective circuitry

15
To maintain the medium or to condition the hydraulic fluid following are
used :-

v Filter
v Cooler
v Heater
v Thermometer
v Pressure gauge
v Hydraulic fluid
v Reservoir
v Filling level indicator

Hydraulic fluid power is supplied to drive section through energy control
section as per control parameters. Following components are involved

v Directional Control Valves
v Flow Control Valves
v Pressure Valves
v Non-return Valves

The drive section is the Executor of the Hydraulic System. It utilizes the
ultimate available Hydraulic power to provide the desired output by
movement of various machine parts this generating force.

The main components are

v Hydraulic Cylinders (Linear actuators)
v Hydraulic Motors (Rotary actuators)

The signal control section deals with the operation of Hydraulic system.

This is again divided into two parts

1) Signal input section i.e. sensing which may be

v Manually
v Mechanically
v By observing
v By other means




16
2) Signal Procuring which may be done

v By manually / operator
v By electricity
v By electronics
v By pneumatics
v By mechanics
v By hydraulics

Hydraulic Symbols :

Symbols are clear representation of Hydraulic components & circuits
which are basically simple & graphic in nature. A symbol identifies the
function of the component but provides no information on its design.

After Second World war a graph of top industries formed what was
called the JIC - JOINT INDUSTRY CONFERENCE who laid down the
first set of standardized hydraulic component & circuit representation.

Later on another European body CETOP - improvised on the existing
symbols.

Presently the DIN ISO 1219 standards is the most modern version of
Hydraulic symbols. ISO meaning International Standard Organization.

Location of various important component in a Hydraulic Circuit :

The structure of a Hydraulic system design is represented in a Hydraulic
Circuit. The power supply section is shown at the bottom comprising of
the reservoir, oil, pump, motor, strainer, indicators etc.

Above this is shows the power control section in which there are
directional control valves, pressure control valves, pressure relief valve
& flow control valves.

These components control & modulate the output characteristics of the
hydraulic power package as per requirement of the customer &
manufacturers design.

On the top is represented the "Drive Section" i.e. the Actuator.



17
In a hydraulic circuit fluid power flows from bottom to the top i.e. from the
input (the pump) & through various controls to the output (i.e. the
actuators).


Reservoir :

The reservoir generally performs the following functions.

A - It is a store house for the hydraulic fluid.
B - It provides a place for air to separate out of the fluid.
C - Allows contaminates to settle down.
D - Allows for heat dissipation.

Normally the reservoir is designed so that maintenance is easy.
However in aerospace & where there are space problems, the reservoir
is made compact in size.

Construction : The tank is constructed by steel plate welded together,
with end plates supporting the unit on the floor.

The inside of the tank is painted with a sealer to reduced rust (which
may form due to condensed moisture). The paint used should be as per
manufacture recommendation (due to compatibility).

The bottom is sometimes slanted or dished & has a drain plug at the
lowest point for draining purposes.

Removable covers or side walls allow for access for cleaning &
maintenance.

Sight glass allow for oil level checking.

In some modules there are filler holes on the top with a fine mesh screen
for popping up hydraulic fluid.

The capacity of the tank is 3 to 4 times of pump delivery per minute.

18


Hydraulic Reservoir

19
Breather :

A vented breather cap on top of the reservoir allows for atmospheric
pressure to act on the oil surface for the proper functioning of the pump.

The breather has a fine oil filtering screen. In dirty atmospheric an oil
bath air filter is sometimes used, for checking the ingress of external
pollutants present in the atmospheric air. The breather size should be of
adequate size. Larger the flow rate, longer the breather required.

In many power packs the breather acts as the filler. A choked breather
may starve the pump & call for unwanted problems in the hydraulic
system. Dirty air filters are to replaced from time to time.

On a pressurized reservoir there is no breather & is replaced by & air
valve which maintains pressure in the tank to certain limit.


Baffle Plate :

A baffle plate extend along the length through the centre of the tank.
Usually it is 2/3 rd of the oil level & separates pump inlet line from
return line, so that same fluid is not be circulated continuously, but must
take route fenced by the baffle plate.

The baffle

1 - Prevents local turbulence in the tank.
2 - Allows foreign material to settle to bottom.
3 - Gives the fluid an opportunity to get rid of entrapped air.
4 - Helps to increase heat dissipation through take walls.

Line connections & Fittings :

Pump inlet & return lines must be well below the fluid level. Otherwise oil
may get aerated & foamy.

Line connections at tank top cover are often sealed by slip-joint type
flanges, preventing dirt ingress through these openings & makes it easy
remove inlet line strainer for cleaning.

Drains lines terminate above the fluid level, to avoid pressure build up in
drain passages or siphoning oil through them.
20
Lines terminating near the tank bottom not equipped with strainers are
generally at 45
0
angle.

This present the line opening from 'bottoming' in the tank & cutting of
flow.

On a return line the angled opening is pointed. So that flow is directed at
the tank walls & away from pump inlet lines.

Size :

The tank size should allow for enough oil the system requires of the level
should be high enough to avoid 'whirlpool' effect at pump inlet opening
so that air is not taken in with fluid.

Heat expansion of fluid, charges in fluid level due to system operation
inside tank area exposed to water condensation are factors which are
considered to determine the size.

Industrial thumb rule.
Tank size = Flow rate / minute x 3 or 4.

Filters & Strainers :

Contamination is very dangerous for a hydraulic system. Researches
have indicated that even particles of 1-5 microns have a degrading
effect causing failures in SERVO system & oil deterioration in many
cases.

Task :

It is the task of a filter to reduce contamination to an acceptable level in
order to protect various component from excessive wear.

Magnetic plugs are used in some tanks to trap iron & steel particles
carried by fluid.

21
Filter & Strainer :

National Fluid Power Association defines filter as a device whose
primary function is the retention of insoluble contaminates from a fluid,
by some porous medium.

Strainer is a course filter.

Rating of a Strainer :

A simple screen of wire mesh strainer is rated by mesh number or its
near equivalent Standard Sieve number.

