Mobile Working Hydraulic System Dynamics

Linkping Studies in Science and Technology.
Dissertations No. 1697
Mobile Working Hydraulic

System Dynamics
Mikael Axin
Division of Fluid and Mechatronic Systems

Department of Management and Engineering
Linkping University, SE581 83 Linkping, Sweden
Linkping 2015
c Mikael Axin, 2015
Copyright
Mobile Working Hydraulic System Dynamics
ISBN 978-91-7685-971-1
ISSN 0345-7524
Distributed by:
Division of Fluid and Mechatronic Systems
Department of Management and Engineering
Linkping University
SE-581 83 Linkping, Sweden
Printed in Sweden by LiU-Tryck, Linkping, 2015.

To Elsa
Barn tnker inte p den tid som gtt
eller den tid som kommer. De njuter

gonblicket, vilket f av oss gr.
Jean de La Bruyre (1645-1696)

Det viktigaste en far kan gra fr sina
barn r att lska deras mor.
David O. McKay (1873-1970)

Abstract
This thesis deals with innovative working hydraulic systems for mobile
machines. Flow control systems are studied as an alternative to load
sensing. The fundamental difference is that the pump is controlled based
on the operators command signals rather than feedback signals from the
loads. This control approach enables higher energy efficiency and there is
no load pressure feedback causing stability issues. Experimental results
show a reduced pump pressure margin and energy saving potential for
a wheel loader application.
The damping contribution from the inlet and outlet orifice in direc-
tional valves is studied. Design rules are developed and verified by ex-
periments.
A novel system architecture is proposed where flow control, load sens-
ing and open-centre are merged into a generalized system description.
The proposed system is configurable and the operator can realize the
characteristics of any of the standard systems without compromising
energy efficiency. This can be done non-discretely on-the-fly. Experi-
ments show that it is possible to avoid unnecessary energy losses while
improving system response and increasing stability margins compared
to load sensing. Static and dynamic differences between different control
modes are also demonstrated experimentally.
i
ii
Populrvetenskaplig
sammanfattning
Arbetshydraulik i mobila maskiner

Hydrauliska system anvnds i en mngd olika mobila tillmpningar, s-
som entreprenad-, skogs- och jordbruksmaskiner. Hydraulik kan anvn-
das fr bde framdrivningen och arbetshydrauliken. Ett exempel p
arbetshydraulik r det system som styr skoprrelsen hos en grvmaskin.
Forskningen som presenteras i den hr doktorsavhandlingen behandlar
arbetshydrauliksystem i mobila maskiner. Innovativa systemkonstruk-
tioner fresls och diskuteras i relation till bde befintliga och nnu inte
kommersiellt tillgngliga system fr arbetshydraulik.
Idag styrs hydrauliken hos de flesta mobila maskiner med ppet-
centrum system. I maskiner med hga krav p energieffektivitet an-
vnds vanligtvis lastknnande system. I den hr avhandlingen studeras
fldesstyrda system som ett alternativ till lastknnande system. Den
huvudsakliga skillnaden r hur systemets pump styrs. I ett lastkn-
nande system styrs pumpens tryck genom att den knner lasten.
I ett fldesstyrt system skickar pumpen istllet ut den mngd flde
som operatren begr. Detta gr att energieffektiviteten blir hgre i
fldesstyrda system eftersom tryckdifferensen mellan pump och last ges
av systemets motstnd snarare n en frinstlld konstant tryckskillnad.
Detta bekrftas genom mtningar p en hjullastare. Under en typisk ar-
betscykel minskas energitgngen fr arbetshydrauliken med cirka 15 %.
Fldesstyrda system skulle kunna vara ett alternativ till lastknnande
system i framtiden.
P grund av maskinernas mngsidighet har olika typer av hydraulsys-
tem utvecklats fr olika tillmpningar. Viktiga egenskaper fr ett hy-
iii
draulsystem r bland annat energieffektivitet, styrbarhet, dmpning och
komplexitet. I den hr doktorsavhandlingen presenteras ett flexibelt hy-
draulsystem dr operatren har mjlighet att ndra styregenskaper. Det
r mjligt att realisera ett lastknnande system, ett fldesstyrt system,
ett ppet-centrum system och en blandning dremellan, utan att kom-
promissa med energieffektiviteten. Mtningar p en lastbilskran demon-
strerar systemets prestanda. Detta flexibla hydraulsystem skulle kunna
vara ett alternativ i framtiden fr att undvika ngra av de kompromisser
som annars mste gras.
iv
Acknowledgements
The work presented in this thesis has been carried out at the Division
of Fluid and Mechatronic Systems (Flumes) at Linkping University.
There are several people who have made this thesis possible and to
whom I would like to express my gratitude.
First of all I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Petter Krus,
for his support, supervision and valuable input to my work. I am also
very grateful to Professor Jan-Ove Palmberg, former head of division.
Thank you for giving me the opportunity to be a part of this division.
I would like to give special thanks to Doctor Bjrn Eriksson, co-author
of most of my papers, for his great support and commitment during the
course of my work. To my other colleagues, thank you for making the
university a fun place to work at.
Thanks go to Parker Hannifin for their financial involvement and their
help with hardware and other resources. A special thank you to Erik
Forsberg; even on vacation I can count on your support.
Most of all, I would like to thank my family and friends for always
being there for me. Christer and Gunnel, I realize how lucky I am to
have you as father and mother. Johan, Per, and many more, thank
you for all the fun adventures and trips. I hope for many more in the
future. My greatest gratitude goes to my wife Jennie and our wonderful
daughter Elsa for their great support, encouragement and love.
Linkping, August, 2015
Mikael Axin
v
vi
Papers
The following six appended papers will be referred to by their Roman

numerals. All papers are printed in their originally published state with
the exception of minor errata and changes in text and figure layout in
order to maintain consistency throughout the thesis.
In all papers, the first author is the main author, responsible for the
work presented, with additional support from the co-writers. A short
summary of each paper can be found in chapter 11.
[I] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, and P. Krus. Flow versus pressure control

of pumps in mobile hydraulic systems. In: Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part I: Journal of Systems
and Control Engineering. 228(4) (2014), pp. 245256.
[II] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, J.-O. Palmberg, and P. Krus. Dy-

namic Analysis of Single Pump, Flow Controlled Mobile Systems.
In: The Twelfth Scandinavian International Conference on Fluid
Power (SICFP11). Vol. 2. Tampere, Finland, 18-20 May 2011,
pp. 223238.
[III] M. Axin, J.-O. Palmberg, and P. Krus. Optimized Damping in

Cylinder Drives Using the Meter-out Orifice - Design and Exper-
imental Verification. In: 8th International Fluid Power Confer-
ence (IFK). Vol. 1. Dresden, Germany, 26-28 March 2012, pp.
579591.
[IV] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, and P. Krus. A Hybrid of Pressure and

Flow Control in Mobile Hydraulic Systems. In: 9th International
Fluid Power Conference (IFK). Vol. 1. Aachen, Germany, 24-26
March 2014, pp. 190201.
vii
[V] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, and P. Krus. Energy Efficient Fluid Power
System for Mobile Machines with Open-centre Characteristics.
In: 9th JFPS International Symposium on Fluid Power. Matsue,
Japan, 28-31 October 2014, pp. 452459.
[VI] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, and P. Krus. A Flexible Working Hy-

draulic System for Mobile Machines. Submitted to: International
Journal of Fluid Power, 2015.
Other papers and publications

The following six publications are not included in the thesis but con-
stitutes an important part of the background. The first author is the
main author, responsible for the work presented. An exception is pa-
per [VIII], where the two first authors are the main authors, responsible
for the work presented, with additional support from the co-writers.
[VII] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, and J.-O. Palmberg. Energy Efficient Load

Adapting System Without Load Sensing - Design and Evalua-
tion. In: The 11th Scandinavian International Conference on
Fluid Power (SICFP09). Linkping, Sweden, 2-4 June 2009.
[VIII] M. Axin, R. Braun, A. DellAmico, B. Eriksson, P. Nordin, K.

Pettersson, I. Staack, and P. Krus. Next Generation Simulation
Software using Transmission Line Elements. In: Fluid Power and
Motion Control (FPMC). Bath, UK, 15-17 September 2010, pp.
265276.
[IX] M. Axin. kad dmpning genom rtt design av utloppsstrypnin-

gen. In: Hydraulikdagarna. Linkping, Sweden, 17-18 April 2012
(in Swedish).
[X] M. Axin. Fluid Power Systems for Mobile Applications with a

Focus on Energy Efficiency and Dynamic Characteristics. Licen-
tiate thesis. Linkping University, 2013.
[XI] M. Axin and P. Krus. Design Rules for High Damping in Mo-
bile Hydraulic Systems. In: The 13th Scandinavian International
Conference on Fluid Power (SICFP2013). Linkping, Sweden, 3-5
June 2013.
viii
[XII] M. Axin. Arbetshydraulik i mobila maskiner. In: Hydraulikda-
garna. Linkping, Sweden, 16-17 March 2015 (in Swedish).
ix
x
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Research Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Thesis Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Mobile Working Hydraulic Systems 5

2.1 Valve Controlled Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Valveless Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 System Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Single Pump Systems using Conventional Spool Valves . . 10
2.4.1 Open-centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.2 Load Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.3 Open-centre Load Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.4 Negative Load Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.5 Negative Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.6 Positive Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.7 Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3 Flow Control Concepts 19

3.1 Pressure Compensators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.1 Traditional Compensators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.2 Flow Sharing Compensators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Pump and Valve Control Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.1 Flow Control using Traditional Compensators . . . 24
3.2.2 Flow Control using Flow Sharing Compensators . 26
xi
4 Energy Efficiency Analysis 29
5 Dynamic Analysis 33
5.1 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2 Pump Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2.1 Load Sensing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2.2 Flow Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3 Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.3.1 Active Control of the Inlet Orifice . . . . . . . . . 39
5.3.2 Design and Control of the Outlet Orifice . . . . . . 42
6 A Flexible Working Hydraulic System 45

6.1 Pump Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.2 Combining Flow Control and Load Sensing . . . . . . . . 46
6.3 Combining Open-centre and Flow Control . . . . . . . . . 48
6.4 Combining Load Sensing and Open-centre . . . . . . . . . 51
6.5 Complete System Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7 Experimental Results 55
7.1 Energy Efficiency Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.2 Outlet Orifice Damping Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.3 Flexible System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.3.1 Flow Matching Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.3.2 Dynamic Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.3.3 Load Dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8 Discussion 67
9 Conclusions 71
10 Outlook 73
11 Review of Papers 75
Appended papers
I Flow versus Pressure Control of Pumps 87
II Dynamic Analysis of Flow Controlled Systems 115
xii
III Optimized Damping Using the Meter-out Orifice 141
IV A Hybrid of Pressure and Flow Control 161
V Efficient System with Open-centre Characteristics 181
VI A Flexible Working Hydraulic System 201
xiii
xiv
Nomenclature
The quantities used in this thesis are listed in the table. Capital letters
are used for linearized and Laplace transformed variables.
Quantity Description Unity

