Nature of Resistance

Center for Nanoscale Systems Institute for Physics Teachers (CIPT)
632 Clark Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853

www.cns.cornell.edu/cipt/
[email protected]

Title: The Nature of Resistance
Original:
Revision:
7 August 2008
13 February 2009
Authors: Jim Overhiser and Julie Nucci
Appropriate Level: Regents and AP Physics
Abstract:
Students perform a series of guided activities that illustrate
how microscopic and macroscopic features of metals relate to
resistance and current flow. Activities include: thermal
considerations of resistance, electron drift under an applied
voltage, the effect of defects on resistivity, and the effect of
length and cross-sectional area on resistance.
Time Required: Three to four 40 minute lab periods
NY Standards Met:
Energy may be stored in electric or magnetic fields. This
energy may be transferred through conductors or spaces and
may be converted to other forms of energy. (4.1j)
All materials display a range of conductivity. At constant
temperature, common metallic conductors obey Ohms Law.
(4.1l)
The factors affecting resistance in a conductor are length,
cross-sectional area, temperature and resistivity. (4.1m)
Special Notes: This activity assumes knowledge of atomic bonding, Ohms
Law and conceptual definitions of current, resistance, and
voltage.
The Nature of Resistance is a kit available from the CIPT
Equipment Lending Library, www.cns.cornell.edu/cipt/.
Behavioral Objectives:
Upon completion of this lab activity, students should be able to:
Describe and explain the factors that influence the resistance of a conductor
including: thermal effects, material defects, length of the conductor, and cross-
sectional area of the conductor.
Accurately explain how electrons move in a conductor.

Class Time Required:
120 minutes for main lab activities

Teacher Preparation Time:
Minimal. Setting out materials and background reading.

Tips for the Teacher:
Check all meters and batteries prior to lab
Study material explaining the influence of defects on resistivity.

Assumed Prior Knowledge of Students:
Ohms Law
Conceptual definitions of: voltage, current, charge, chemical bonding

Activities overview:

1. Pre-lab. Students define terms and identify concepts important to understanding
electrical conduction on an atomic level.

2. Electron interactions
a. Thermal motion: Using a pencil and paper activity, students explore the thermal
behavior of electrons in a conductor on an atomic level.
b. Heat and resistance: Students perform an activity to illustrate the effect of
temperature on resistance (via its effect on the resistivity).
c. Voltage and electron drift: Using a pencil and paper activity, students examine
how electrons drift when a voltage is applied to a metal.

3. Defect Effects
a. Atomic BBs: Students use BBs to model the arrangement of atoms in a
polycrystalline metal. The concept of crystallographic defects as a source of
residual resistivity will be introduced. The main defects discussed are vacancies
and grain boundaries.
b. Grain boundaries: Using a pen and paper activity, students examine the effect of
grain boundaries on electron drift in a metal under an applied voltage.

4. Play-Doh Resistor: Students use Play-Doh to measure the effect of conductor shape
on resistance.
Page 1
Materials The Nature of Resistance
Answers to questions & background information for teachers:

1. Pre-lab: Soccer Ball Activity

1. A simple circuit in your house contains wires that connect a switch to a light.
Describe what electrons in the wires do when you flip the switch and turn on a light.
The electrons drift under the applied voltage and current is produced. Electrons do
not travel far to light the light, it is slight collective movement of electrons in the
entire circuit that results in the immediate response of the switch. You can think of
this as water immediately coming out the end of a full hose when the spigot is turned
on.

2. Give your best estimate of how fast the electrons move through the wire when the
light is turned on. Electrons actually drift under typical operating conditions at a
velocity between 10
-4
10
-3
cm/sec.

3. The fire department says you should never run appliances off extension cords. Why?
Appliances, which generally consume lots of power, are built with heavy gauge wires.
If you connect an appliance to an extension cord, the current density in an extension
cord, which likely has a smaller diameter wire that the appliance, will be too high.
The resulting Joule heating (resistive heating of the wire) in the extension cord due to
the increased current density, could be a fire hazard.

4. Why do power lines have a large diameter and why does the tungsten filament in a
light bulb have a very small diameter? A larger diameter wire is used for a higher
current carrying power line since it has a lower current density and therefore loses
less electrical energy to heat. A power cable should also be constructed of a low
resistivity metal to minimize its resistance. Copper is one of the lowest resistivity
metals: = 1.67 -cm. The opposite is needed for a light bulb. In this case, the
object is to resistively heat the wire so much that it glows. Thus, you need a very
small diameter wire made from a thermally stable metal. Tungsten is used because its
very high melting point (T
m
= 3422 C) enables it to maintain dimensional stability
when glowing (at 3000 C). The resistivity of tungsten is also more than three times
that of Cu, which makes it easier to Joule heat than copper.