Higher the mesh no. or Sieve no. finer the screen.

Filter Rating :

A filter is rated by micron size. A micron is one millionth (10
-6
) of a
meter. A grain salt is about 70 microns across. The smallest a sharp eye
can see is about 40 microns.

Absolute filter fineness indicates the largest particle size able to pass
through a filter.

Nominal filter fineness indicate particles of nominal pore size are
arrested on passing through it several times.

Usually a filter is rated by it nominal filter size.

System are often flushed by economical filters before commissioning.
Selection of filter should as per manufacturers recommendation.

Every filter causes a pressure drop.

Pressure filter : Pressure difference (p) 1 to 1.5 bar at operating
temperature.

Return line filter : Pressure difference (p) 0.5 bar at operating
temperature.

Intake / suction : Pressure difference (p) 0.05 bar to 0.1
filter bar at operating temperature.
22



Filter

23
Filter materials & Design :

Type Surface type :- This is the most common type & are made of
closely woven fabric or treated paper with pores to allow fluid flow. Very
accurate control of pore size is possible. These are disposable types.

Deep - bed filter (Depth type)

These are made of compressed or multi layered fabric, cellulose, plastic
etc. These filters have a high dirt retention capacity across the same
filter area.

FILTERING MATERIALS are mainly two types :- ABSORBENT &
ADSORBENT.

Absorbent filters are made of porous materials like paper, wood pulp,
cotton yarn & cellulose. Paper filters are usually resin in impregnated for
strength. They provide very minute particle filtration.

Adsorbent filters (or Active filters) each as charcoal, filters earth should
be avoided in hydraulic system since they may remove essential
additives from oil.

The full flow filter :- Most common in all types of hydraulic system. Full
flow means all the flow into the filter inlet port passes through the filtering
system. The unfiltered oil from the outside of the element is filtered to
the inside of the filter element from where it goes to the system.

However there is a by-pass valve which is a spring loaded NON
RETURN VALVE / CHECK VALVE, or a poppet which lifts up at a given
pressure drop & allows flow by-passing the filter.

Changing of filter element :- Certain filters have mechanical
indicators, which indicate by a change of colour that element needs a
change.

In all cases manufacturers recommendation which may be in running
hours or usually in the range of maximum allowable pressure drop, the
element has to be replaced.

24
Location of filters :-

There are three general areas in the system for locating a filter.

Pump inlet line strainers & filters :-

Pump inlet line strainers & filters are relatively course in size as because
pressure drop should not be very high.

Typically a 100 mesh strainer protects the pump from particles of size
150 microns.

Inlet line filters are generally mounted outside the tank, near pump inlet
for easy access. Some lines they are also found in side reservoir.

Pressure line filters :

The filtration size is much less compared to inlet line. The trap finer size
particles for healthy operation of valves and other system components.

Pressure line filter must be able to with - stand the operating pressure of
the system.

Return line filters :

These can trap small particles before fluid returns to the tank. They are
very useful in systems without a large reservoir to allow contaminates
settle out of the fluid.

Systems using high performance pumps, return line filter is a must
because inlet filter can not sufficiently protect the pump which has fine
clearances.

Results of filtration :

bearing life increase upto 20 times
4 to 10 fold increase in pump and motor life
4 to 10 fold increase in hydrostatic transmission life
5 to 100 fold increase in valve spool life
eliminates spool sticking
extends fluid life through reduced oxidation
10 fold extension of sliding bearing life efficiency of hydraulic systems
is assessed by the term " HYDRAULIC FLUID INDEX " (HFI).

25
HFI is determined by dividing the total amount of hydraulic fluid
consumed in a year by the hydraulic oil reservoir capacity, for example,
if a plant with a total reservoir capacity of 10 kl consumes 50 kl of
hydraulic fluid in a year, it has a HFI of 5 as a thumb rule, a properly
maintained system should have a HFI 1.5.


Typical Dynamic Clearances

Component Clearances (micron)

Roller elements bearings 0.1 - 1
Journal Bearings 0.5 - 100
Hydrostatic bearings 1.25
Gears 0.1 - 1
Dynamic seal 0.05 - 0.5

Pump Gear
Tooth to side plate 0.5 - 5
Tooth tip to ease 0.5 - 5

Pump vane
Vane sides 5 -13
Vane tip 0.5 - 1

Pump piston
Piston to bore 5 - 40
Valve plate to cylinder 0.5 - 5

Servo valves
Orifice 130 - 450
Flapper wall 18 - 63
Spool to sleeve 1 - 4

Actuators 50 - 250

Ref : ASTM Wear Control Handbook.

26
ISO Symbology



27
ISO Symbology

28
ISO Symbology



29
Summery of Directional Control Valves


30
Types of Valve Actuation




31
Types of Valve Actuation



32
ISO Symbols





33
ISO Symbols



34
ISO Symbols



35
ISO Symbols

36
ISO Symbols



37
ISO Symbols

38
ISO Symbols



39
ISO Symbols


40
Oil

Hydraulic fluid or oil has many important features :-

(1) Power transmission :-

As a medium for transmission of power oil should be able to flow easily
through the pipe line & the components. Too much resistance to the flow
of oil will cause power loss. Hydraulic oil is incompressible (0.5%
compressible is 1000 psi). So the action is instantaneous when the
pump is started or valve is shifted.

(2) Lubrication :-

Hydraulic oil acts as a lubricant. Pump elements, valve parts & other
wearing parts slide against each other on a film of fluid. For lasting life of
components certain additives are added to hydraulic oil which ensure
high anti-wear characteristics.

(3) Sealing :-

In many places, the hydraulic oil acts as a sealant against pressure
inside a hydraulic component. There is no seal ring in between a valve
spool & body to minimize leakage from high pressure passage to low
pressure passages. The tolerance the spool & valve body & oil viscosity
determines the leakage rate.

(4) Cooling :-

Oil circulates in the system & carries heat from the (place were heat is
generated) hot zone & dissipates the heat at a cooler zone, i.e.. in the
cooler & reservoir.