Ac Cylinder area m2
Ac1 Compensator area exposed to control pressure m2
Ac2 Compensator area exposed to control pressure m2
Aoc Opening area in the open-centre path m2
As Directional valve opening area m2
Bp Viscous friction coefficient Ns/m
Cq Flow coefficient -
Dp Pump displacement m3 /rev
Fs Compensator spring stiffness N
Kca Flow-pressure coefficient for the inlet orifice m3 /Pa s
Kcaopt Kca which gives the highest damping m3 /Pa s
Kcb Flow-pressure coefficient for the outlet orifice m3 /Pa s
Kcbopt Kcb which gives the highest damping m3 /Pa s
Lp Pump inductance Pa s2 /m3
mL Load mass kg
np Pump shaft speed rev/s
Pa Pressure on the piston side of the cylinder Pa
Pamax Maximum pressure on the piston side Pa
Pb Pressure on the piston rod side of the cylinder Pa
pL Load pressure Pa
pLmax Maximum load pressure Pa
poc Pressure in the open-centre path Pa
Pp Pump pressure Pa
pr Reduced pressure Pa
xv
ps Supply pressure Pa
Qa Flow into the cylinder m3 /s
Qb Flow out of the cylinder m3 /s
qL Load flow m3 /s
Qp Pump flow m3 /s
qpmax Maximum pump flow m3 /s
Qpref Pump flow demand m3 /s
qvirtual Virtual open-centre flow m3 /s
s Laplace variable 1/s
U Mechanical gear ratio -
Va Volume at the piston side of the cylinder m3
Vb Volume at the piston rod side of the cylinder m3
Vp Pump hose volume m3
Xp Piston position m
xv Valve position m
e Bulk modulus Pa
p Pump displacement setting -
i Parameter for the inlet orifice -
o Parameter for the outlet orifice -
hmax Maximum damping -
Pp Pump pressure margin Pa
Ppref Pump pressure margin demand Pa
Cylinder area ratio -
Parameter -
Density kg/m3
Parameter -
Go Open-loop transfer function
G pF C Pump transfer function
GpLS Pump transfer function
G va Inlet valve transfer function
Gvea Inlet valve transfer function
G vb Outlet valve transfer function
Hs Pump hose transfer function
ZL Load transfer function
xvi
1
Introduction
Fluid power systems are used in a wide range of applications, mobile as
well as industrial. In mobile machinery, such as construction, forestry
and agricultural machines, fluid power is used for both propulsion sys-
tems and working hydraulics. An example of working hydraulics is the
system controlling the boom and bucket motion of an excavator. This
thesis covers the area of working hydraulic systems for mobile machines.
Innovative system designs are proposed and discussed in relation to both
existing and not yet commercially available working hydraulic systems
for mobile machinery.
1.1 Background
There are several reasons for preferring hydraulic systems to other tech-
nologies. Hydraulic components have a superior power density compared
to, for example, electrical components [Rydberg, 2009] [Thiebes, 2011].
It is simple and efficient to realize linear movements of large forces
by using differential cylinders [Murrenhoff et al., 2014]. Furthermore,
hydraulic systems have the ability to handle force impacts, which
makes them more robust than, for example, mechanical transmissions
[Eriksson, 2010]. Hydraulic components are generally available at lower
cost compared to other technologies, especially for high power appli-
cations [Rydberg, 2009]. Other properties of hydraulic systems are
their good heat transfer capability and the simple overload protection
[Yuan et al., 2014].
Hydraulic systems also present some challenges. The most impor-
tant one concerns their energy efficiency [Weber and Burget, 2012]
1
[Grey, 2011]. Much progress has been made in making the individual
components more efficient [Vael et al., 2009] [Achten, Vael, et al., 2011].
However, each component has its optimum working condition, which
often leads to poor overall system efficiency [Achten, Vael, et al., 2011]
[Inderelst, 2013].
When improving energy efficiency in hydraulic systems, the trend
is to use additional components and sensor-dependent functionality
[Weber and Burget, 2012] [Eriksson, 2007]. Meanwhile, less attention
has been paid to the dynamic properties. A hydraulic system with poor
dynamic properties has a tendency to oscillate, which has a negative
impact on both the productivity of the application and the comfort of
the operator.
1.2 Aims
The introduction of electrically controlled components in the field of
hydraulic systems has opened up new possibilities [Brand, 2012]. One
aim of this thesis is to improve the energy efficiency and the dynamic
performance of working hydraulic systems for mobile machines without
adding additional components or increasing complexity. The only differ-
ence between the systems proposed in this thesis and commercially avail-
able systems is that the traditional hydro-mechanical pump controller
is replaced by an electrical controller. This makes the pump controller
more flexible with the possibility to control both flow and pressure.
Historically, different hydraulic systems have been developed for dif-
ferent types of machines. A further aim of this thesis is therefore to
propose a more flexible hydraulic system layout which has the possibil-
ity to change static and dynamic characteristics online to fit a specific
machine, working cycle or operator.
Finally, the solutions proposed in this thesis should also be validated
experimentally to verify the expected performance.
1.3 Delimitations
This thesis concerns the energy efficiency and dynamic characteristics of
working hydraulic systems in mobile machines. Other aspects, such as
manufacturing and marketing, are not taken up. Industrial hydraulics
and propulsion systems are not included in this work. This thesis is also
2
Introduction
limited to the hydraulic system; the combustion engine or the electrical

motor powering the hydraulic pump is therefore not included. The field
of digital hydraulics is also not included in this thesis.
1.4 Contribution
The most important contribution of this thesis is a deeper understanding

of how energy efficiency and dynamic characteristics can be improved
in working hydraulic systems in general and flow control systems in
particular. Novel ways of designing and controlling the directional valves
in order to optimize damping are proposed and demonstrated. A new
solution to the flow matching problem is proposed and its functionality
is verified by experiments. A flexible hydraulic system design where the
operator can change system characteristics online is also proposed and
demonstrated.
1.5 Research Method
This thesis has been influenced by the hypothetico-deductive method

of research [Johansson, 2003]. Typically, a hypothesis is formed and
then tested using mathematical analysis, modelling and simulation, and
experimental verification. An example from this thesis is the energy
efficiency improvements of flow control systems compared to load sens-
ing systems. The hypothesis is that changing from pressure control of
the pump to flow control would increase energy efficiency. A simula-
tion model is built of the existing load sensing system. Experimental
data is collected from the existing system and uncertain parameters in
the simulation environment are tweaked in order for the model to agree
with reality to an acceptable degree. Parts of the model can now be
changed to accurately represent the new system. In this case, it means
that the pump controller is changed. The hypothesis can now be tested
and confirmed in the simulation environment. However, some impor-
tant physical phenomena might have been overlooked in the simulation
models and the new system needs to be validated in a test rig. The test
rig is then rebuilt and a final validation can be performed.
3
1.6 Thesis Outline

A review of working hydraulic systems in mobile machines is made in
chapter 2. Both existing and not yet commercially available systems are
discussed. Flow control systems are studied in detail in chapter 3. An
energy efficiency analysis comparing flow control and load sensing is per-
formed in chapter 4 and a dynamic analysis comparing the two systems
is made in chapter 5. In chapter 6, a flexible working hydraulic system
with changeable characteristics is proposed. It is possible to realize load
sensing, flow control, open-centre or a mix of the three systems. Exper-
imental results are shown in chapter 7. Energy efficiency improvements
for flow control compared to load sensing are shown and the damping
contribution of the outlet orifice in the directional valve are exemplified.
A solution to the flow matching problem is also demonstrated and the
static and dynamic differences between different control modes of the
flexible hydraulic system are presented. A discussion is given in chap-
ter 8, conclusions in chapter 9 and an outlook in chapter 10. Finally, all
appended papers are briefly summarized in chapter 11.
4
2
Mobile Working
Hydraulic Systems
Mobile hydraulic applications distinguish themselves from other hy-

draulic applications, such as industrial hydraulics, because the pressure
and flow demand varies greatly over time and between different func-
tions. Unlike other hydraulic applications, several functions are often
supplied by one single pump. This means that the total installed power
on the actuator side is generally considerably higher than the installed
pump power. This is possible because the actuators almost never require
their maximum power at the same time. The need for only one system
pump makes the hydraulic system compact and cost-effective.
Fluid power systems have been used successfully in mobile machines

for several decades. Because of the machines versatility, different hy-
draulic systems have been developed for different applications. Impor-
tant properties of hydraulic systems are, among others, energy efficiency,
controllability, damping and system complexity. However, the order of
importance of these properties varies for different applications. This
chapter gives an overview of the most commonly used working hydraulic
systems of today. It also presents some innovative system designs that
have not yet been commercialized but are attracting considerable atten-
tion both in industry as well as academia. Energy efficiency, controlla-
bility, damping and system complexity are discussed and compared.
5
2.1 Valve Controlled Systems

Today, most hydraulic systems in mobile machines are operated with
open-centre valves and fixed displacement pumps, see figure 2.1a. Such
systems can be considered to be relatively simple, robust and cost-
effective, but also often energy-inefficient. These systems suffer from
load interference, which means that the pressure level at one load can
significantly influence the velocity of other actuators. Furthermore, the
flow rate is not only dependent on spool position, but also on load press-
ure, often referred to as load dependency. From a controllability point
of view, this is often considered a drawback. From a dynamics point
of view load dependency is a desired property. It gives the system a
naturally high damping, which means that the system is less prone to
oscillations. To obtain damping from a valve, the flow has to increase
when the pressure drop across the valve increases and vice versa. Damp-
ing is a preferred property when handling large inertia loads, for example
the swing function of a mobile crane.
Constant pressure systems improve controllability compared to open-
centre systems since they have no load interference issues. Other char-
acteristics, such as efficiency and dynamics, are similar to open-centre
systems and complexity is slightly higher, mainly because constant press-
ure systems often use a pressure controlled variable displacement pump.
It is, however, possible to increase energy efficiency of constant pressure
systems by, for example, using secondary control [Palmgren, 1988] or
introducing an intermediate pressure line [Dengler et al., 2012].
Load sensing systems improve energy efficiency compared to open-
centre and constant pressure systems by continuously adapting their
pressure just above the highest load. A pressure difference, usually
around 20-30 bar, between pump and load is necessary to overcome
losses in hoses and valves. This pressure margin is often set substan-
tially higher than necessary to ensure it is high enough at all operational
points. A load sensing valve is often equipped with a pressure com-
pensator which controls the pressure drop across the directional valve,
see figure 2.1b. Different loads can thereby be operated almost with-
out load interference and load dependency, giving excellent controllabil-
ity properties. An early review of load sensing systems was made by
[Andersson, 1980].
One weakness of load sensing systems using pressure compensated
6
Mobile Working Hydraulic Systems
(a) System with open-centre valves and a fixed displacement

pump.
(b) System with pressure compensated load sensing valves and

a pressure controlled variable displacement pump.
Figure 2.1 Different system designs commonly used for the working
hydraulics in mobile applications.
7
valves is the hydraulic damping. The primary design endeavours to

achieve low influence on the flow from the load pressure. This decreases
the damping capability of the valve. When using pressure compensators,
only the outlet orifice in the directional valve will provide damping to the
system, see papers [III] and [XI]. Furthermore, the pump in load sensing
systems is controlled in a closed-loop control mode, where the highest
load is the feedback signal. At certain points of operation, this might
result in an oscillatory behaviour. A complete investigation of load sens-
ing systems and their dynamic properties, including pump controllers,
can be found in [Krus, 1988]. The dynamics of pressure compensated
valves have been studied in, for example, [Pettersson et al., 1996] and
[Wu et al., 2007].
To improve energy efficiency but still maintain load dependency and

high damping, systems based on variable displacement pumps and open-
centre valves have been developed. One type of solution is to control the
pump in order to keep the flow through the open-centre path constant.
The controllability is similar to open-centre systems, which means a
smooth control with high damping. Power losses are generally higher
than in closed-centre load sensing systems but not as high as in open-
centre systems because of the variable pump. However, open-centre
variable pump systems have power losses in neutral while closed-centre
load sensing systems do not. Another type of solution is to use a flow
controlled pump and open-centre valves. The pump displacement setting
can be controlled either by the joystick pilot pressure or by the flow
rate in the open-centre path. These systems are studied in detail in
section 2.4.
A step forward from systems using conventional spool valves is to de-

couple the inlet and the outlet orifices in the directional valve. Numer-
ous configurations for individual metering systems have been developed,
both in academia as well as in industry [Eriksson and Palmberg, 2011].
These concepts provide a higher degree of freedom as all four orifices
are separated and can be controlled individually. The main benefit of
this increased freedom is that the flow paths can be changed during
operation. Four different operational cases can be identified; normal,
regenerative, energy-neutral and recuperative [Eriksson, 2010].
8
2.2 Valveless Systems

One hot research topic in the area of mobile hydraulics is systems
in which the control valves are eliminated along with the metering
losses. Multiple concepts have been developed, including pump con-
trolled actuators, hydraulic transformers and electro-hydrostatic actu-
ators [Williamson and Ivantysynova, 2007]. Such systems are not yet
common commercially in mobile applications but can be found in, for
example, the aerospace industry [Raymond and Chenoweth, 1993].
Instead of using one pump to supply all actuators, every actuator
has a dedicated pump in pump controlled actuator systems. To con-
trol the speed, the pump displacement setting is used as the final
control element. All losses are thereby ideally eliminated. In real-
ity, the losses are heavily dependent on the efficiency of the system
pumps [Williamson and Ivantysynova, 2007]. These systems can prin-
cipally be differentiated in two different circuit layouts, either with the
pump arranged in a closed circuit [Rahmfeld and Ivantysynova, 2001]
[Rahmfeld, Ivantysynova, and Weber, 2004] or in an open circuit
[Heybroek, 2008].
A hydraulic transformer converts an input flow at a certain pressure
level to a different output flow at the expense of a change in pressure
level, ideally maintaining the hydraulic power. One way of realizing a
transformer is to combine two hydraulic machines, where at least one has
a variable displacement. Efficiency is limited, however, mainly because
at least one of the machines will operate under partial loading con-
ditions [Werndin and Palmberg, 2003]. In recent years, an innovative
transformer concept has been developed by the Dutch company Innas
BV [Achten, Fu, et al., 1997]. The conventional transformer with two
hydraulic machines has been replaced by one axial piston unit, thereby
avoiding partial loading conditions. A mean efficiency of 93% in a broad
region of operation has been reported [Achten, Vael, et al., 2011].
The main component in electro-hydrostatic actuator systems, often
referred to as EHA, is a fixed displacement bidirectional hydraulic pump.
An electric motor is usually used to power the pump, enabling active
control of the rotational speed and thereby the flow to the actuator. A
conventional EHA requires a symmetrical actuator in order to ensure
flow balance, but solutions for handling asymmetrical cylinders have
been proposed [Gomm and Vanderlaan, 2009]. In EHA systems, the
pump only operates when control action is needed.
9
2.3 System Summary

When more than one load is actuated, often only the heaviest load can
be operated efficiently in single pump systems. This issue is resolved in
valveless systems. When all loads have their own dedicated pump, the
pressure can always be matched against the present load. One has to
bear in mind, however, that valveless systems may require several valves
to handle, for example, asymmetric cylinder actuation and meet safety
requirements [Williamson and Ivantysynova, 2007] [Heybroek, 2008].
Furthermore, since all actuators have their own dedicated pump in
the valveless concepts, each one has to be sized to handle maximum
speed. A typical example of a dimensioning motion is the lowering boom
motion in a wheel loader. The lowering flow can be several times higher
than the maximum pump flow in a similar valve controlled system. The
difference is that all flow has to be handled by the pump in valveless
system layouts. In single pump systems, the pump can be downsized
since not every load is actuated at full speed simultaneously very often.
For these reasons, the total installed displacement tends to be high in
valveless systems compared to single pump systems.
2.4 Single Pump Systems using Conventional