Background Information for Teacher:
This activity is an analogy for electron drift and is intended to give students an
introduction to the idea that a gradient (i.e. voltage in a wire) can alter the path of
random thermally-induced electron motion. Although it is not suggested that the teacher
discuss this concept at the start of the lesson, it is an activity to be returned to in an effort
to better clarify the electron activities presented later in the lesson.

5. Draw an arrow on both pictures from the initial to the final ball position. What is the
difference between the two vectors? The soccer ball ended up in two very different
places.

Page 2
6. Assuming no barriers (i.e. trees and rocks), explain what geographic feature could
have caused the soccer ball to take such a different path. Answers may vary during
discussion but the teacher should lead the students to the fact that the land must be
sloped and it causes the ball to wander in the downhill direction each time it was
kicked. Another valid explanation is that there is a stiff wind blowing to the right.
(NOTE: This will be used as an analogy for applying a voltage to a
conductorrelating gravitational potential energy to potential difference. Under very
high current densities, electrons can actually cause metal atoms on a computer chip
to move in the direction of current flow. In this case, scientists refer to an electron
wind to explain this phenomenon, which is called electromigration.)

7. If the soccer ball represents an electron, what does the geographic feature you
identified represent in an electrical system? Applied voltage (potential difference).

Note: Please make sure you discuss these concepts before moving onto activity 2.

2a. Thermal Motion

Above absolute zero (0 K or -273C) all materials have internal (thermal) energy, which
causes the atoms in the material to vibrate (the fancy word for these thermal vibrations is
a phonon). Some of this energy is transferred from atoms to nearby electrons and can
cause a free electron to change both its direction and velocity. Since room temperature is
about 300 C warmer than absolute zero, you can imagine that atoms are vibrating with
more than enough energy to transfer some to nearby electrons. In the thermal motion
activity, students will model how energy transfer between atoms in a metal and free
(conducting) electrons affects electron motion.

Due to the random nature of the dice rolling and the rules for moving to another atom, the
student-to-student results should be very random. This randomness and lack of direction
characterizes thermal motion.

8. Length of your net vector (in cm): Answers will vary.

9. Class average for the net vector length (in cm): Answers will vary.

10. On the chart to the right, indicate with a vector the general direction of your resulting
direction from your starting point (use a colored pencil).

11. Distribution of net vector directions for the entire class: Using a different color pencil,
draw the vectors produced in the other experiments in class.

12. Explain the class results and the effect demonstrated by rolling the dice? The results
of the students work should show random behavior with resultant vectors showing up
in all sectors. The vector length will vary, but on average should not be too long. The
sum of all the vectors from the class would ideally produce no resultant displacement
Page 3
of the electron. Given the small sample size, a small net motion based on all class
data is expected.

13. In order to make something move it requires energy. Where did the electrons get the
energy in this activity? Heat in the metal.(Internal energy = Q)

14. What happens to the atoms in the metal as the temperature increases? The amplitude
of their vibration away from their equilibrium lattice position increases as the
temperature increases.

15. What is the ideal condition that would allow no movement of atoms in a metal?
Absolute zero = no atomic motion.

16. What effect does this ideal condition have on the conductivity of a metal? Resistivity
decreases with decreasing temperature since the atoms do not scatter electrons
nearly as much as they do at high temperatures. Superconductivity in certain
materials at low temperatures, which is special case involving correlated electron
motion, is not addressed in this lab.

2c. Thermal Motion + Voltage:

The thermal coefficient of resistance, , is used to calculate the thermal dependence of
the resistance. The following equation is used in the linear regime:

( ) [ ] [ ] T R T T R R
o o o
+ = + = 1 1
1

17. Length of your net vector (in cm): Answers will vary.

18. Class average for the net vector length (in cm): Answers will vary, but it should be
longer than for the previous activity.

direction from your starting point (use a colored pencil). Answers will vary.

draw the vectors produced in the other experiments in class. Answers will vary, but
the compared to the previous activity the vector should be longer and point more to
the right.

21. Explain the class results and comment on why these results are different from those
for the thermal motion activity. In general, the direction should be in the direction of
sectors 2 and 4 primarily showing that an applied voltage gives a drift in a general
direction opposite to the electric field or applied voltage (which goes from positive to
negative).

Page 4
22. The arrow in this activity indicated an applied voltage to the conducting material.
What rule change between this activity and the Thermal Motion modeled the presence
of voltage? If two numbers are equidistant from where you are, choose the number in
the forward direction (in the direction opposite of the voltage arrow.)

23. The soccer ball in the opening activity was influenced by gravity pulling the ball
down the hill. What if you were kicking on a smaller hill than the one in the Soccer
Ball Activity? Draw the path the ball would take on a smaller (less steep) hill.

24. What is the relationship between the temperature and the drift velocity? As
temperature increases the drift velocity decreases since the thermal scattering of the
electrons, which is not directional, will increase.