Fluid Properties :

Viscosity :

Viscosity is the measure of the fluids resistance to flow, or an inverse
measure of fluidity.
A fluid that flows with difficulty has a high viscosity. It is a thick oil.
A fluid that flows easily has a low viscosity. It is thin oil.
Viscosity technically is defined in various ways namely, absolute
viscosity, kinetic viscosity & relative viscosity.

41

Shear stress
Absolute viscosity = ----
Rate of shear

1 dyne second
1 poise = ------
Square c.m.

Absolute viscosity
Kinetic viscosity = -------
Density

1 centipoise
1 Centistoke = -----------------
Density

Relative viscosity unit :

SUS (Say bolt Universal System) is determined by timing the flow of a
given quantity of the fluid through a standard orifice.

Viscosity a compromise :-

When a manufacturer determines the oil viscosity to be used in a
system, he actually compromises.
A high viscosity is desirable for maintaining sealing between two
meeting surfaces but high viscosity increases friction resulting in

v High resistance to flow
v Increased power consumption due to frictional loss.
v High temperature caused by friction.
v Increased pressure drop due to resistance.
v Possibility of sluggish or slow operation.
v Difficulty in separating air from oil in the reservoir.

If viscosity is too low :

v Internal leakage increases
v Excessive wear or even actuator may seize under heavy load
due to breakdown of oil film between parts.
v Pump efficiency may decrease causing less flow.
v Increased temperature resulting from leakage losses.
42
Viscosity Index :

Viscosity Index is a measure of fluids resistance to change in viscosity
with temperature.

A fluid having a high Viscosity Index (VI) has a stable viscosity over a
wide range of temperature. This is important for a machine which runs
under temperature extremes.

Pour point :

Pour point is the lowest temperature at which hydraulic oil will flow.

Lubricating ability :

Oil generally has very good lubricating properties. But where clearance
between wear parts is very small (Boundary lubrication) and high speeds
& pressure has to be encountered, there chemical additive are used to
enhance thus property.

Oxidation resistance :

Oxidation or chemical union with oxygen of oil drastically cuts down oil
life. Petroleum oils are susceptible to oxidation.
The oxidation products further reacts with oil to form soluble & insoluble
matter.

The soluble part are acidic in nature & causes corrosion in the system.
The insoluble part like gums, sludge plug orifices, increase wear &
cause valves to stick.

Catalysts :

In a hydraulic system, heat, pressure, contaminant, water, metal
surfaces & agitation accelerate oxidation. Temperature is very vital.
Since below 135
0
F oil oxidizes very slowly but for every 18
0
F rise
oxidation rate is doubled.

Demulsibility :-

Is the ability of the oil to separate out of water. Small quantities of water
in emulsification can be tolerated in a hydraulic system. But larger
amounts of water will cause contamination, rust & sticky valves.

43
Rust & corrosion prevention :

Since air or moisture cannot be kept out of a hydraulic system, rust &
corrosion may occur in the system. Rust & corrosion contaminates
(corrosion caused due to reaction between metal & acid) the whole
system & reduces the life of component.

Oil additives :

In order to maintain a healthy system & important positive properties to
the hydraulic fluid, chemical additives are used.

1) Oxidation Inhibitor - Reduces & controls the fluid oxidation.
2) Rust Inhibitor - Prevents formation of rust.
3) Extreme pressure agent - Improves pressure with standing property.
4) Pour depressant - Very low temperature.

Fluid specification :

Maintenance hydraulic fluid should be used as per recommendation of
manufacturer. Oil of different types & grades should not be allowed to
mix. Two oils of same viscosity but different grades may not be equally
compatible with the system. Oil should be stored in a clean place &
utmost care should be taken whole pouring or topping up oil in a
hydraulic system, for avoiding contaminations.

Various grades of oil in use are :- Servo System 32, 46, 57 where the
last 2 digits is the viscosity in centistokes at 40
0
C.

Ideal viscosity rating = 15 to 100 mm
2
/sec
Upper limit = 750 mm
2
/sec

Viscosity Index :
(VI) is used as a reference valve for viscosity temperature
characteristics.

Higher the viscosity index :

Less the viscosity changes or greater the temperature range in which
the oil can be used.
ISO VG10 : Means, Kinetic viscosity
9.0 minimum - mm
2
/sec
2
at 40
0

11.0 Maximum - mm
2
/sec
2
at 40
0
.
44
Contamination Level According to NAS 1638

( Maximum number of dirt particles in 100 ml oil)

Class Size range in mm
5 - 15 15 25 25 - 50 50 - 100 >100
00 125 22 4 1 0
0 250 44 8 2 0
1 500 89 16 3 1
2 1000 178 32 6 1
3 2000 356 63 11 2
4 4000 712 126 22 4
5 8000 1425 253 45 8
6 16000 2850 506 90 16
7 32000 5700 1012 180 32
8 64000 11400 2025 360 64
9 128000 22800 4050 720 128
10 256000 45600 8100 1440 256
11 512000 91200 16200 2880 512
12 1024000 182400 32400 5760 1024


45
Pressure Relief Valve

Function :

A pressure relief valve, or safety valve, performs three important
functions in a hydraulic circuit. The first function is to limit the maximum
system pressure, providing protection for the various components,
piping, and tubing used in the system. The second function is to allow
hydraulic fluid from the pump to bypass the system to tank. This
provides a means of varying the quantity of fluid flowing in a system
using a constant displacement pump. The valve also allows adjustment
of the maximum force generated in a hydraulic system.

Types :

1. Direct acting relief valve
2. Pilot operated relief valve

Direct acting relief valve :

In a direct acting relief valve (simple relief valve), the spring tension is
set by an adjusting screw. When the system pressure exceeds the
spring force on the poppet, the "excess pressure" will shift the poppet,
allowing fluid to flow back to the tank. Changes in maximum system
pressure is made by increasing or decreasing the spring tension.

The pressure at which the valve begins to divert flow is called the
cracking pressure. As flow through the valve increases, the poppet is
forced further off its seat causing increased compression of the spring.
Pressure at the inlet when the valve is passing its maximum volume is
called full-flow pressure.