Spool Valves
When improving energy efficiency in fluid power systems, the trend
is to use additional components and more sophisticated control algo-
rithms [Weber and Burget, 2012] [Eriksson, 2007]. Meanwhile, basic
constraints such as space requirements, initial cost and control com-
plexity are often overlooked. This thesis therefore focuses on single
pump systems using conventional spool valves. Both pressure and flow
controlled pumps are discussed.
2.4.1 Open-centre
Open-centre systems are used together with fixed displacement pumps
and have a valve design with a channel in the centre position, directing all
flow to tank when no valve is activated. When a valve is shifted from its
neutral position, the open-centre channel begins to close and the pump
pressure increases. Figure 2.2a shows an example of the opening areas as
10
1
open-centre path
0.9 working ports
0.8
0.7
Opening area [-]
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Spool displacement [-]
(a) An example of opening areas as a function of spool
displacement for an open-centre valve.
0.9
0.8
88%
0.7
Load pressure [-]
0.6
0.5 dp
80%
0.4 dq
0.3
70%
0.2
60%
0.1
32% 40% 50%
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Load flow [-]
(b) Load pressure as a function of load flow for differ-
ent spool positions. The opening areas from figure 2.2a
have been used. The damping contribution from the open-
centre path is directly proportional to the slope of the curve,
dq/dp.
Figure 2.2 Open-centre system characteristics.
11
a function of spool displacement. There will be a flow to the load when

the pump pressure is higher than the load pressure. The rate of this
flow is thus not only dependent on spool displacement, but also on load
pressure, see figure 2.2b. This load pressure sensitivity gives the op-
erator a pressure control, which means that he or she can control the
acceleration of the load, giving the system a smooth control with high
damping. A non-skilled operator might experience this pressure sensi-
tivity as an inconsistency and it can then be regarded as a disturbance.
However, a skilled operator can use this information feedback from the
system to advantage and increase the machines controllability. A major
drawback with open-centre systems is, however, poor energy efficiency
in most points of operation due to the fixed displacement pump.
2.4.2 Load Sensing

Load sensing systems improve the energy efficiency compared to open-
centre systems by continuously adapting their pressure just above the
highest load, see figure 2.3. This means that a specific spool displace-
ment results in a certain flow, regardless of the load pressure. This is
also true for simultaneous movements of loads if pressure compensators
are used. The pressure insensitivity makes load sensing systems easy to
Figure 2.3 The pump in load sensing systems is controlled in order

to maintain the pump pressure at a certain level above the highest load
pressure.
12
operate for velocity or position control of low inertia loads. With high
inertia loads, however, the operation becomes jerky because of the low
damping.
2.4.3 Open-centre Load Sensing

To overcome the shortcomings in load sensing systems, characterized by
low damping and lack of pressure control, open-centre load sensing valves
have been developed. They are a modification of the conventional and
well accepted open-centre valve to work more efficiently with variable
displacement pumps. One solution is to add a metering orifice upstream
of the open-centre path in the directional valve. The pump is controlled
in order to maintain a constant pressure drop across the metering ori-
fice, see figure 2.4. This will in turn keep the by-pass flow through the
open-centre channel constant. Activating a valve will gradually close
the by-pass orifice, creating a pressure drop in the by-pass flow and in-
crease the pump pressure. The spool displacement will thus determine
the pump outlet pressure, similar to a conventional open-centre system,
which gives the system a smooth control with high damping. However,
the efficiency is lower than in closed-centre load sensing systems because
Figure 2.4 The pump in open-centre load sensing systems is controlled

in order to maintain a constant pressure drop across the metering orifice,
thereby keeping the flow through the open-centre path constant. A stan-
dard load sensing pump is used.
13
of the power losses in the open-centre gallery. An advantage is that the

same pump controller as in conventional load sensing systems can be
used. The system is called open-centre load sensing because of the com-
bination of a standard load sensing pump and open-centre valves.
2.4.4 Negative Load Sensing
Another way to combine a pressure controlled pump and open-centre

valves is to add a metering orifice downstream of the open-centre channel
in the directional valve. The pump is then controlled in order to maintain
a constant pressure upstream of the metering orifice, see figure 2.5. This
will keep the by-pass flow in the open-centre channel constant, similar to
open-centre load sensing. The difference between the two system layouts
is that the pump controller works the other way around. When sensing
a pressure increase, the pump displacement is decreased. This system is
therefore called negative load sensing.
Figure 2.5 The pump in negative load sensing systems is controlled

in order to maintain a constant pressure upstream of the metering orifice,
thereby keeping the flow through the open-centre path constant. A load
sensing pump with an inverted controller is used.
14
2.4.5 Negative Flow Control

An alternative to a pressure controlled pump is to control the pump
displacement setting. This could be done by, for example, an in-
ternal hydro-mechanical feedback of the pump displacement setting
[Swash-plate pump K3VL]. The pressure upstream of a metering orifice,
located in the open-centre channel downstream of the directional valve,
is used to control the pump displacement setting, see figure 2.6. When
the valve is in neutral position, the pump is de-stroked to a low displace-
ment, directing all flow through the open-centre path. As a directional
valve is opened, the open-centre path is gradually closed, increasing the
pump pressure. When the load pressure is overcome, part of the flow
is directed to the load. This decreases the pressure upstream of the
metering orifice, making the pump increase its displacement. When the
open-centre path is completely closed, the pressure upstream of the me-
tering orifice is at a minimum level and the pump is thus at maximum
displacement. This system is called negative flow control since a de-
creased control pressure gives an increased pump displacement setting,
see for example [Choeng, 2011] and [Liao et al., 2012]. An advantage
with this system is that the flow through the open-centre path decreases
with increased pump flow. This is different compared to open-centre
Figure 2.6 The pump in negative flow control systems is controlled

by the pressure upstream of the metering orifice. The pump displacement
setting is increases with a decreased control pressure.
15
load sensing and negative load sensing, where the pump is controlled in
order to maintain a constant open-centre flow.
2.4.6 Positive Flow Control

An alternative to negative flow control is to control the pump displace-
ment setting using the highest joystick pilot pressure, see figure 2.7.
When no joystick is activated, the pump displacement setting is low and
all flow is directed to tank. Activating a joystick will increase the pump
flow and gradually close the open-centre path, which increases the pump
pressure. There will be a flow to the load when the pump pressure is
higher than the load pressure. This system is called positive flow control
since the flow increases with increased joystick signal [Cobo et al., 1999].
One drawback with this system layout is simultaneous operation of sev-
eral functions. Since the pump displacement setting is determined by the
highest joystick pilot pressure, flow demands from different loads are not
added. Furthermore, it is essential to have knowledge about every flow
consumer in the system since there is no feedback signal to the pump
controller. Therefore, it might be problematic to connect auxiliary func-
tions, for example support legs, to the existing hydraulic system. An
advantage with positive flow control is the possibility to use a valve in
joystick pilot signal
Figure 2.7 The pump and the valves are controlled by the operators
joystick signals in positive flow control systems. The highest joystick pilot
pressure gives a reference displacement signal to the pump controller.
16
which the open-centre path is closed at a relatively small spool position.

This gives a pressure control with smooth control and high damping for
low velocities and velocity control with no pressure sensitivity for high
velocities.
2.4.7 Flow Control

A step forward from positive flow control is to replace the hydro-
mechanical pump controller with an electrical controller. It would then
be possible to add flow demands from different loads. Furthermore, it
would be possible to use closed-centre spool valves equipped with press-
ure compensators, thus eliminating load interaction issues. This results
in a system layout similar to load sensing, but with one principal differ-
ence: instead of controlling the pump in a closed-loop pressure control
mode, an open-loop control is used where the pump displacement set-
ting is based on the sum of all requested load flows. Sensors are not
required to achieve the desired functionality and all components needed
are available on the market [Latour, 2006]. In this work, the system will
be referred to as flow control. Such concepts are studied in detail in
chapter 3. An energy efficiency comparison between load sensing and
flow control is made in chapter 4 and a dynamic comparison between
the two systems is performed in chapter 5. In chapter 6, the concept
is extended to allow changeable system characteristics. Experimental
results demonstrating some of the findings in this thesis are shown in
chapter 7.
17
18
3
Flow Control
Concepts
In mobile hydraulic systems, the actuation of different loads is controlled

by joystick signals. These signals pose either a flow or pressure demand
from the operator. In applications with high demands as regards control-
lability, the signals from the operator often correspond to flow demands.
One example is load sensing systems equipped with pressure compen-
sators. Nevertheless, the pump in these kinds of systems is still often
pressure controlled.
In systems where the operators signals correspond to flow demands, it
seems more natural to also control the pump by flow. This approach has
some benefits regarding energy efficiency, dynamic characteristics and
increased flexibility compared to load sensing systems. It also presents
some challenges, for example the design of the compensator.
The idea of flow control is to use the joystick signals to control the
pump flow and the valve openings simultaneously, see figure 3.1. The
pump displacement setting is controlled according to the sum of all re-
quested load flows.
In the literature, different researchers have used different names for
systems where the pump displacement setting is controlled accord-
ing to the sum of all requested load flows. Initial considerations re-
garding this pump control strategy were patented by [Stenlund, 1988]
under the name Electrohydraulic guide system. Similar ideas
were published by [Zhe, 1993] under the name Summenstromre-
glerung, which roughly means Aggregate flow control. However,
suitable electro-hydraulic components were not available until sev-
19
joystick signal
Figure 3.1 Simplified schematic of a flow control system. The pump

displacement setting and the valve openings are controlled simultaneously
by the operators joystick signals.
eral years later. In 2004, research intensified [Jongebloed et al., 2004]

[Djurovic and Helduser, 2004] [Djurovic, Helduser, and Keuper, 2004].
[Jongebloed et al., 2004] used pressure sensors at all load ports for
the valve control, calling the system LCS Load-Control-System.
[Djurovic, 2007] studied a system design with traditional pressure com-
pensators, which requires the pump flow to be matched against the sum
of all load flows, sometimes referred to as the flow matching problem
[Eriksson and Palmberg, 2010]. Consequently, he used the notation
EFM Electrohydraulic Flow Matching, which is a proprietary Bosch
Rexroth brand name [Latour, 2006]. [Fedde and Harms, 2006] studied a
similar system design and used the name Flow Demand System. They
used a bleed-off valve to deal with the flow matching and studied the
pros and cons of overflow and underflow from the pump. [Finzel, 2010]
continued Djurovics work and introduced flow sharing compensators.
These compensators distribute the entire pump flow relative to the
individual valve openings, thus eliminating the flow matching problem.
In later publications, [Scherer, 2015] proposed a solution to deal with
a cylinder reaching its end stop and refer to the circuit as Flow-On-
Demand System.
When no function is activated, the pump is de-stroked, delivering no
20
Flow Control Concepts
flow to the system, and all directional valves are closed. Activating a
joystick will simultaneously open a valve and increase the displacement
of the pump. Pressure is built up in the pump hose and when the pump
pressure becomes higher than the load pressure there will be a flow to
the actuator. When stationary, the flow delivered by the pump will go
to the load. The pump pressure will therefore adapt itself to a level
needed by the system, resulting in efficiency improvements compared to
load sensing systems.
If more than one load is activated, all actuators will suffer from both
load interference and load dependency. This can be resolved by intro-
ducing sensors to the system. [Stenlund, 1988] and [Zhe, 1993] used
the velocities of the actuators as the main feedback signals for pump
and valve control. [Jongebloed et al., 2004] used pressure sensors at all
load ports for the valve control. To optimize energy efficiency, the valve
at the highest load can be opened to its maximum while lighter loads
are controlled by their valve openings.
These controllability issues can also be resolved by using pressure com-
pensators. There will, however, be different demands on the compen-
sator functionality compared to load sensing systems, but it also opens
up new possibilities regarding valve control.
3.1 Pressure Compensators

In some mobile fluid power applications, load dependency and load in-
teraction are undesired system characteristics. One example is forestry
machines, where the operator wants to position the load accurately.
Pressure compensators are commonly used in these kinds of applica-
tions to ensure good handling capabilities. Two different types of com-
pensators can be realized: traditional and flow sharing. In applications
with less demand for accuracy, it is also possible to take advantage of
flow forces for the pressure compensation functionality.
3.1.1 Traditional Compensators

The most common design is to place the compensator upstream of the
directional valve. The reduced pressure is then working against the load
pressure and a preloaded spring, see figure 3.2a. The force equilibrium
for the compensator, equation (3.1), together with the flow equation
gives the flow across the directional valve. According to equation (3.2),
21
the compensator spring force sets the pressure drop across the directional
valve, making the flow load independent.
Fs
Fs + Ac1 pL = Ac1 pr pr pL = (3.1)
Ac1
s s
2 2 Fs

qL = Cq As (pr pL ) = Cq As (3.2)
Ac1
It is also possible to achieve the same functionality by placing the

compensator downstream of the directional valve. In that case, the
supply pressure is working against the reduced pressure and a spring
according to figure 3.2b. The force equilibrium, equation (3.3), together
with the flow equation gives the same result, equation (3.2) compared
with equation (3.4).
Fs
Fs + Ac1 pr = Ac1 ps ps pr = (3.3)
Ac1
s s
2 2 Fs

qL = Cq As (ps pr ) = Cq As (3.4)
Ac1
These types of compensators are designed for use with a pressure con-
trolled pump. In case of the pump being saturated, the supply pressure
will drop, resulting in the compensator spool at the heaviest load open-
ing completely. This function will lose speed and possibly even stop.
Functions operated simultaneously at lower pressure levels will, how-
ever, move normally.
Ac1 Ac1
As qL As qL
pr
ps pr pL ps pL
Fs Ac1 Fs Ac1
(a) The compensator is placed up- (b) The compensator is placed
stream of the directional valve. downstream of the directional
valve.
Figure 3.2 Two different ways of realizing a traditional pressure com-

pensator. The pressure drop across the directional valve is set by the
compensator spring force.
22
3.1.2 Flow Sharing Compensators