25. Explain the effect of temperature on resistance in terms of concepts explored in the
dice games. As the temperature increases so does the atomic motion (thermal
energy). This results in more energy transfer between the atoms and the electrons via
random collisions, which decreases the ability of electrons to drift through the
material in response to the voltage applied by the battery.

27. Based upon this dice activity, describe how current carrying electrons really move in
a metal. Although the electrons scatter in all directions, moving at speeds
approaching the speed of light between collisions, they collectively drift much more
slowly in the direction of the electric field.

28. Under typical operating voltages, electrons drift at a velocity approximately 10
-3
cm/s
(1 billion times slower than the electron speed between collisions!).How long will it
take an electron to traverse a 10 cm long wire if its drift velocity is 10
-3
cm/s? Show
your calculation and express your answer in hours. Is this what you expected?
h
cm
cm
v
x
t 78 . 2 sec 10
sec
10
10
4
3
= = = =

29. If the soccer ball represents an electron and the hill represents the voltage, how would
reducing the voltage affect the electrons drift velocity? The drift velocity is linearly
proportional to the electric field. Therefore, reducing the voltage reduces the drift
velocity.
Page 5

3a. Atomic BBs

30. What did you do to come as close to making a perfect crystal as possible? Answers
will vary, but slowly shaking and/or holding the CD case at a slight angle and
slowing allowing the BBs to fall to the bottom will lead to a more ordered crystal.

31. What processes did you simulate in your manipulation of the BBs? Thermal
processes - shaking gave the BBs the kinetic energy they needed to be able to move to
different atomic positions and thereby help to eliminate defects.

32. Comment the importance of temperature and the nature of temperature changes in the
quest for a perfect single metal crystal based on your experience in this activity. You
simulate slow cooling by gradually slowing down the shaking process. Rapidly
shaking and then suddenly stopping, simulates quenching (plunging a hot metal into
cold water), which freezes in many defects.

vacancy
33. In the box, based upon your observations of
the BBs in your CD case, draw a vacancy.
Represent the atoms as circles.

Grain boundary
34. In the box, draw two grains and the grain boundary
between them from your BB model. Use circles to
represent atoms and carefully show the arrangement of
atoms at the grain boundary and within the grains.
Grain boundaries will not necessarily be straight.

3b. Thermal Motion + Voltage + Grain boundaries:
(Effect of defects on an electron drifting at temperatures
above absolute zero)

** It is very important to convey this information to your students**

Metals are generally good conductors, which means they have a low resistivity.
Remember that resistivity is ( is a Greek letter and is spelled rho) in the resistance
equation: R = L/A. The resistivity is a property that is dictated by the specific material
composition, how it is structured (defects in the material), and the temperature (you
already saw how this works). At room temperature, thermal effects generally overwhelm
any resistivity increase due to defects in the material. However, if you cool a material
down really low, you will see that defects in the material contribute to the resistivity. This
happens since these sudden changes in the periodic order of atoms in the crystal cause the
electrons to scatter more. There are many types of defects in crystals, but we will talk
about one called a grain boundary, which is where two crystals of different orientation
meet. The grain boundaries scatter electrons more efficiently than grain interior. If you
make nano-sized then the grain boundary resistivity will impact the overall resistivity at
Page 6
higher temperatures. If you sum up the effect of all the defects in a material on the
resistivity you get what is called the residual resistivity, or
residual
.

35. State the effect of grain boundaries on electron drift in a metal. The grain boundary
presents an obstacle to electron flow and thereby slows the forward drift of the
electrons.

36. Study the two pictures below of grain structure in a metal. If both images were taken
at the same magnification, which one would have resistivity at low temperatures,
where the thermal contribution to resistivity is small? Explain your answer.
Material B would have a greater residual resistivity (resistance due to the nature of
the material) as a result of the increased density of grain boundaries that would
scatter the electrons.

4. Play-Doh Resistor:
3/4 diameter PVC form
Battery voltage:
3.06V
Cross-sectional
area:

Resistor length
(cm)
Current
(mA)
Resistance
()
2 9.2 333
3 5.3 577
4 3.9 785
5 3.1 987
6 2.8 1093
7 2.5 1224
8 2.2 1391
9 2.0 1530
10 1.8 1700

Note: To get good data on resistance as a function of length, the procedures need to
be followed exactly. The play-Doh dries out as you use it, which changes its resistivity.
It is therefore important to start measuring the smallest resistor length and then move on
to measuring progressively longer resistors.