Pilot operated relief valve :

A pilot operated relief valve (also known as compound relief valve or
balance piston relief valve) operates in two stages. The pilot stage in the
upper valve contains the direct type of pressure relief valve. The port
connections are made to the lower body and diversion of the full flow
volume is accomplished by the balanced piston in the lower body.

The balanced piston is so named because in normal operation, it is in
hydraulic balance. Pressure at the inlet port acting under the piston is
also sensed on its top by means of an orifice drilled through the large
46
land. At any pressure less than the valve setting, the piston is held on
its seat by a light spring. (If this orifice gets clogged the system will not
develop any pressure).

When pressure reaches the setting of the adjustable spring, the poppet
is forced of its seat limiting pressure in the upper chamber.

The restricted flow through the orifice into the upper chamber results in
an increase in pressure in the lower chamber. This unbalances the
hydraulic forces and tends to raise the piston off its seat. When the
difference in pressure between the upper and lower chambers is
sufficient to overcome the force of the light spring (approximately 20 psi),
the large piston unseats permitting flow directly to tank. Increased flow
through the valve causes the piston to lift further off its seat but since
this compresses only the light spring very little override is encountered.

Vent connection :

Pilot relief valve may be remotely controlled by means of an outlet port
from the chamber above the piston. When this chamber is vented to
tank, the only force holding the piston on its seat is that of the light
spring, and the valve will open fully at approximately 20 psi. (In case of
constant delivery pumps, the pump is "unloaded" by using automatic
venting facility of pilot operated relief valves).


Unloading Valve

It is a normally closed type of pressure control valve. The pilot line is
connected remotely, from an external pressure source which is used to
move the spool in the unloading valve and diverts pump delivery to the
tank line.

The operational difference between the unloading valve and pressure
relief valve is that the relief valve operates in balance, being held open
at one an infinite number of positions by the flow of oil through it.
Maximum pressure maintained in the pressure port is determined by the
spring adjustment. With the unloading valve the primary port pressure is
independent of the spring force because the remote source pressure
operates the spool. Thus when the unloader valve opens the pressure at
the primary port is negligible. Thus it is used to unload the pump when
actuator movement has stopped enabling the pump to operate under
minimum resistance.

47




Pressure Relief Valve
48





Pilot Operated Relief Valve



49



SYMBOL



Pilot operated relief valve with directional valve unloading
50
Operation of Pilot Operated Relief Valve

51
Venting the Relief Valve

Pressure Relief Valve Pilot Operated
52

Pressure Limiting Valve (PLV)

53
3-Way Pressure Control Valve
54
Hydraulic Pump

Function :

To create flow, convert mechanical energy to hydraulic energy by
pushing the hydraulic fluid into the system.

Two Categories :

Hydrodynamic or Non positive displacement pump.

No positive seal between inlet & outlet ports and pressure capability is a
function of drive speed operate by centrifugal force output is reduced
when pressure is increased.

Hydrostatic or Positive displacement pump.

Hydrodynamic or Non positive displacement pump
(Uses impact or kinetic energy)

v Operate by centrifugal force, where by fluids entering the center of
the pump housing are thrown to the outside by means of a rapidly
driven impeller .
v No positive seal between inlet and outlet ports.
v Pressure capability is a function of speed.
v Provide smooth continuous flow.
v Outpu t is reduced as resistance is increased. (for this reason
non positive pumps not used in hydraulic system).
v This centrifugal or turbine designs are used primarily in the
transfer of fluids where the only resistance encountered is that
created by fluid itself & friction.

Hydrostatic or Positive displacement pump
(Force applied to a confined fluid)

v As the name implies, These pump PROVIDE a given amount of fluid
for every stroke, revolution or cycle.
v Output, except for leakage losses is independent of outlet pressure,
making them well suited for use in the power transmission.


55
Pump Ratings :

Maximum operating pressure capability and their output (volume) at a
given drive speed.

Pressure Ratings :

Determined by the manufacture based upon reasonable service life
expectancy under specified working condition.
Operating at higher pressure may result in reduced pump life or more
serious damage.

Displacement :

Flow capacity of a pump can be expressed as its displacement per
revolution or by its output in GPM.
Volume of liquid transferred in one revolution. It is volume of one
pumping chamber multiplied by the no. of chambers that pass the outlet
per revolution.

Fixed displacement :

Most of the pumps are fixed displacement type, those flow rate cannot
be changed except replacing certain components.

Variable displacement :

In some pumps, it is possible to vary the size of the pumping chamber
and thereby the displacements by means of external controls.

Volumetric Efficiency = Actual Output / Theoretical Output

Hydraulic power is calculated from pressure and flow rate.

Power = Pressure X Flow rate

i.e. P = p.Q.

where, P = Power in Watts = [ Nm/s]
p = Pressure in Pascal = [ N/m
2
]
Q = Flow Rate m
3
/sec

56
Power = N/m
2
x m
3
/sec = Watt.

Power is rate of doing work
= Workdone / time = Force x distance / time = Newton x Meter / time
= Nm / sec = Joules / sec
Efficiency = Output Power / Input Power

Volumetric power loss caused by leakage losses and hydro-mechanical
power loss caused by friction.
n
v
(volumetric efficiency): Covers the losses resulting from internal &
external leakage losses in pumps, actuators and valves.
n
hm
(Hydro-mechanical efficiency): Covers the losses resulting from
friction in pump, motors and cylinders.
During Power conversion Total Efficiency = Efficiency Volumetric x
Efficiency Hydro-Mechanical


Pump Cavitation :

v When does it occur?

Cavitation occurs when the oil does not entirely fill the space provided
for it in the pump.
This leaves air cavities in the oil which can be detrimental to the pump.
Suppose the pump inlet line is narrowed, it then causes the pressure of
the incoming oil to drop.
When the pressure is lowered, oil cannot flow into the pump as fast as it
is pumped out.
The result is that cavities or spaces are formed in the incoming oil.