Another design is to implicate the highest load pressure into the compen-
sator. When the pressure is actively controlled, this design is equivalent
to the traditional compensator design. However, its characteristics are
different when the pump is saturated. All functions will then be given
the same priority, which means that all functions will decrease in speed.
This flow sharing functionality can be achieved by placing the compen-
sator either downstream or upstream of the directional valve.
If the compensator is located downstream of the directional valve,
the reduced pressure is working against the highest load pressure and
a spring, see equation (3.5) and figure 3.3a [Control block M6-15]. The
pump pressure margin is defined according to equation (3.6) and the
flow can be calculated according to equation (3.7).
Fs
Ac1 pr = Ac1 pLmax + Fs pr = pLmax + (3.5)
Ac1
pp = ps pLmax (3.6)
s s
2 2 Fs

qL = Cq As (ps pr ) = Cq As pp (3.7)
Ac1
The flow sharing pressure compensator placed upstream of the direc-
tional valve is similar to its traditional equivalent. Instead of a spring,
two pressure signals that constitute the pump pressure margin are act-
ing on the compensator, see figure 3.3b. Equation (3.6) together with
pLmax
Fs
Ac1 Ac2 Ac1
As qL As qL
ps
ps pr pL pr pL
Fs Ac1 Ac2 Ac1
pLmax
(a) The compensator is placed (b) The compensator is placed up-
downstream of the directional stream of the directional valve.
valve.
Figure 3.3 Two different ways of realizing a flow sharing pressure com-
pensator. The pressure drop across the directional valve is set by the pump
pressure margin.
23
the force equilibrium for the compensator, equation (3.8), gives the flow
according to equation (3.9). The spring in this type of compensator is
not required for the functionality. It can rather be used as a design
parameter for, for example, prioritization [L90LS mobile control valve].
Ac2 ps + Ac1 pL = Ac2 pLmax + Ac1 pr + Fs
Ac Fs
(pr pL ) = 2 (ps pLmax ) (3.8)
Ac1 Ac1
s s
2 2 Ac2 Fs

qL = Cq As (pr pL ) = Cq As pp (3.9)
Ac1 Ac1
Flow sharing pressure compensators will distribute the entire pump
flow relative to the individual valve openings also when the pump is sat-
urated. A pressure controlled pump which has been saturated cannot
control the pressure and can therefore be seen as a flow controlled pump.
These compensators are therefore appropriate to use in flow control sys-
tems.
3.2 Pump and Valve Control Approaches

In flow control systems, the operators joystick signals control the pump
flow and the valve opening simultaneously. For this to work properly,
the system software needs knowledge about every flow consumer. How-
ever, solutions for attaching auxiliary functions have been proposed
[Mettl et al., 2007] [Eriksson and Palmberg, 2010]. Different control
approaches are possible depending on whether traditional or flow shar-
ing compensators are used.
3.2.1 Flow Control using Traditional Compensators

When using traditional pressure compensators, see figure 3.4, the abso-
lute flow through the valve is determined by the valve opening. This
means that the pump flow has to be matched against the sum of all
expected load flows. If this is not the case, two situations may occur.
The pump flow is too low This is the same case as when the pump
is saturated in load sensing systems. The compensator spool at
the highest load will open completely, resulting in a decrease in
speed for that load.
24
Figure 3.4 Simplified schematic of a flow control system using tra-

ditional pressure compensators. The system can also be realized with
traditional compensators placed downstream of the directional valves.
The pump flow is too high Both compensator spools will close more
and the pump pressure will increase until the systems main relief
valve opens. The throttle losses will be huge and the system will
emerge as a constant pressure system.
The reason for this is that both the pump and the valves control
the absolute flow, resulting in an over-determined flow situation. A
great deal of research solving this flow matching problem has been
presented. [Djurovic and Helduser, 2004] introduced a position sensor
placed on the directional valve. This gives precise knowledge of the flow
expected by the valve. It is also possible to equip the compensator with
a position sensor [Djurovic, Helduser, and Keuper, 2004]. If no compen-
sator is close to fully opened, the pump flow is too high. If the pump
flow is too low, the compensator at the highest load would be com-
pletely opened. A bleed-off valve to tank is proposed by several authors,
see for example [Djurovic, Keuper, et al., 2006], [Mettl et al., 2007]
25
and [Cheng, Xu, Liu, et al., 2013]. A small overflow is then acceptable,
which could be used in closed-loop control if a position sensor is added.
[Fedde and Harms, 2006] discuss the pros and cons of overflow and un-
derflow when using a bleed-off valve. [Grsbrink and Harms, 2009] and
[Grsbrink, Baumgarten, et al., 2010] propose a system design where
the pump is pressure controlled for low pump flows and flow controlled
for high flow rates. It is also possible to shift from flow control to pressure
control in case of an undesirable pressure build-up [Xu, Liu, et al., 2012]
[Xu, Cheng, et al., 2015]. A review of solutions to the flow matching
problem in flow control systems using traditional compensators has been
made by [Djurovic, 2007]. A novel approach to solve this problem is pro-
posed in this thesis, see section 6.2.
3.2.2 Flow Control using Flow Sharing Compensators

There are alternatives to address this flow matching problem without
adding additional components or sensors to the system. The key is to
implicate the highest load pressure into the compensator and thus obtain
the flow sharing behaviour described in section 3.1.2. The entire pump
flow will then be distributed relative to all active functions and there
will be no flow matching issues, see figure 3.5. Instead of controlling the
flow, the valves will serve as flow dividers. This has been studied in, for
example, [Latour, 2006] and [Finzel and Helduser, 2008a].
Using a flow controlled pump in combination with flow sharing press-
ure compensators opens up new possibilities in terms of controlling the
directional valves independently of the cylinder velocities. One control
approach is to open the valve section at the load with the highest flow
demand to its maximum, see [Finzel and Helduser, 2008b], paper [VII]
and [Cheng, Xu, and Yang, 2014]. Other active functions must always
be opened in proportion to its flow request. This control approach will
minimize the pressure drop across the directional valves and thus save
energy, see figure 3.6. This is further discussed in chapter 4.
Another control approach would be to use the valves to increase the
system damping. There is an optimal valve opening where the damp-
ing is maximized. For example, when a function is oscillating the valve
opening could be reduced temporarily in order to dampen the oscilla-
tions. When no oscillations are present, a more energy-efficient control
strategy can be used. This is further discussed in section 5.3.1.
26
Figure 3.5 Simplified schematic of a flow control system using flow

sharing pressure compensators. The system can also be realized with flow
sharing compensators placed downstream of the directional valves.
Pressure drop and opening area [-]
1
Pump flow 1
Pressure drop
Velocity, load 1 Opening area, load 1
Velocity, load 2 Opening area, load 2
Flow and velocity [-]
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time [-] Time [-]
(a) The pump flow and both actu- (b) The pressure drop across the di-
ator velocities are constant. rectional valves will decrease when
the opening areas are increased.
Figure 3.6 Flow sharing system characteristics. Both directional valve

opening areas are increased without affecting the actuator velocities. The
pressure drop across both directional valves will decrease.
27
28
4
Energy Efficiency
Analysis
The energy efficiency of flow control systems is similar to that of load

sensing systems. The pump pressure is adjusted according to the highest
load and high losses might occur when loads with different pressure
demands are operated simultaneously. However, instead of a prescribed
pressure margin, as in load sensing systems, the pressure drop between
pump and load is given by the resistance in the hoses and in the valves.
Furthermore, it is also possible to lower the pressure drop across the
directional valves by opening the valve at the load with the highest flow
demand to its maximum.
In load sensing systems, the pump pressure margin is set to overcome
the losses in the pump hose, the compensator and the directional valve.
These losses are system-dependent and will change with internal and
external conditions such as temperature, oil properties, hose length, etc.
The pressure margin is set according to the worst case to ensure it is
high enough at all operating points.
The pressure drop between pump and load can be divided into three
different losses:
Losses between pump and valve There will be a pressure drop be-
tween the pump and the valve. The magnitude will depend on
the internal and external properties mentioned above, but most
importantly the flow rate. A simplified model is that the losses
increase with the square of the flow rate.
29
Losses across the compensator There will be a pressure drop across

the compensator. High losses occur if the supply pressure is much
higher than the load pressure. This is the case at partial loading
conditions. The smallest possible loss occurs when the compen-
sator is fully opened. In this case, the required pressure drop
increases with the square of the flow rate.
Losses across the directional valve Typically, the compensator en-

sures that the pressure drop across the directional valve is constant.
However, the smallest possible pressure drop occurs if the valve is
fully open. The pressure drop will then follow the flow equation,
similar to the compensator pressure drop.
In figure 4.1a, these three different losses are shown. If the pressure
margin is set perfectly, there will be no unnecessary losses at maximum
flow rate in load sensing systems. However, at lower flow rates, unnec-
essary losses will occur. In flow control systems, these losses will be
eliminated since the pump pressure is set by the resistance in the hose
and the valve.
It is possible to further reduce the losses in flow control systems. This
is done by opening the valve section with the highest flow demand to its
Pump pressure margin [-]
Pump pressure margin [-]
directional valve losses fully opened directional valve

compen
compen
ents
losse
s
p rovem
s sary y im
unn
ece ienc
effic
s
s
ator los
ator los
es sses
loss e lo
ses
ses
e
h os h os
Flow [-] Flow [-]

(a) The pump pressure margin (b) The pump pressure margin is
is fixed in load sensing systems. given by the system resistances in
Therefore, unnecessary losses occur flow control systems. Efficiency im-
at lower flow rates. provements are therefore possible.
Figure 4.1 Classification of the losses between pump and load. Three
different losses occur: hose, compensator and directional valve losses. At
lower flow rates, unnecessary losses occur in load sensing systems. No
unnecessary losses occur in flow control systems.
30
Energy Efficiency Analysis
maximum, in which case the pressure drop across the directional valve
is minimized and additional energy savings are possible, see figure 4.1b.
A flow control system without pressure compensators would increase
efficiency even further. In this case, the valve section at the highest load
might be opened completely. However, its functionality requires closed-
loop control and is therefore sensor dependent [Jongebloed et al., 2004].
As can be seen in figure 4.1, the two system layouts have the same effi-
ciency at maximum flow rate if the pump pressure margin is set perfectly
in the load sensing system. Flow control systems have higher efficiency
for smaller flow rates. However, it is important to consider the power
losses rather than the pressure losses. For low flow rates, the power loss
will be small even for high pressure drops. Figure 4.2 shows the power
saving opportunities for flow control systems. The largest power savings
occur in the medium flow rate area. If the directional valve is opened
completely, even more power can be saved.
Flow control systems have no unnecessary losses for the highest load.
All losses that occur are necessary and limited by, for example, the diam-
eter of the hoses and the maximum opening areas in the valve. However,
flow control systems still have high losses under partial loading condi-
tions. To increase efficiency even further, individual metering valves or
additional hydraulic machines are required.
A flow control system with two hydraulic pumps has been studied
fully opened
directional valve
max
Power [-]
imu
m
flow
power savings
rate
Flow [-]
Figure 4.2 Power savings in flow control systems compared to load

sensing systems. More power can be saved if the directional valve is com-
pletely opened. No power is saved at maximum flow rate.
31
in [Finzel et al., 2009] and [Finzel et al., 2010]. The aim is to reduce
the losses under partial loading conditions without increasing the total
installed displacement. This is achieved by connecting the two pumps
when high flow rates are required by one load. Connecting several pumps
at high flow rates is a common solution for simpler systems, for example,
in excavators.
32
5
Dynamic Analysis
The dynamic analyses in this thesis were made to show the fundamental
differences between load sensing systems and flow control systems. Lin-
ear models are used and different types of compensators are considered
in the analyse. The only difference between the load sensing system
model and the flow control system model is the absence of feedback to
the pump controller in the flow control system, see figures 5.1 and 5.2.
Nevertheless, there are fundamental dynamic differences between the
two system layouts.
Kcb
mL Vb ,Pb
Qb
Ppref
GpLS
Xp
Vp ,Pp
Va ,Pa
Qp Kca Qa Ac
Figure 5.1 Dynamic load sensing system model.
33
Kcb
mL Vb ,Pb
Qb
Qpref
GpF C
Xp
Vp ,Pp
Va ,Pa
Qp Kca Qa Ac
Figure 5.2 Dynamic flow control system model.
5.1 Mathematical Model