Air in the oil :

This pressure drop tends to release any dissolved air in the oil and the
air fills cavities. Air in oil in the form of bubbles also fills the cavities.

When the air-filled cavities, which have been formed in a low pressure
area, are conveyed to a high pressure area in the pump, they are forced
to collapse by pressure. This creates an action similar to an implosion
which disintegrates or chips away small particles of the metal parts of
the pump, and causes excessive noise and pump vibration.


57
Fffects of the implosion :

The collapse occurs quite instantaneously and a very great implosion
takes place.

This implosion reaches as much as 1000 kg/cm
2
, and it chips away
small particles off the metal part of the pump.
If a pump is allowed to continually cavitate, it will be seriously damaged.

Atmospheric pressure charges the pump :

The inlet of a pump normally is charged with fluid by a difference in
pressure between the reservoir and the pump inlet. u sually the pressure
in the reservoir is atmospheric pressure, which is 14.7 psi on absolute
gauge (1.013 bar ) it is then necessary to have a partial vacuum or
reduced pressure at the pump inlet to create flow.

In a reciprocating pump, on the intake stroke, the piston / ram creates a
partial vacuum in the pumping chamber. in a rotary pump, successive
pumping chambers increase in size as they pass the inlet, effectively
creating an identical void condition.

Atmospheric pressure 1.013 bar in the reservoir pushes oil into the
chamber to fill the void.
1 BAR = 100000 PA = 105 N/M
2
= 10 N/CM
2

1 KG 9.81 N

Caution :

Available pressure difference should be much less as liquid vaporize in
a vacuum and puts gas bubbles into the system. Vacuum no more than
12.2 psi absolute, 0.841 bar (5" of mercury). Hence (14.7 - 12.2)= 2.5 psi
pressure difference to push oil into system (1.013 - 0.841)= 0.172 bar.

Aeration :

The pressure of dispersed air bubbles in the systems hydraulic fluid.
Aeration can result in increased heating and sound in the pump. The air
bubbles may reach the actuators csusing jerky motion. In such case air
bleeding has to be done through bleed screws in actuator or by suitably
loosening the nearest port. Cavitation usuallycan be distinguished from
aeration by the sound. Aeration producs an intermittent sound, whereas
58
the sound of cavitation is more constant.

Gear pumps :

v Develops flows by carrying fluid between the teeth and pump
housing.
v One gear is driven by the drive shaft and turns the other.
Pumping chambers formed between the gear teeth, are
enclosed by the pump housing and side plates (often called
wear or pressure plates)
v A partial vacuum is created at the inlet as the gear teeth
unmesh.
v Because of the difference of pressure on oil level of reservoir
and pump inlet, fluid flows into fill the space from the reservoir
and is carried around the outside of the gears.
v As the teeth mesh again at the outlet the fluid is forced out.
High pressure at the pump outlet imposes an unbalanced load
on the gears and the bearing supporting them.

Characteristics :

v Fixed displacements
v Delivery range (output) 3.5 cc to 100 cc / rev very low to high.
v Usually low pressure because of shaft side loading although
some may be used upto 3000 psi (250 bar).
v Internal leakages increase with wear.
v Fairly durable and more dirt tolerant than other pumps.

Vane pumps :

v In the unbalanced design (only used for variable volume design)
the throw or eccentricity between the ring and rotor changes the
size of pumping chamber.
v Most fixed displacement pumps today utilize balanced cartridge
design developed by Mr. Harry Vickers in 1920's). In this design
cam ring is elliptical rather than a circle and permits two sets of
internal ports. Two outlet ports are 180
0

apart so that pressure
forces on the rotor are canceled out preventing side loading of
the drive shaft and bearing.
v A slotted rotor is splined to the drive shaft and turns inside a
cam ring.
v Vanes are fitted to the rotor slots and follow the inner surface of
the ring as the rotor turns.

59
v Centrifugal force and pressure under the vanes hold the vanes
out against the cam ring.
v Pumping chambers are formed between the vanes and are
enclosed by the rotor, ring and two side plates.

Vane pump :- (Operation)

v At the pump inlet a partial vacuum is created as the space
between the rotor and ring increases.

v Oil entering here is trapped in the pumping chambers and then
is pushed into the outlet as space decreases.
v The displacement of the pump depends on the width of the ring
and rotor and on the throw of the ring.

The cost rebuilding these pumps, when they sufficiently wear out or are
damaged, may be high compared to the original cost. So, when they
wear out, they are usually replaced.

Installation and operation cares :

The installation of the pump with respect to its reservoir is very important
because it affects the performance of the pump. The higher the pump is
mounted above the fluid level, the greater is the resistance faced by the
pump, in drawing fluid into it. So, generally the vane pumps are mounted
just above the reservoir cover, so that the gap between the fluid level
and the suction-port of the pump is not more than one meter.

The pumps should be mounted on strong foundation so that alignment is
well maintained. They should be located such that they can be easily
removed for repairs or replacement.

Entrance of air into the pump should be well prevented because this will
reduce the life of the pump and may lead to air locks into the system.
This air also creates abnormal sound in the pump. Hence the pipe
connections should be air tight and oil seals should be changed
whenever a vane pump is dismantled for any repair.

A vane pump should not be run at its peak pressure continuously for a
long period. However, it can be worked at 75 to 80 percent of its peak
pressure. In no case should a vane pump be used at a pressure higher
than the pump rating. Since it is positive displacement unit, the relief
valve must be set correctly to its maximum limit.

Though the speed range for vane pumps is 1200 RPM to 1800 RPM
60
manufacturer's recommendations should be always followed.

The idle vane pumps should be run at least once a week.

During normal operation of a hydraulic system, it should be protected
against dirt and dust. Recommended viscosity of the hydraulic fluid falls
in the range of 150 SSU to 225 SSU at 37.5
0
C (100
0
F). In summer it
should be on the higher side and in winter on the lower side. The
operating temperature above 66
0
C (150
0
F) reduces the pump life too
fast.











High Performance Double Pump Construction

61
Maintenance cares :

The internal construction of a vane pump is much more delicate than a
gear pump, So, more care is required for the maintenance of vane
pumps than for a gear pumps.