A linear mathematical model is constructed to perform the dynamic
analyses. The derivation of the equations is shown in [Merritt, 1967].
The pump controller can be described in two different ways. In load
sensing systems, the controller consists of a pressure controlled valve
that controls the displacement piston. If the pressure balance, Pp =
Pp Pa , is disturbed, the valve is displaced and the pump setting is then
proportional to the integrated valve flow. Here, the pump is modelled
as a pure inductance, see equation (5.1) [Palmberg et al., 1985].
Qp 1
GpLS = = (5.1)
Ppref Pp Lp s
The pump controller in flow control systems controls the displacement,

and thereby the flow, directly instead of maintaining a certain pressure
margin above the highest load pressure. Such a pump controller has no
external feedback from the system, similar to the load sensing feedback.
Instead, it has an internal feedback measuring the actual flow rate. If
the flow balance, Qpref Qp is disturbed, the valve is displaced and
the pump setting is proportional to the integrated valve flow. Here, the
transfer function describing the displacement controlled pump dynamics
is called GpF C , see equation (5.2).
Qp
GpF C = (5.2)
Qpref
34
Dynamic Analysis
The continuity equation of the pump volume yields the transfer func-
tion in equation (5.3).
Pp e
Hs = = (5.3)
Qp Qa Vp s
The model for the inlet orifice in the directional valve will be differ-
ent depending on the design of the compensator. A non-compensated
valve will have a flow-pressure dependency according to equation (5.4).
In this analysis, the valve is considered to be much faster than the rest
of the system. The valve dynamics are therefore ignored. The dynam-
ics of pressure compensated valves have been studied in, for example,
[Pettersson et al., 1996] and [Wu et al., 2007].
Qa
G va = = Kca (5.4)
Pp Pa
A traditionally compensated valve will have no flow-pressure depen-

dency since the pressure drop across the directional valve is constant,
see equation (5.5).
Qa
G va = =0 (5.5)
Pp Pa
A flow sharing pressure compensated valve will have a flow-pressure
dependency, similar to a non-compensated valve, for the highest load.
Lighter loads have no flow-pressure dependency, like traditional compen-
sated valves. However, lighter loads will be disturbed by the highest load
due to cross-coupling of the highest load pressure to all compensators
[Lantto, 1994].
Qa
G va = = Kca , Pa = Pamax
Pp Pa
Qa
G va = = 0, Pa < Pamax (5.6)
Pp Pa
Qa
Gvea = = Kca , Pa < Pamax
Pp Pamax
A detailed investigation of valve models using different compensation

techniques can be found in [Lantto, 1994] and paper [II].
A mass load with a gear ratio is considered to act on a cylinder. The
continuity equation for the cylinder chambers together with the force
35
equilibrium for the piston is shown in equations (5.7), (5.8) and (5.9).
Va
Qa = sPa + Ac sXp (5.7)
e
U 2 mL s2 Xp + Bp sXp = Ac Pa Ac Pb (5.8)
Vb
Ac sXp Qb = sPb (5.9)
e
It is also possible to describe a load which consists of a hydraulic motor
by similar equations, see paper [II].
The outlet orifice in the directional valve is considered to have a flow-
pressure dependency according to equation (5.10).
Qb
G vb = = Kcb (5.10)
Pb
5.2 Pump Stability

Due to the absence of load pressure feedback to the pump controller in
flow control systems, there is a fundamental dynamic difference between
load sensing and flow control systems. To show this, the mathematical
model in section 5.1 can be simplified. A flow-pressure dependency at
the inlet side of the valve is assumed and the outlet orifice is ignored.
The simplifications will not influence the fundamental differences but
are important to bear in mind when making other dynamic analyses.
A transfer function from inlet flow to pressure in the cylinder can
be derived using equations (5.7) and (5.8). Ignoring the outlet orifice
results in a constant pressure on the piston rod side.
Pa U 2 mL s + Bp
ZL = = Va 2 Va
(5.11)
Qa 2 2
e U mL s + e Bp s + Ac
5.2.1 Load Sensing Systems

The dynamic behaviour of load sensing systems can be described by
equations (5.1), (5.3), (5.4) and (5.11). By reducing the block diagram
in figure 5.3a, the open-loop transfer function from desired pump press-
ure margin, Ppref , to actual pressure difference, Pp = Pp Pa , can
be derived according to equation (5.12). A complete investigation of
load sensing systems and their dynamic properties, including pump con-
trollers, can be found in [Krus, 1988].
36
Dynamic Analysis
Pp,ref+ Qp + Pp + Pp Qa
GpLS Hs G va b

Pa
ZL b
1
Gva
(a) Block diagram of a load sensing system derived from the transfer
functions (5.1) (pump controller), (5.3) (pump volume), (5.4) (inlet valve)
and (5.11) (load).
Pp,ref+ Pp
GpLS Go b
(b) Rearranged block diagram with the

loop gain GpLS Go .
Figure 5.3 Linear model of a load sensing system.
Hs
GpLS Go = GpLS (5.12)
1 + Gva (ZL + Hs )
By closing the control loop, the pump controller, GpLS , is a part of the
loop gain, GpLS Go , as shown in figure 5.3b. To achieve a stable system,
the loop gain must be kept lower than unity when the phase crosses
-180 . On the other hand, it would be feasible to increase the gain of
the pump and its controller to achieve a system that meets the response
requirements. To achieve a system with desired response, the gain of
the pump controller is increased, but at the same time the system is
approaching its stability limit. One should bear in mind that stability
at one operational point will not guarantee stability at another, see
figure 5.4.
5.2.2 Flow Control Systems

The dynamic behaviour of flow control systems can be described by
equations (5.2), (5.3), (5.4) and (5.11). This results in almost the same
37
log10(GpLS Go) [-]

0
-2
-4 mL increasing
-6
0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10
-90
Phase []
-180 mL increasing
-270
0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency [rad/s]
Figure 5.4 Bode plot of the open-loop gain in figure 5.3b, GpLS Go .
Table 5.1 Parameter values used in figure 5.4.
Parameter Value Unity

Ac 0.008 m2
Bp 10000 Ns/m
Va 4103 m3
Vp 5103 m3
Kca 1109 m5 /Ns
Lp 5108 Pa s2 /m3
mL [6000 12000 30000] kg
U 1 -
e 1109 Pa
block diagram as in figure 5.3. The only difference is the absence of

feedback to the pump controller, see figure 5.5. This results in a funda-
mental dynamic difference between load sensing systems and flow control
systems. Since there is no closed-loop for the pump controller, the sta-
bility issues described in section 5.2.1 are eliminated. The pump and its
controller can thereby be designed to meet the response requirements
without considering system stability. This has been verified by experi-
ments in [Latour, 2006] and [Finzel and Helduser, 2008a].
38
Dynamic Analysis
Qpref Qp + Pp + Pp Qa
GpF C Hs G va b

Pa
ZL b
(a) Block diagram of a flow control system derived from the transfer
functions (5.2) (pump controller), (5.3) (pump volume), (5.4) (inlet
valve) and (5.11) (load).
Qpref Pp
GpF C Go
(b) Rearranged block diagram

with no feedback present.
Figure 5.5 Linear model of a flow control system.
5.3 Damping
Hydraulic systems in themselves are normally poorly damped and need
some additional damping from the valves to prevent, or at least reduce,
their tendency to oscillate. To obtain damping from a valve, the flow has
to increase when the pressure drop across the valve increases and vice
versa. Statically, the flow is pressure-independent in flow control sys-
tems. The damping contribution from the directional valve is therefore
often low.
[Andersson, 1997] gives an overview of the valves contribution
to damping in mobile hydraulic systems. An overview of active
oscillation damping of mobile machine structure can be found in
[Rahmfeld and Ivantysynova, 2004].
5.3.1 Active Control of the Inlet Orifice

In this section, the damping contribution of the inlet orifice in flow
control systems is analysed. The cylinder friction and the outlet orifice
are ignored to simplify the analysis, see figure 5.6. The inlet valve is
assumed to have a flow-pressure dependency, which means that it could
be a non-compensated valve or a flow sharing valve at the highest load
39
mL
Xp
Vp ,Pp
Va ,Pa
Qp Kca Qa Ac
Figure 5.6 Dynamic model of a flow control system with a mass load.
The outlet orifice and the cylinder friction have been ignored.
according to equation (5.6).

The system can be described by equations (5.2), (5.3), (5.4) and (5.11).
An expression for the flow-pressure coefficient of the inlet orifice that
gives the highest damping was derived in paper [II] according to equa-
tion (5.13).
s
Ac Vp (i 1)
Kcaopt = (5.13)
3/4
i e U 2 mL
where
Vp
i = 1 + (5.14)
Va
The maximum damping in the system can be calculated using equa-
tion (5.15).
1
hmax = i 1 (5.15)

2
Equation (5.15) shows that the maximum damping given by the inlet
orifice only depends on the value of i , which includes the pump hose
volume and the volume at the inlet side of the cylinder according to
equation (5.14). To obtain a high damping contribution from the inlet
orifice, the pump hose volume should be large compared to the volume
on the inlet side of the cylinder. However, this relationship will change
during the cylinder stroke. Damping as a function of the inlet orifice
opening area for different values of i is shown in figure 5.7.
40
Dynamic Analysis
0.8
0.7
0.6
Damping [-]
0.5
i increasing
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Inlet orifice opening area [-]
Figure 5.7 System damping as a function of the opening area of the in-
let orifice. A small value of i gives low damping regardless of the opening
area. Damping will increase with higher values of i .
To obtain the highest possible damping for a given value of i , the inlet
orifice opening area has to be small. At certain points of operation this
might result in substantial power losses, see paper [II]. To avoid this,
it is possible to use the more energy-efficient control strategy described
in section 3.2.2 while no oscillations are present. When damping is
required, the valve can temporarily be closed more to reach the peaks
in figure 5.7. Finally, when the oscillations have subsided, the energy-
efficient control strategy can be applied again. This can be done in flow
control systems without affecting the cylinder velocities if flow sharing
pressure compensators are used.
Theoretically, a flow control system using traditional compensators
obtains no damping from the inlet orifice since the flow is independent
of pressure changes, see equation (5.5). This is also true for lower loads
using flow sharing compensators according to equation (5.6). One way
to obtain damping for such loads is to implement active damping, using
for example a dynamic load pressure feedback [Paavilainen et al., 2007].
A special case in this analysis is when the inlet orifice opening area
approaches infinity. This is the case in valveless systems, which have
no orifices at all. As can be seen from figure 5.7, the damping then
approaches zero. Consequently, a valveless system is ideally undamped.
41
5.3.2 Design and Control of the Outlet Orifice

In this section, the damping contribution of the outlet orifice is analysed.
The analysis is not limited to flow control systems, but is valid for all
pump controller designs. The prerequisite is that the inlet flow can be
modelled as a perfect flow source, which is true if the inlet orifice has no
flow-pressure dependency, see figure 5.8. This can be realized with, for
example, a traditional pressure compensator.
U
Kcb
mL Vb ,Pb
Qb

Xp
Va ,Pa
Qa Ac
Figure 5.8 Dynamic model of a flow controlled cylinder with a mass
load and an outlet orifice. The pump controller can be of any design; it
does not affect the analysis.
The system can be described by equations (5.7)-(5.10). Similar to the

analysis in section 5.3.1, the viscous friction in the cylinder has been
ignored to simplify the analysis. An expression for the flow-pressure
coefficient of the outlet orifice that gives the highest damping has been
derived in paper [III] according to equation (5.16).
s
Vb
Kcbopt = Ac o3/4 (5.16)
e U 2m
L ( o 1)
where
Va
o = 1 + 2 (5.17)
Vb
The maximum damping in the system can be calculated using equa-
tion (5.18).
1
hmax = o 1 (5.18)

2
42
Dynamic Analysis
0.8
0.7
0.6
Damping [-]
0.5
0.4
o increasing
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Outlet orifice opening area [-]
Figure 5.9 System damping as a function of the opening area of the
outlet orifice. Small values of o give a low damping regardless of the
opening area. The damping will increase with higher values of o .
Equation (5.18) shows that the maximum damping of the system de-
pends only on the value of o , which includes the volume at each side of
the cylinder and the cylinder area ratio according to equation (5.17). To
obtain a high damping contribution from the outlet orifice the volume
on the inlet side of the cylinder should be large compared to the volume
on the outlet side. This relationship will, however, change during the
cylinder stroke. A high value of the cylinder area ratio increases the
damping, which means that a symmetrical cylinder gives higher damp-
ing than an asymmetrical. The damping as a function of the outlet
orifice opening area for different values of o is shown in figure 5.9.
A valve design that is suggested in paper [III] is to optimize the damp-
ing when the piston is at its lower end position. While the piston moves
upwards, the damping will increase. If a higher damping is required, it
is possible to design the valve with a smaller orifice area. The drawbacks
with such a design are, however, that the damping will be slightly lower
at the pistons lower end position and that the losses across the outlet
orifice will be higher. If lower losses are required, it is possible to design
the valve with a larger opening area. However, this is at the expense of
a lower damping. There is no point in designing the valve with a too
small orifice area. The damping will then be low and the losses high.
If the inlet and outlet orifices were decoupled, as in individual meter-
43
ing systems, it would be possible to optimize the damping during the

cylinder stroke. While the piston is moving, the outlet orifice could be
controlled in order to achieve the highest possible damping. It would
also be possible to use a similar control approach to that described in
section 5.3.1. When no oscillations are present, the outlet orifice could
be fully opened, minimizing the losses. When damping is required, the
controller could shift to optimize the damping and temporarily allow
higher losses.
44
6
A Flexible Working
Hydraulic System
As described in chapter 2, different hydraulic systems have different

system characteristics. In some applications, smooth control with high
damping is desired while high energy efficiency and handling capabil-
ities with precise position control are important in others. Different
hydraulic systems have therefore been developed for different applica-
tions. A flexible system solution using an electrically controlled variable
displacement pump is proposed in this chapter. It is possible to realize
flow control, load sensing and open-centre, but also a mix of the three
systems. Conventional closed-centre spool valves are used, which results
in high energy efficiency.
6.1 Pump Controller

The pump controller used in the flexible working hydraulic system is
shown in figure 6.1. Sensors measure pump pressure, maximum load
pressure, shaft speed and pump displacement setting. Input signals from
the operator to the electric controller are pressure and flow commands. It
is thus possible to control both pressure and flow in closed-loop control.
A schematic block diagram of the controller is shown in figure 6.2. In
commercial applications, the controller which results in the lowest pump
displacement setting is selected.
45
Pressure output
Load signal input

pLmax
U U pp
p p
pcommand Electric ucontroller

qcommand controller
U
n
Shaft
Reservoir input
Figure 6.1 Electronic pump controller measuring pump press-

ure, maximum load pressure, shaft speed and displacement setting
[P1 axial piston pump]. Inputs from the operator are pressure and/or flow
commands.
6.2 Combining Flow Control and Load Sensing
Both load sensing and flow control have their respective pros and cons.
One drawback with load sensing is that the pump controller is a part
of the loop gain, as shown in section 5.2.1. Improving the pumps re-
sponse time will decrease the stability margins of the complete system.
Flow control has no such issues as explained in section 5.2.2, but other
challenges arise instead. For example, it is problematical to combine a
flow control pump with traditional pressure compensators, as shown in
section 3.2.1. The solution proposed in paper [IV] is to combine pressure
and flow control, thereby taking advantage of the respective benefits of
the two systems and at the same time avoiding their drawbacks.
46
A Flexible Working Hydraulic System
pLmax pp
+
-
pcommand +- perror
controller
ucontroller
qcommand + qerror
controller
-
Dp
p np
Figure 6.2 Schematic block diagram of the electric controller used in

commercial applications. The controller which gives the minimum pump
displacement is selected.
Similar ideas have been proposed by other researchers. A pump con-

troller which consists of an electro-hydraulic valve controlling the flow
and a hydro-mechanical valve controlling the pressure were studied in
[Grsbrink and Harms, 2009] and [Grsbrink, Baumgarten, et al., 2010].
The valves are combined in such a way that the minimum pump dis-
placement of the two controllers is selected. This means that the pump
will be flow controlled as long as the pump flow demand is not too
high. If the electro-hydraulic controller demands more flow from the
pump than the valves can handle, the pressure will rise and the pump
controller will automatically be switched to pressure control mode.
[Xu, Liu, et al., 2012] and [Xu, Cheng, et al., 2015] have studied a sim-
ilar approach. The difference is that both flow and pressure control
are realized electro-hydraulically. Both approaches use flow control
as the primary control mode and pressure control as a safety control
mode. Switching controllers might cause stability problems as shown
in [Xu, Cheng, et al., 2015]. [Hansen, 2009] and [Hansen et al., 2010]
proposed an electronic load sensing design with a pressure controller, in
which a feed forward from the joystick command signal was added.
This thesis proposes summarizing the flow controller and the pressure
controller in order to obtain influence from both pressure and flow. Fur-
thermore, it is possible for the operator to choose how much influence
47
pLmax pp
+
-
+- perror

pcommand controller
+
ucontroller
+ qerror +
qcommand controller 1-
-
Dp
p np
Figure 6.3 Schematic block diagram of the electric controller used in

this thesis. The output signal receives influence from both the pressure
controller and the flow controller. The parameter set by the operator
determines how much influence should come from the pressure and the
flow parts of the controller, respectively.
should come from the pressure and the flow, respectively. This is done
using a parameter, , see figure 6.3. = 1 results in a pure pressure
controller and = 0 results in a pure flow controller. 0 < < 1 results
in a combination of pressure and flow control. It is thus possible to
control the pump continuously from pressure control to flow control.
By using a combination of pressure and flow control, the pump dis-
placement setting is determined partly by the load pressure feedback and
partly by the flow command signal. A low load pressure feedback gain
can be used to solve the flow matching problem. When too much flow
is demanded by the pump and the system pressure rises, the pressure
controller will reduce the pump displacement setting, thereby avoiding
an undesired pressure build-up. Furthermore, since the pressure con-
troller only has to contribute a small part of the output signal to the
displacement control valve, stability margins are gained.
6.3 Combining Open-centre and Flow Control

Even though flow control has no stability issues attached to the pump
controller, the damping is still often low, as explained in section 5.3. One
48
way of increasing the damping is to introduce a load dependency into

the system. Open-centre systems have this load dependency in terms
of an open-centre channel. The losses, however, are often substantial.
Changing to a variable pump but still maintaining open-centre valves im-
prove efficiency. This is done in open-centre load sensing, negative load
sensing, negative flow control and positive flow control, see section 2.4.
This thesis proposes mimicking the behaviour of a conventional open-
centre system by using the electrically controlled pump and closed-centre
valves. This will increase energy efficiency further compared to variable
pump systems using open-centre valves.
In the proposed solution, the open-centre flow is reproduced virtually
by controlling the variable pump. The flow that would go through the
open-centre path in a conventional open-centre system is calculated by
measuring the pump pressure and having a model of the opening area
in the open-centre channel according to equation (6.1) and figure 2.2a.
s s
2 2
qvirtual = Cq Aoc1 (pp poc1 ) = ... = Cq Aocn poc
n
v
u n
1
u X
u (6.1)
u2 A2
u
k=2 ock
qvirtual = Cq Aoc1 u pp 1 n
u
u X 1
t
k=1
A2ock
The virtual flow through the open-centre path is then subtracted from
the maximum flow rate of the pump and the result is the command flow
sent to the pump controller, see figure 6.4.
When no valve is activated, the reference flow will be zero. That can
be compared with all flow going through the open-centre channel. Acti-
vating a valve will decrease the opening area of the virtual open-centre
channel, thus allowing a small flow to be sent by the pump, increas-
ing the pump pressure. At a certain pressure level, the reference flow
will find its equilibrium, only compensating for its own leakage. Acti-
vating the valve more will continue to increase the pressure until the
pump pressure becomes higher than the load pressure. There will then
be a flow to the load. Increasing the spool stroke further will decrease
the opening area in the virtual open-centre channel, which means in-
creased flow from the pump. When the valve is completely opened, the
49
qvirtual Open-centre U
p pp
channel model
qpmax +- qcommand
Pump controller
Figure 6.4 Open-centre mode for the proposed system. The virtual
flow going through the open-centre channel is calculated and then sub-
tracted from the maximum flow rate of the pump, resulting in a flow
command signal sent to the electronic pump controller.
pump will be at maximum displacement, sending all flow to the load. A

conventional open-centre system has exactly the same working principle,
although control is accomplished hydraulically instead of electrically, see
paper [V].
Since electronic control is used, it is possible to have an arbitrary
model of the virtual open-centre channel. For example, it would be pos-
sible to continuously decrease it in order to reduce the load dependency.
Here, it is proposed to have a parameter, , which is a multiplication
coefficient on the virtual flow. At the same time, will also change the
input signal to the system, see figure 6.5. Instead of being the maximum
flow rate, as in figure 6.4, the input signal will be dependent on the joy-
stick command signals from the operator. The extreme case is when no
load dependency exists at all, = 0, resulting in a flow control system.
By changing the value of , it is possible to realize a system with open-
centre characteristics, a flow control system or something in-between.
A similar commercial system design is the [VBO system] from Bosch
Rexroth. However, it does not have the possibility to tune the load
sensitivity online. Another similar solution has been patented by
50
qvirtual Open-centre U
p pp
channel model
qpmax +- qcommand
Pump controller
+
qp (xv )
1
Figure 6.5 Proposed system solution using a flow controlled pump.

= 1 results in open-centre mode, = 0 results in flow control mode and
0 < < 1 results in something in-between.
[Filla, 2014]. A conventional load sensing pump is used and the di-
rectional valves are actively controlled in order to achieve open-centre
characteristics.
6.4 Combining Load Sensing and Open-centre

In a conventional open-centre system, the operator controls the pump
pressure by activating a valve. The pump pressure is determined by
the opening area in the open-centre path and the magnitude of the
open-centre flow. This thesis proposes actively controlling the pump
pressure using the variable pump. The same virtual model of the opening
area in the open-centre path as in section 6.3 is used. The virtual flow
through the open-centre path is calculated by measuring the current
pump displacement setting and rotational speed, see equation (6.2). The
pump pressure can then be calculated according to equation (6.3).
qvirtual = qpmax qp = Dp np (1 p ) (6.2)
51
s s
2 2
qvirtual = Cq Aoc1 (pp poc1 ) = ... = Cq Aocn poc
n
n
! (6.3)
q 2 X 1
pp = virtual
2Cq2 A2
k=1 ock
When no valve is activated, the reference pump pressure will be close

to zero. This is the case when all flow is going through the open-centre
path in a conventional open-centre system. Activating a valve will de-
crease the opening area of the virtual open-centre channel, which will
increase the reference pump pressure. At a certain pressure level, equi-
librium will be found and the pump will only compensate for its own
leakage. The pump displacement setting will then be close to zero,
which means that all flow is still going through the open-centre channel.
Activating the valve more will continue to increase the pressure until
the pump pressure becomes higher than the load pressure. There will
then be a flow to the load and the pump displacement setting will in-
crease to maintain the pressure. This reduces the virtual open-centre
flow according to equation (6.2). Increasing the spool stroke further
will decrease the opening area in the virtual open-centre channel and
decrease the virtual open-centre flow, allowing more flow to the load.
When the valve is completely opened, the pump will be at maximum
displacement, sending all flow to the load.
Similar to section 6.3, it is possible to reduce the load pressure depen-
dency. This is done by the same parameter, , which in this case will
change the reference pump pressure. Instead of calculating the reference
pump pressure according to equation (6.3), it will also be influenced by
the maximum load pressure and an additional load pressure margin, see
figure 6.6. The extreme case is when no load dependency exists at all,
= 0, resulting in a load sensing system. By changing the value of ,
it is possible to realize a system with open-centre characteristics, a load
sensing system or something in-between.
A similar commercial system design is the 3G valve from Nordhy-
draulic [Andersson, 2013]. However, it does not have the possibility to
tune the load sensitivity online and a small excess flow is needed for
the functionality. Differences between the 3G valve and the solution
proposed in this thesis are that system control is accomplished purely
hydraulically and that it is possible to include compensators, which elim-
inates load interference issues.
52
pLmax
U
p
pp ++
pp (xv ) ++ pcommand
Pump controller
Figure 6.6 Proposed system solution using a pressure controlled pump.

= 1 results in open-centre mode, = 0 results in load sensing control
mode and 0 < < 1 results in something in-between.
6.5 Complete System Solution

In sections 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4, three different system solutions have been
proposed. All use the electronically controlled pump described in sec-
tion 6.1. In this section, the three solutions are combined in order to
realize a flexible and energy-efficient working hydraulic system.
In the complete system solution, the parameter determines if the
pump should be pressure controlled, flow controlled or something in-
between and the parameter sets the level of load dependency. Fig-
ure 6.7 shows the complete block diagram from input signals to dis-
placement control valve signal, ucontroller . No additional sensors are
needed, only those available for the electronic pump controller. With
the complete system solution, it is possible to realize a load sensing
system, a flow control system, an open-centre system or something in-
between, see figure 6.8. Compared with only having the possibility to
choose between the three original systems, this expands the design space
and opens up the possibility for optimal control characteristics to fit a
specific machine, working cycle, load or operator.
53
pLmax + pp pp
eq.(5.3)
1-
+ -
pp (xv ) + pcommand + perror
controller
qp (xv ) + ucontroller
1-
+
qpmax ++ qcommand + qerror
controller 1-
- -
eq.(5.1) Dp
qvirtual
Open-centre
channel model
pp p np
Figure 6.7 Complete block diagram for the proposed system design
from input signals to displacement control valve signal, ucontroller . de-
termines if the pump should be pressure controlled, flow controlled or
something in-between and sets the level of load dependency.
Open-centre, (, ) = (0 1, 1)
Design
space
Load sensing, (, ) = (1, 0) Flow control, (, ) = (0, 0)

Figure 6.8 Design space for the proposed system design.
54
7
Experimental
Results
The energy efficiency improvements described in chapter 4 have been
demonstrated using a wheel loader application. Also, the theories con-
cerning the design and control of the outlet orifice described in sec-
tion 5.3.2 have been validated in a test rig. Furthermore, some features
of the flexible hydraulic system described in chapter 6 have been demon-
strated using a lorry crane.
7.1 Energy Efficiency Improvements