For a long life of vanes and cam ring, good filtration of hydraulic fluid is
very important . The rubbing or sliding between rotor, vanes and cam
ring does not tolerate the abrasive contamination of unfiltered fluid.

It is possible to change the delivery rate of the pump by changing the
contour of the cam ring. So, at the time of replacing a damaged cam
ring, proper care should be taken for checking the dimension of the new
cam ring. Some times a particular dimension of a cam ring is expressed
by saying a particular ring number.

Since the lubrication of the internal mechanism is done by the system
pressure, the speed of the actuator should not be raised to its maximum
limit immediately after starting. This precaution allows the pump to
develop its priming, while the speed is picking up. This precaution is
specially important at the time of starting a new or newly assembled
pump, because in this case working tolerances are critical and adequate
internal lubrication is vital. A new or over hauled pump is started under
load on the first. This creates a back pressure to assure adequate
internal lubrication.

The alignment of the drive shaft of vane pump with its driving
mechanism is very important. A misalignment of shaft couplings will
cause too much frictional loss and severe wear of the moving parts thus
creating unbalance and undue leakage.

In vane pump there is the provision of changing the direction of flow by
changing the direction of rotation. So, the assembly of the internal
mechanism is done in such a manner that each part matches with the
desired direction of rotation of the shaft. Generally the arrows showing
the direction of rotation are marked on the top of the body, cam ring and
the sides of the bushings.

While fitting the pump head, head bolts are tightened alternatively 180
0
from each other, until the head seats evenly. The manufacturer's
recommendations should be strictly followed in applying torque to the
head bolts. Before starting the pump, the freedom of movement of the
internal parts should be checked by avoidance of binding should not be
started.
62
To protect the pump from over heating, the fluid level of the reservoir
should be checked from time to time. Make up fluid is poured through a
200 mesh wire screen.

If a pump is driven in the wrong direction, it will be unable to draw fluid
even for its lubrication and as a result it will seize after a short period of
operation.

The pipe fittings of the suction line of the pump should be always kept
tight. If it is not, the air enters through the joints into the pump ans. is
carried away into the system. The air fluid mixture causes noise, but its
effect is different from that of cavitation. When exposed to load pressure,
this undissolved air gets compressed, forming a cushioning effect, and
does not collapse violently. It passes into the system in from of
compressed bubbles, causing erratic valve and actuator operations.

Overhauling of pumps :

Before breaking any circuit connection, it should be made sure that the
electrical power is put off and the system is relieved from trapped
pressure. All exposed parts and openings should be covered with cloth.
The following are the steps to be followed for overhauling of a pump.

i ) After dismantling, the internal parts of the pump should be kept on a
clear paper.

ii) Vanes should be inspected carefully for wear and sticking, in the rotor
slots. When dry, they should be able to move freely into the slots by
their own weight. Defective vanes should be replaced. Sharp edges
of new vanes can be removed by rubbing then on oil stone. If the
wear is only on the outer edges of the vanes,. they should be
reversed, because both sides are generally chamfered in the same
manner. Before reversing, their surfaces should be smoothened to
remove burrs caused by wear on the outer edge.

iii) If the cam ring is scored or has cross-grooved surface, it should be
replaced. Minor scratches can be removed by an oil stone.

iv) If the faces of rotor and bushings are worn and scored, they should
be removed by lapping. if the scoring is very heavy, the rotor should
be replaced.



63
v) Bearings should be inspected for cracked or pitted races and balls.
They should be replaced if found defective.

vi) The drive shaft should also be inspected for any wear or damage.

vii) The shaft seal, O-rings and head packing should be replaced.

viii) Bending of the locating pin should be checked by keeping on a
horizontal smooth surface.

ix) All the internal parts are coated with a compatible fluid and lip of the
shaft seal is lightly lubricated to prevent any damage during
assembling.

Then the reassemble of the whole pump is done in the reverse order.

Installation and operation cares :

The piston pumps are mounted on strong base plates to avoid
mechanical vibrations.

The inlet should be mounted, such that they are free from restrictions as
far as possible. They should be of sufficient size to meet the full
requirement of the suction chamber of the pump. The height of the
pump's inlet above the reservoir, should be as minimum as possible.

For the ranges of operating pressures, temperatures and speeds;
manufacturer's recommendation should be always should followed. The
maximum temperature of fluid in the system should normally be not
more then 60
0
C. The control of the temperature is important, because
the moving parts of the pump have very narrow clearances and high
temperature will try to expand the moving parts, resulting in fast wear
and may be seizure.

The lower limit of the operating system temperatures and around 12
0
C.
In case of operation below this, it is advisable to install a heater to raise
the operating temperature. When a heater to raise the operating
temperature. When a heating device is not available, the system should
be started with "inching" (i.e. rapid intermittent starts and stops) for
warming up. After a suitable operating temperature has been reached,
normal operation should be taken up.

64
Before putting the pump into normal operation the direction of rotation of
the pump should be taken checked.

Before installation, the pipes should be pickled and examined for scale
and residue.

The lubrication of the internal moving parts is very important. Since the
lubrication of the bearings and other internal parts in done by the fluid
present inside the pump, initial start up of the pump should not be
attempted unless the pump's case has been filled up with the fluid.

During normal operation, the hydraulic system should be well protected
against entrance of dirt and foreign particles.

While starting a new pump for the first time, the following sequence of
steps should be maintained:-

1) Start the pump by keeping the main relief valve setting low.
2) Set the main relief valve slightly higher, say by 1 N/mm
2
.
3) Vent air from all parts of the circuit. Ensure that there is no
leakage of oil in any part.
4) Then increases the speed of the prime mover if desirable.
5) Adjust the main relief valve setting as per recommendation, by
adding load to the system.
6) Ensure that there is no leakage anywhere in this condition of
pressure.
7) Stop the prime mover immediately and investigate if any
abnormality like high temperature rise in bearings or noise etc.
is found.