The hardware requirements in flow control systems are similar to load
sensing systems. To achieve the same system capacity, a pump size of
the same magnitude is used. Only the pump controller needs to be dif-
ferent. Instead of actively maintaining a certain pressure margin above
the highest load pressure, the pump displacement is controlled directly
from the operators demand signals. This requires an electrically con-
trolled displacement controller for the pump. However, the load sensing
hose to the pump controller can be removed.
Flow control systems use the same type of valves as load sensing sys-
tems. Flow sharing pressure compensators are favourable but work-
arounds with traditional compensators also exist, see section 3.2.1. In
some valve designs, a traditional compensator placed upstream of the
directional valve can be replaced with its flow sharing equivalent without
even replacing the valve housing [L90LS mobile control valve].
Sensors are not required to achieve the desired functionality in flow
55
control systems if pressure compensators are used. It would be bene-

ficial, however, to use sensors to detect if the cylinder end stops have
been reached [Scherer et al., 2013a] [Scherer et al., 2013b]. If so, the
valve could be closed and the pump flow adjusted to avoid unnecessary
energy losses.
To verify the energy efficiency improvements in the flow control con-
cept, measurements were performed on a wheel loader application, see
figure 7.1. The machine was equipped with a pump that can be operated
in both pressure and flow control modes and a valve prepared for use
with both traditional and flow sharing compensators, placed upstream
of the directional valve.
Figure 7.1 The machine used for experiments.
In figure 7.2c, the pump pressure margin for both the load sensing and
the flow control systems can be seen. The measurements agree with the
theoretical pressure margin shown in figure 4.1. The flow sent by the
pump is similar in both systems, see figure 7.2a. It can also be observed
from figure 7.2b that the pressure is more oscillative in the load sensing
system. This is because the pump controller operates in a closed-loop
control mode [Krus, 1988].
A short loading cycle [Filla, 2011] has also been performed to com-
pare load sensing and flow control. Only the working hydraulics have
been taken into consideration, neither the steering nor the transmission.
Figure 7.3a shows the position of the actuators and figure 7.3b the en-
ergy consumption. The energy consumption was reduced by 14% for
the flow control system in this particular application. This is the same
order of magnitude as experiments performed in [Mettl et al., 2007]
and [Finzel and Helduser, 2008a].
56
Experimental Results
140 50
Load sensing 45 Load sensing
Pump pressure margin [bar]

120
Flow control 40
Flow control
100 35
Flow [l/min]
30
80
25
60
20
40 15
10
20
5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time [s] Time [s]
(a) Measured flow for both systems. (b) Measured pump pressure mar-
The flow is increased from zero to gin for both systems while the flow
maximum. is increased.
30
25 Load sensing
20
15
l
tro
con
10
w
5
Flo
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Flow [l/min]
(c) Measured pump pressure mar-
gin as a function of measured flow.
Load sensing systems have a con-
stant margin while flow control sys-
tems have a margin given by the sys-
tem resistances.
Figure 7.2 Experimental results showing the potential of reducing the

pump pressure margin in flow control systems compared to load sensing
systems.
57
0.6 160
Lift 140
0.5
Load sensing
120
0.4 Tilt
Flow control
Energy [kJ]
Position [m]
100
0.3 80
60
0.2
40
0.1
20
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time [s] Time [s]
(a) Measured positions of the actu- (b) Measured energy consumption
ators during the cycle. during the cycle.
Figure 7.3 Experimental results showing the actuator positions and

the consumed energy in a short loading cycle. The flow control system
consumed 14% less energy during the cycle than the load sensing system.
58
7.2 Outlet Orifice Damping Contribution

A test rig to validate the damping contribution by the outlet orifice has
been designed. It consists of a traditional pressure compensated valve
on the inlet side, a cylinder with a mass load and a servo valve on the
outlet side, see figure 7.4. Different designs of the outlet orifice can be
achieved by controlling the opening area of the servo valve. A constant
pressure pump supplies the system. Pressure sensors are attached on
the supply side and on both cylinder chambers. The cylinder and the
servo valve are equipped with position sensors. External volumes are
mounted on both sides of the piston. By using either one, it is possible
to manipulate the dead volumes on either side of the piston.
Figure 7.4 The experimental test stand. The pressure compensated

valve can be seen at the lower right and one of the volumes to the left.
In the experiments, a step is made in the flow by opening the inlet

valve. Oscillations in the cylinder velocity are then studied. The exper-
imental results are presented in figure 7.5. In tests (a) and (b), there
is a large volume on the inlet side which means that a relatively high
damping can be expected. In test (a), the outlet orifice area is dimen-
sioned close to the maximized damping. As can be seen in figure 7.5a,
there are almost no oscillations in the cylinder velocity. In test (b), the
outlet orifice area is larger than in test (a) and the damping is reduced,
see figure 7.5b.
In test (c), there is a large volume on the outlet side of the cylinder,
which means that the damping is expected to be low. The outlet orifice
area is dimensioned close to the maximized damping. Nevertheless, the
59
damping is still low according to figure 7.5c. This is consistent with the
mathematical analysis according to equations (5.17) and (5.18).
In test (d), the outlet orifice area is so large that it can be equated
with having no outlet orifice at all. Theoretically, the hydraulic system
will not contribute any damping without an outlet orifice as shown in
section 5.3.2. This is almost the case in the measurements, as can be seen
in figure 7.5d. The damping that is still obtained is due to secondary
effects ignored in the mathematical analysis, such as friction and leakage.
2 2
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
Velocity [-]
Velocity [-]
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Time [s] Time [s]
(a) A high damping is obtained (b) The damping is reduced when
when there is a large volume on the there is a large volume at the inlet
inlet side of the cylinder and the side and the outlet orifice area is too
outlet orifice is designed close to its large.
optimum.
3.5 2
1.8
3
1.6
2.5 1.4
Velocity [-]
Velocity [-]
1.2
2
1
1.5
0.8
1 0.6
0.4
0.5
0.2
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Time [s] Time [s]
(c) When there is a large volume at (d) Without an outlet orifice, only
the outlet side of the cylinder, the secondary effects such as friction and
damping is low even if the outlet ori- leakage will contribute to the damp-
fice is designed close to its optimum. ing.
Figure 7.5 Experimental results for different outlet orifice designs.
60
7.3 Flexible System Characteristics

A test rig has been designed in order to validate the performance of
the flexible working hydraulic system. It is a lorry crane with four
actuators: boom, jib, telescope and swing, supplied by an electrically
controlled pump that can be operated in both pressure and flow control
mode [P1 axial piston pump], see figure 7.6. The closed-centre direc-
tional valves are prepared for use with compensators or check valves.
Pressure sensors are attached on the supply side, on the load sensing
port of the directional valve and on both sides of all cylinders. The cylin-
ders are also equipped with position sensors, a flow sensor is attached on
the pump hose, and the pump is equipped with a displacement sensor.
Figure 7.6 The crane used for experiments. The boom cylinder con-
trols the first arm, the jib cylinder controls the second, telescope cylinders
can extend the second arm, and the swing cylinders can rotate the crane.
The valve packages can be seen lower right.
7.3.1 Flow Matching Problem

In this section, it is demonstrated how a combination of pressure and
flow control can solve the flow matching problem described in section
3.2.1. The directional valves are equipped with traditional pressure com-
pensators, controlling the absolute flow rate to the loads. The flow com-
mand to the pump controller is increased from a correct level to 10%
61
more than the valves are expecting. As can be seen from figure 7.7, the
pump pressure margin in flow control mode ( = 0) then increases from
a level slightly above 10 bar to about 55 bar. Theoretically, the pressure
would increase until the systems main relief valve opens but secondary
effects such as increased pump leakage stabilize the pressure. By intro-
ducing a load pressure feedback into the pump controller, the system
will find equilibrium on a lower pressure level. Figure 7.7 shows how 2%
and 5% load pressure feedback will affect the system. In load sensing
mode ( = 1), the system is insensitive to an incorrect flow demand
since the pump is controlled only by the load pressure feedback.
60
=0
50 = 0.02
= 0.05
=1
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time [s]
Figure 7.7 Pump pressure margin increase when too much flow is de-
manded by the pump for different values of . The flow demand is in-
creased from a correct level to 10% more than the valve expects. A higher
value of will make the pump controller less sensitive to an incorrect flow
demand.
7.3.2 Dynamic Characteristics

A step is made in the boom function to demonstrate some dynamic
differences between load sensing, flow control and solutions in-between.
The directional valves are equipped with check valves instead of pressure
compensators. It can be seen from figure 7.8 that flow control mode
( = 0) gives a faster response than load sensing mode ( = 1). This is
62
because the chain of signals to the pump controller is shorter. In load

sensing mode, the joystick generates a pilot pressure which displaces a
directional valve. The highest load pressure can then be sent electrically
to the pump controller, which generates flow and thereby a pressure
build-up in the pump hose. In flow control mode, a flow demand is
sent directly to the pump controller when a joystick is activated. When
controlling the pump with a combination of pressure and flow ( = 0.5),
the response time is between flow control and load sensing.
In figure 7.8, it is also possible to observe system stability. In load
sensing mode, the pump controller is a part of the loop gain, which gives
low stability margins and an oscillatory behaviour. By decreasing the
value of , and thereby decreasing the loop gain, the pump displace-
ment setting is partly determined by the load pressure feedback signal
and partly by the flow command signal. The pressure controller there-
fore only has to contribute a small part of the total output signal to
the displacement control valve, which means that stability margins are
gained. The oscillations are therefore lower for = 0.5. In flow control
mode, the oscillations are similar to = 0.5, which means that both
systems have high stability margins.
Similar results have also been reported in [Finzel and Helduser, 2008a]
where a hydro-mechanical load sensing controller is compared with an
electrical flow controller.
120 4
110 3.5
100
Pump pressure [bar]
3
Velocity [m/s]
90
2.5
80
70 2
60 1.5
50
1
40 =0 =0
= 0.5 0.5 = 0.5
30
=1 =1
20 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time [s] Time [s]
(a) Pump pressure as a function of (b) Crane velocity as a function of
time. time.
Figure 7.8 Dynamic comparison of the boom function for different

values of . A step is made at 0 seconds. A lower value of improves the
response time and decreases the oscillations.
63
7.3.3 Load Dependency
This section describes how different levels of load dependency affect the
static and dynamic characteristics of the flexible hydraulic system. The
pump is in flow control mode ( = 0) and the load dependency is set
according to = 0, 0.5 and 1, respectively. The joystick command signal
to the jib function is constant and a step is made in the boom function
at 1 second. At 4 seconds, the boom joystick signal is set to 0 again.
Figures 7.9a, 7.9c and 7.9e show the pump pressure and the highest
load pressure for different levels of load dependency. While moving, the
boom function has the highest load pressure. Otherwise, the highest
load pressure is the jib function. Figures 7.9b, 7.9d and 7.9f show the
boom and jib velocity and also the pump displacement setting.
The pump displacement setting is independent of the load pressure for
= 0. While increasing the value of , the flow becomes more pressure-
dependent. This static difference can be seen in figures 7.9b, 7.9d
and 7.9f. Since the jib function has a relatively low load pressure, the
virtual flow through the open-centre path will be small according to
equation (6.1). This results in a higher velocity for the jib function dur-
ing the first second when increasing the value of . When the boom
function is actuated, the pressure is increased to a relatively high level,
increasing the virtual flow. The boom velocity therefore decreases with a
higher value of . When the boom stops moving, the pressure is reduced
again. Because of the crane geometry, the jib function now requires a
slightly higher pressure than between 0 and 1 second. As can be seen
from figure 7.9b, this does not affect the static jib velocity when = 0.
However, when the load dependency is increased, the static jib velocity
is slightly lower because of a higher pump pressure, resulting in a higher
virtual flow through the open-centre path, see figures 7.9d and 7.9f.
The level of load dependency will also affect the dynamic characteris-
tics. When making a step in the boom function at 1 and 4 seconds, the
pump displacement setting and the system pressure levels will change.
Because of the pump controller dynamics, this results in an overshoot
and a few oscillations in the displacement setting when there is no load
dependency, see figure 7.9b. When a load dependency exists, oscillations
in the pump pressure will affect the pump displacement setting. As the
pressure rises, creating an accelerating force, the pump decreases its
displacement. The acceleration will then be slowed down, resulting in a
64
100 6 0.9
Pump pressure Boom velocity

90 5 0.8
Highest load pressure Jib velocity
Displacement setting [-]

80 Displacement setting
4 0.7
70
Velocity [m/s]
Pressure [bar]
3 0.6
60
50 2 0.5
40
1 0.4
30
Velo 0 0.3
20
-1 0.2
10
0 -2 0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time [s] Time [s]
(a) Pressures as a function of time (b) Crane velocity and pump dis-
for = 0. placement setting as a function of
time for = 0.
100 6 0.9

90 5 0.8

4 0.7
70
Velocity [m/s]
Pressure [bar]
3 0.6
60
50 2 0.5
40
1 0.4
30
0 0.3
20
-1 0.2
10
0 -2 0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time [s] Time [s]
(c) Pressures as a function of time (d) Crane velocity and pump dis-
for = 0.5. placement setting as a function of
time for = 0.5.
100 6 0.9

90 5 0.8
4 0.7
70
Velocity [m/s]
Pressure [bar]
3 0.6
60
50 2 0.5
40
1 0.4
30
0 0.3
20
-1 0.2
10
0 -2 0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time [s] Time [s]
(e) Pressures as a function of time (f) Crane velocity and pump displace-
for = 1. ment setting as a function of time for
= 1.
Figure 7.9 System characteristics for different values of . Decreasing

the value of decreases the load dependency.
65
system with more damping. As can be seen from figures 7.9a, 7.9c
and 7.9e, the pressure oscillations decrease while increasing the load
dependency. It can also be seen that the displacement setting is actively
controlled in order to reduce the pressure oscillations in figures 7.9d
and 7.9f.
66
8
Discussion
Every working hydraulic system has its own pros and cons and different
properties are important in different types of machines and/or working
cycles. Table 8.1 summarizes the systems discussed in this thesis in terms
of important properties for mobile working hydraulic systems. As can
be seen, no system is optimal. Conventional open-centre systems with a
fixed displacement pump are a good choice if a simple system with high
damping is preferred. Load sensing systems with closed-centre valves
improve energy efficiency and velocity control but are poorly damped.
Systems with variable displacement pump and open-centre valves are a
good compromise but lack the possibility to control velocity. In this the-
sis, open-centre load sensing, negative load sensing, positive flow control
and negative flow control have been discussed. Flow control systems
have some benefits compared to closed-centre load sensing but require
an electrically controlled pump.
The flexible working hydraulic system proposed in this thesis has high
energy efficiency and some adaptable characteristics. It has force con-
trol and high damping in open-centre mode and velocity control with
low interference in load sensing and flow control mode. It is possible
for the operator to tune two different parameters for optimal control
characteristics to fit a specific machine, function or working cycle.
When optimizing control characteristics, it is also important to con-
sider the operator. For example, the load sensitivity of an open-centre
system is said to give the operator a better feel of the machine. A skilled
operator can use this information feedback from the system to advantage
and increase the machines controllability. A non-skilled operator, how-
ever, might experience this load dependency as an inconsistency and it
67
can then be regarded as a disturbance. With the flexible system layout

proposed in this paper, it is possible for each operator to obtain their
optimal control characteristics without compromising energy efficiency.
The hardware difference between systems proposed in this thesis and
commercially common systems is mainly the pump controller. Con-
ventional hydro-mechanical controllers are well accepted in the mar-
ket, partly because of their robustness and high bandwidth. Electro-
hydraulic pump controllers are not yet common commercially but are
gaining acceptance. So far, electro-hydraulic controllers cannot compete
with hydro-mechanical when it comes to speed and robustness. They
are also often sensor-dependent and comparatively expensive. However,
electro-hydraulic components have a higher degree of flexibility and give
possibilities to introduce more functionality into the software.
One challenge is to keep safety and robustness at an acceptable level
while introducing more functionality into the software and complex con-
trol algorithms. Furthermore, mobile hydraulic systems entail control
difficulties such as nonlinearities, saturation and varying loads. It can,
therefore, be beneficial to maintain some critical control functionality in
the hardware, for example by using conventional directional valves for
simple and precise controllability of the loads.
68
Table 8.1 Working hydraulic systems comparison.
Open-centre Load sensing Variable pump Flow control Flexible system

open-centre
Pump Fixed Hydro-mechanical Hydro-mechanical Electrical Electrical
pressure control pressure/flow control flow control pressure/flow control
Valve Open-centre Closed-centre Open-centre Closed-centre Closed-centre
Velocity - + - + + (adaptable)
control
Force + - + - + (adaptable)
control
Efficiency - ++ + ++ ++
Damping + -- + - + (adaptable)
Interference - + - + + (adaptable)
Complexity ++ - + -- --
69
Discussion
70
9
Conclusions
The presented work shows that it is possible to improve dynamic perfor-
mance and energy efficiency compared to commercially common systems
without adding additional components or increasing complexity. A sys-
tem, referred to as flow control, has been proposed and studied which
allows a simpler system design process. This is because the pump in-
teraction with the system dynamics is minimized since there is no need
for load sensing feedback. As long as the pump is stable as an isolated
component, it will not cause any stability issues in the complete system.
In load sensing systems on the other hand, an apparently stable pump
can cause instability in the complete system.
Flow control systems are shown to be able to improve energy efficiency
compared to load sensing systems. Experiments on a wheel loader ap-
plication confirm the theoretical expectations and demonstrate energy
saving potentials in a short loading cycle. There are also potential en-
ergy savings tied to the absence of active control of the pump. Hardware
requirements are similar to load sensing except for the need for an elec-
tronically controlled pump.
It is also shown how the inlet orifice in directional valves can be ac-
tively controlled to optimize damping without affecting actuator veloc-
ity. Design rules to obtain high damping from the outlet orifice are
proposed and verified by experiments. In some operational cases, how-
ever, relatively high energy losses are needed to obtain high damping.
This trade-off is investigated and explained.
A novel system architecture is proposed where flow control, load sens-
ing and open-centre are merged into a generalized system description.
The proposed system is configurable and by tuning two parameters the
71
operator can realize the characteristics of any of the standard systems

without compromising energy efficiency. This can be done non-discretely
on-the-fly. By controlling the pump with a combination of pressure and
flow, it is possible to avoid unnecessary energy losses in case of a flow
mismatch between pump and valve, and at the same time improve sys-
tem response and increase stability margins compared to load sensing.
This is verified by experiments. Experiments also demonstrate that the
electronically controlled pump is fast enough to satisfy dynamic require-
ments.
72
10
Outlook
Today, both academia and industry devote a great deal of effort to the
area of energy-efficient hydraulic systems. This will most likely continue
in the future. In the short term, flow control systems are a complement,
or alternative, to load sensing systems in particular applications. The
challenge is how, and to what extent, sensors should be used. It is
possible to design a flow control system without the need for sensors,
but it might be desirable to use sensors in some operational cases. One
example is when a cylinder reaches its end stop. From an efficiency point
of view, substantial power savings are possible if the pump controller has
such information feedback from the loads.
In the longer term, individual metering and valveless systems will
probably gain market shares. Those systems are more energy-efficient,
especially during partial loading conditions. Furthermore, they also have
the possibility to recuperate energy from the loads. This energy can
either be used to run the system pump as a motor or be stored in, for
example, an accumulator. One interesting system layout in the future
could be to use a fixed displacement bidirectional pump powered by an
electric motor in flow control systems. This is a hybrid of eha and flow
control.
Which hydraulic system to choose will always be a compromise be-
tween, for example, efficiency, static and dynamic characteristics, con-
trollability, complexity, space requirements and cost. The flexible hy-
draulic system design proposed in this thesis might be an alternative in
the future to avoid some of these compromises.
Pure electrical functions will probably take market shares from hy-
draulics in the future. For example, there are already electrical drive-
73
lines available and their performance can be expected to improve. At

the same time, electrical components are likely to become cheaper. The
field of hydraulics will, however, probably have its niche in high power
applications and linear movements of large forces also in the future.
74
11
Review of Papers
In this chapter, the six appended papers in this thesis are briefly sum-
marized. Papers I and II analyse different aspects of flow control sys-
tems and compare the findings with load sensing systems. The damping
contribution of the outlet orifice is studied in paper III. In paper IV,
a combination of flow control and load sensing is proposed. Paper V
proposes a flow control solution with open-centre characteristics. In pa-
per VI, the findings from papers IV and V are put together, creating an
energy-efficient and flexible working hydraulic system.
Paper I
Flow versus pressure control of pumps in mobile hydraulic sys-
tems
This paper makes a review of both commercially available and future
working hydraulic systems for mobile machines. The flow control con-
cept is introduced and different pressure compensator techniques are
studied. The flow matching problem when using traditional compen-
sators in combination with a flow controlled pump is exemplified. So-
lutions with flow sharing compensators are presented, which include a
control strategy where the directional valve with the highest flow de-
mand can be fully opened with the aim of saving energy. Flow control
and load sensing are compared in terms of energy efficiency and dynam-
ics characteristics. Simulation results are shown and verified by experi-
ments in a wheel loader application. The results show increased energy
efficiency in flow control systems compared to load sensing systems.
75
Paper II
Dynamic Analysis of Single Pump, Flow Controlled Mobile Sys-
tems
In this paper, a dynamic analysis is performed where load sensing and
flow control systems are compared. Different pressure compensators are
included. It is shown that instability might occur in load sensing systems
due to the load pressure feedback to the pump controller and proven that
no such instability properties are present in flow control systems. It is
mathematically shown that flow sharing compensators will dynamically
disturb lighter loads. A novel way of controlling the directional valve in
order to optimize the damping is proposed. This can be done without
affecting the cylinder velocities. A relatively high pressure drop across
the inlet orifice in the directional valve is often required to obtain a high
damping.
Paper III
Optimized Damping in Cylinder Drives Using the Meter-out
Orifice Design and Experimental Verification
This paper analyses the damping contribution given by the outlet orifice
in the directional valve. The analysis is not limited to flow control
systems but is valid for all pump controller designs. The requirement
is that there is no flow-pressure dependency at the inlet side of the
valve, which can be realized with for example a traditional pressure
compensator. There is an optimal orifice area to obtain the highest
possible damping. Both smaller and larger areas give lower damping. A
valve design is proposed which optimizes the damping in the worst case
scenario. Experimental results confirming the theoretical expectations
are also presented.
Paper IV
A Hybrid of Pressure and Flow Control in Mobile Hydraulic
Systems
In this paper, a hybrid pump controller influenced by both pressure and
flow is proposed. The controller is tuneable to be able to set the order
76
Review of Papers
of importance of the pressure and the flow controller, respectively. It is

thus possible to realize a load sensing system, a flow control system or
a mix of the two. Using a low load pressure feedback gain and a high
flow control gain, a system emerges with high energy efficiency, fast
system response, high stability margins and no flow matching issues.
Both theoretical studies and practical implementations demonstrate the
capability of a hybrid pump control approach.
Paper V
Energy Efficient Fluid Power System for Mobile Machines with
Open-centre Characteristics
This paper presents a flexible and energy-efficient system solution which
mimics the behaviour of an open-centre system. Instead of having a flow
in the open-centre gallery, that flow is calculated using a pressure sensor
and a valve model. The variable pump is then controlled in order to only
deliver the flow that would go to the actual loads. It is also possible for
the operator to decide how much load dependency there should be. It
is possible to realize a system design with open-centre characteristics, a
flow control system or something in-between. Each operator can thereby
have their optimal control characteristics with high energy efficiency. A
dynamic analysis and simulation results are presented.
Paper VI
A Flexible Working Hydraulic System for Mobile Machines
In this paper, the findings from papers IV and V are put together, cre-
ating an energy-efficient and flexible working hydraulic system. It is
possible to realize open-centre, load sensing and flow control, but also a
mix of the three systems. One electrically controlled variable displace-
ment pump supplies the system and conventional closed-centre spool
valves are used. The pump control strategies are explained in detail.
The operator has the possibility to set two different parameters, which
results in different static and dynamic system characteristics. Experi-
mental results demonstrating one solution to the flow matching problem
and the static and dynamic differences between different control modes
are presented.
77
78
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86
Papers
The articles associated with this thesis have been removed for copyright
reasons. For more details about these see:
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-121070

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Linkping Studies in Science and Technology.

Dissertations No. 1697

Mobile Working Hydraulic

Division of Fluid and Mechatronic Systems

Mobile Working Hydraulic System Dynamics

Printed in Sweden by LiU-Tryck, Linkping, 2015.

Barn tnker inte p den tid som gtt

eller den tid som kommer. De njuter

Jean de La Bruyre (1645-1696)

David O. McKay (1873-1970)

Arbetshydraulik i mobila maskiner

Linkping, August, 2015

The following six appended papers will be referred to by their Roman

[I] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, and P. Krus. Flow versus pressure control

[II] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, J.-O. Palmberg, and P. Krus. Dy-

[III] M. Axin, J.-O. Palmberg, and P. Krus. Optimized Damping in

[IV] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, and P. Krus. A Hybrid of Pressure and

[VI] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, and P. Krus. A Flexible Working Hy-

Other papers and publications

[VII] M. Axin, B. Eriksson, and J.-O. Palmberg. Energy Efficient Load

[VIII] M. Axin, R. Braun, A. DellAmico, B. Eriksson, P. Nordin, K.

[IX] M. Axin. kad dmpning genom rtt design av utloppsstrypnin-

[X] M. Axin. Fluid Power Systems for Mobile Applications with a

2 Mobile Working Hydraulic Systems 5

3 Flow Control Concepts 19

6 A Flexible Working Hydraulic System 45

I Flow versus Pressure Control of Pumps 87

II Dynamic Analysis of Flow Controlled Systems 115

IV A Hybrid of Pressure and Flow Control 161

V Efficient System with Open-centre Characteristics 181

VI A Flexible Working Hydraulic System 201

Quantity Description Unity

limited to the hydraulic system; the combustion engine or the electrical

The most important contribution of this thesis is a deeper understanding

1.5 Research Method

This thesis has been influenced by the hypothetico-deductive method

1.6 Thesis Outline

Mobile hydraulic applications distinguish themselves from other hy-

Fluid power systems have been used successfully in mobile machines

2.1 Valve Controlled Systems

(a) System with open-centre valves and a fixed displacement

(b) System with pressure compensated load sensing valves and

valves is the hydraulic damping. The primary design endeavours to

To improve energy efficiency but still maintain load dependency and

A step forward from systems using conventional spool valves is to de-

2.2 Valveless Systems

2.3 System Summary

2.4 Single Pump Systems using Conventional

Figure 2.2 Open-centre system characteristics.

a function of spool displacement. There will be a flow to the load when

2.4.2 Load Sensing

Figure 2.3 The pump in load sensing systems is controlled in order

2.4.3 Open-centre Load Sensing

Figure 2.4 The pump in open-centre load sensing systems is controlled

of the power losses in the open-centre gallery. An advantage is that the

2.4.4 Negative Load Sensing

Another way to combine a pressure controlled pump and open-centre

Figure 2.5 The pump in negative load sensing systems is controlled

2.4.5 Negative Flow Control

Figure 2.6 The pump in negative flow control systems is controlled