Maintenance cares :

Dirt, grit and foreign particles are the biggest enemies of a piston pump.
If not filtered properly, they scratch and score the highly polished
surfaces of the moving parts and the whole pump may be ruined by its
own worn out particles. So a high degree of cleanliness is essential for
the hydraulic system, for a smooth running and long life of a piston
pump.

The fluid of the hydraulic system should be periodically checked,
cleaned and changed if necessary.


65
Whenever the pump is dismantled for overhauling, the shaft seal should
be replaced with a new one and the condition of the shaft at the point of
seal contact should be checked.

For detailed information about the operation and maintenance cares of
he pump, manufacturer's instruction's manual must be consulted.

When the piston pumps are dismantled, the parts would be carefully
marked so that they can be replaced or reassembled properly.

Before starting this type of pump for the first time, it is important that the
housing be completely filled with hydraulic fluid for lubrication. A drain
line should be connected to the housing drain port so that the housing
remains full of fluid the operation.







Pressure Compensated Variable Vane Pump with Angular vanes
66

Swash plate Causes Piston to Reciprocate


Bent Axis Piston Pump

67

External Gear Pump



Internal Gear Pump
68

Unbalanced Vane Pump Operation

Construction of Round Type Pump

69
Actuators

Actuators are the Output component of hydraulic systems. The design
of a hydraulic system starts from the actuator after determining the type
of job to be done and its power requirement. Only after actuator is
chosen and sized, the remaining circuit component can be designed /
selected. The actuators has to handle large forces and converts fluid
energy / hydraulic energy to mechanical energy.

Classification

v Linear actuators
v Rotary actuators

Cylinders :

Cylinders are linear actuators which means that the output of a cylinder
is straight line motion and/or force. Different type of cylinders commonly
used are:

v Single acting cylinder: Ram type cylinder, Spring loaded cylinder
v Double acting cylinder: Standard double acting cylinder which can be
differential type or non-differential, double rod cylinder
v Telescoping cylinder : Telescoping cylinders increases stroke length
upto 4 or 5 sleeves while collapsed length is less.
v Tandem cylinder : where diameter of cylinder is restricted but stroke
is not.

Cylinder Construction :

The main parts are a barrel, a piston and rod, end caps and suitable
seals. Barrels usually are seamless steel tubing, honed to a fine finish
on the inside. The piston usually cast iron or steel incorporates seals to
reduce leakage between it and the cylinder barrel. Step cut automotive
type piston rings are used where some leakage can be tolerated. For
supporting loads or very low feed rates, a T-ring or "O" ring with 2 heavy
duty back-up rings is often used. The ports of the cylinder are in the end
caps, which may be attached directly to each end of the barrel, or
secured by tie-bolts. The rod packing is a cartridge type including both
the seal and wiper for easy replacement.

Cylinder Mountings :

Various cylinder mountings provide flexibility in anchoring the cylinder.
Rod ends are usually threaded for attachment directly to the load or to
accept a clevis, yoke or similar coupling device.

70


Single Acting Cylinder

71


Double Acting Cylinder
72
Cylinder Ratings :

The rating of a cylinder considers its size and pressure capability.
Cylinder size is specified by diameter of piston and stroke length, rod
size is standard though intermediate and heavy duty rods are also used.
The speed, output force and pressure required are all related to the
piston diameter.

Effects on cylinder applications for changes in input flow, size, and
pressure.
Change Speed Effect on Operating
Pressure
Output Force
Available
Increase Pressure Setting
Decrease Pressure Setting
Increase GPM
Decrease GPM
Increase Cylinder Diameter
Decrease Cylinder Diameter
No Effect
No Effect
Increases
Decreases
Decreases
Increases
No Effect
No Effect
No Effect
No Effect
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Decreases
No Effect
No Effect
Increases
Decreases
Above table assumes a constant work load.

Cylinder cushions :

Cushioning of cylinders are used at both ends of the cylinder to slow it
down near the end of the stroke and prevent the piston from hammering
against the end cap. Deceleration starts when the tapered cushion ring
or plunger enters the cap and the return line flow is restricted. During the
final part of the stroke, the exhaust oil is discharged through an
adjustable orifice, a check valve to bypass the orifice on the return
stroke is also provided.

Hydraulic Motor :
Hydraulic Motor is the name given to rotary hydraulic actuator and are
similar in construction to pump. The hydraulic motor is driven by the fluid
and develop torque and continuous rotating motion. Since both outlet
ports may be pressurised, most motors are externally drained.

Motor Ratings :
Hydraulic motors are rated according to displacement (size), torque
capacity and maximum pressure limitation.
Displacement is the quantity of fluid which the motors require in turning
one revolution. Torque is the force component of the motor's output. It is
defined as a turning or twisting effort. Pressure required in a hydraulic
motor depends on the torque load and the displacement.

Types of Motor :
Gear motors, Vane motors, High torque motor, Inline piston motors,
Bent-axis piston motors etc.

73


Double Acting Cylinder With End Position Cushioning
74



Flange Mounted Double Acting Cylinder


75




Cylinder Mounting Methods
76



Tandem Cylinder


Telescopic Cylinder

77
Directional Control Valve

Function :

The control of direction of flow is achieved by changing the position of
internal movable parts of the Directional Control Valve, by actuation.
Most of the Direction Control Valves are finite positioning.
The control of the direction of flow is made possible by opening or
closing certain flow paths by the internals of the directional valve in
definite valve positions.

Classification :

They are classified according to the principle characteristics as below :-

Type Internal Valving element

Poppet (Ball or Piston)
Rotary Spool
Sliding Spool

Method of Actuation :

The switching position of a Directional Control Valve i.e. spool
positioning can be obtained by following actuation methods.

v Manually operated (Lever, Push Button, foot Pedal)
v Mechanically (Cam, Plunger, Roller)
v Electrically (Solenoid)
v Hydraulically (Hydraulic pressure)
v Pneumatically (Pneumatic pilot pressure)


No. of Flow paths

v Two way
v Three way
v Four way

78
Size : Valves are rated

v By the size of the pipe connections to valves or to its mounting
plate.
v By the flow (LPM, GPM)

Designation :

The designation of Directional Control Valve refers to the number of
service ports / working ports / main ports (pilot control, seal drain not
included) and the number of switching positions.

A valve with 3 service ports and 2 switching positions is thus designated
as 3/2 way valve.

Hence when labeling Directional Control Valves, it is first necessary to
specify the number of ports than the number of switching positions.

Symbols :

v Each different switching position is shown by a squared envelope.
v The ports are marked in the envelope / square of the normal position
of the valve.

Type of valve Normal condition

For spring off - set valve : Spring side envelope.
For spring control valve : Neutral / centre position envelope.
Pump delivery / pressure port : P or 1.
Working port / cylinder conection port : A, B or 2,4.
Tank port : T, R or 3,5.
Pilot port : X, Y, Z

v Flow direction is indicated by arrows in all the switching position.

v Blocked ports are shown by horizontal lines.

v Lines indicate how the ports are interconnected in the various
switching positions.

v Seal drain ports are drawn as broken lines and labeled (L), to
distinguish them from Control / pilot ports.


79
v The actuation symbol (depending on method of actuation) is outside
the extreme squares, as per position of the actuating part.

v Depending on the flow occurring or not occurring with respect to the
pressure / delivery (P,1) line the valve is said to be normally open or
closed.

v Depending on the flow path in - the normal position i.e. neutral /
centre position of a 3 switching position valve, with respect to
pressure / delivery (P,1) line, the directional valve is according named
as open centre valve, closed centre valve, tandem centre valve, float
centre valve etc.









Manually operated Four-way valve

80


Switching Overlap
Poppet and slide principle

81



2/2- Way Directional Control Valve
82



3/2 Way Directional Control Valve (Slide Principle)

83



3/2 Way Directional Control Valve (Poppet Principle)
84


4/2- Way Directional Control Valve (with three piston)

85


4/3 - Way Directional Control Valve with Recirculation Mid-position
86





Pilot choke mounts on DG 3 or DG 5 valves

87



Solenoid Controlled Pilot Operated Directional Control Valve

88
Some important definitions

Aeration : Air in the hydraulic fluid. Excessive aeration causes the fluid
to appear milky and components to operate erratically because of the
compressibility of the air trapped in the fluid.
Annular area: A ring shaped area -often refers to the net effective area
of the rod side of a cylinder piston
Atmospheric pressure: Pressure exerted by the atmosphere at any
specific location.( Sea level pressure is approx. 14.7psi 1 bar 1 atm.)
Breather : A device which permits air to move in and out of a container
or component to maintain atmospheric pressure.
Closed centre valve : One in which all ports are blocked in the centre
or neutral position
Compensator control : A displacement control for variable pumps and
motors which alters displacement in response to pressure changes in
the system as related to its adjusted pressure setting.
Cooler : A heat exchanger used to remove heat from the hydraulic fluid.
Counter Balance valve : A pressure control valve which maintains back
pressure to prevent a load from falling.
Cracking Pressure : The pressure at which a pressure actuated valve
begins to pass fluid.
Drain : A passage in, or a line from, a hydraulic component which
returns leakage fluid independently to reservoir or to a vented manifold.
Hydrodynamics : Engineering science pertaining to the energy of liquid
flow and pressure.
Enclosure : A rectangle drawn around a graphical component or
components to indicate the limits of an assembly.
Heat Exchanger : A device which transfers heat through a conducting
wall from one fluid to another.
Hydrostatics : Engineering science pertaining to the energy of liquids at
rest.
Laminar flow : A condition where the fluid particles move in continuous
parallel paths.
Manifold : A fluid conductor which provides multiple connection ports.
Manual Override : A means of manually actuating an automatically
controlled device.
Micron : One millionth of a meter or about .00004 inch.
Open centre valve : One in which all ports are interconnected and open
to each other in centre or neutral position.
Pilot pressure : Auxiliary pressure used to actuate or control hydraulic
components.
Poppet : The part of certain valves which prevents flow when it closes
against a seat.

89
Port : An internal and external terminus of a passage in a component.
Pressure : Force per unit area e.g. bar, Kg/sq.cm, psi.
Pressure drop: The difference in pressure between any two points of a
system or a component.
Pressure Line: The line carrying the fluid from the pump outlet to the
pressurised port of the actuator.
Pressure plate : A side plate in a vane pump or motor catridge on the
pressure port side.
Pressure reducing / regulating valve : A pressure control valve
normally open and taking pilot signal from the delivery side, which limits
the maximum pressure at its outlet regardless of the inlet pressure.
Pressure Switch : An electric switch operated by fluid pressure.
Regenerative circuit : A piping arrangement for a differential type
cylinder in which discharge fluid from the rod end combines with pump
delivery to be directed into the head end.
Sequence valve : A pressure operated valve which, at its setting,
diverts flow to a secondary line while holding a predetermined minimum
pressure in the primary line.
Spool : A term loosely applied to almost any moving cylindrically shaped
part of a hydraulic component which moves to direct flow through the
component.
Sub-plate : An auxiliary mounting for a hydraulic component providing a
means of connecting piping to the component.
Swash plate : A stationary canted plate in an axial type piston pump
which causes the pistons to reciprocate as the cylinder barrel rotates.
Turbulent flow (turbulence) : A condition where the fluid particles
move in random paths rather than in continious parallel paths.
Unload : To release flow (usually directly to the reservoir), to prevent
pressure being imposed on the system or portion of the system.
Unloading valve : A valve which by-passes flow to tank when a set
pressure is maintained on its pilot port.
Vent : (1) To permit opening of a pressure control valve by opening its
pilot port (vent connection) to atmospheric pressure. (2) An air breathing
device on a fluid reservoir.
Viscosity : A measure of the internal friction or the resistance of a fluid
to flow.
Viscosity Index : A measure of the viscosity temperature characteristics
of a fluid as refer to that of two arbitrary reference fluids.
Wobble plate : A rotating canted plate in an axial type piston pump
which pushes the pistons into their bores as it "wobbles".


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