Effect of Cross-sectional Area on Resistance
(Resistor length = ~10 cm)
Battery
voltage:

Amt of
Play-Doh
Resistor
diameter
(cm)
Resistor
Area (cm
2
)
Current
(mA)
Resistance
()
1 can 3.75 11.05 15 200
can 2.5 4.91 5.2 577
can 1.8 2.55 3.5 857

Note: Another way to do the cross-sectional area experiment is to let the students
design and conduct the experiment by themselves.
Page 7
Note that although values will vary depending on the resistivity of the play-Doh, the
trend should be good. The resistivity is very sensitive to both the salt and water content of
the play-Doh.

37. Draw a line showing the general relationship between the following properties:

38. What is the resistivity of Ply-Doh? Use your plot of resistance vs. length to get your
answer. Show your work. Slope = /A. If you multiply your slope, as read off your
graph, by the cross-sectional area, you will get the resistivity. Values will likely range
between 100-1500 -cm, depending on the salt and water content of your play-Doh.

39. Would you expect the resistivity of Play-Doh to increase or decrease with moisture
content? Explain your answer. Increase. As the Play-Doh dries, the ions that allow
for conduction become less mobile, which increases the resistivity.

Post-lab Analysis

40. You know that energy cant be created or destroyed; it ca only be transformed. What
energy transformation occurs in a resistor? Electrical energy is converted to heat.

41. The current density, j, is the current/unit area (j=I/A). Using the concepts youve
learned in this lab, explain why for a given current, a thin wire would get hotter than
the fat wire. The thin wire has a higher current density and therefore more
interaction between electrons, which results in more thermal scattering. This
increased thermal scattering in the small diameter wire results in it being hotter than
the larger diameter wire, which has a lower current density.

42. The graph below represents actual information on the resistivity of copper. Using
what you learned in this lab, study the graph and answer the following questions:

Why is the resistivity higher at
point C than at point B?
Higher Temperature; more
electron scattering.

What could be the source of
the residual resistivity
Current
Resistor Length
Voltage
Current Resistivity
Resistor length Resistance Resistor diameter
Resistivity ()
of Copper
Residual
A
C
B
0
Temperature
Page 8
measured at very low temperatures? Defects in the metal.

43. Lets say you are watching a bad science video on YouTube that models electricity as
ping pong balls flowing through a tube. How would you explain the person watching
with you, what is wrong with this model? If the balls represent electrons flowing in
a wire, they actually move forward in the wire very slowly (.0001 m/s), They do move
from atom to atom in the wire at speeds closer to the speed of light (1 000 000 m/s).
Actually the balls are representing the energy moving through the wire as a result of
voltage being applied.

44. AWG = American Wire Gauge. Normal household circuits are constructed using
mostly AWG 12 and AWG 14 wire. If 12-gauge wire as a diameter of 2.053-mm and
14-gauge wire has a diameter of 1.628-mm, why would you prefer to use 12-gauge
wire to wire your house? AWG 12 is fatter wire. Fatter wire has less resistance and
therefore heats up less - preventing things like fire! It also saves energy.

45. The filament in an incandescent light bulb is made of a long, thin tungsten wire.
Explain why the filament heats up and is able to produce light energy when a voltage
is applied. Because it has a tiny cross-sectional area (A) its resistance is very high.
At a higher voltage electrons trying to migrate (drift) through the wire meet more
resistance and lose some of their energy as heat. This in turn heats the filament and
makes it glow.

46. Electrical power stations are typically far from the point where the electrical energy is
put to use. If you have to transmit electrical energy long distances, what would be the
ideal properties of the wire? Ideally you would want a large cross-sectional area
wire made from a low resistivity material. Resistance = loss of energy. For a given
power, you would want to maximize voltage and minimize current to keep resistances
losses low.
Page 9

The Nature of Resistance

Material List

Kit Contents: Other materials:
2. 2 colored pencils 1. Play-Doh
3. plastic knife 11. multimeter
4. ruler
5. 2 dice
6. 9-volt battery
7. CD case with BBs
8. 2 pieces of copper wire
9. kit box
10. Play-Doh resistor form
12. 3 alligator clips
13. Emory Paper
3
12
13
9
6
5
10
4
8
2
11
7 1
Page 10
The Nature of Resistance

Experimental Section

Introduction

This lab is a series of guided activities that explore the microscopic and macroscopic
factors that influence the electrical resistance of conducting materials. Students will
examine how temperature and voltage affect electron motion in a metal, learn about
defects in metals and how they impact resistivity, and investigate how geometry
influences the resistance of play-doh (play-doh is an ionic conductor). All activities
explore the important equation for resistance, R:

A
l
R

=
where:
is the resistivity, which is a material property of the resistor (microscopic property)
l is the length of the resistor (macroscopic property)
A is the cross-sectional area of the resistor (macroscopic property)

1. Pre-lab: (Soccer Ball Activity)
Pre-lab discussion questions:

1. A simple circuit in your house contains wires that connect a switch to a light.
Describe what electrons in the wires do when you flip the switch and turn on a light.

2. Give your best estimate of how fast the electrons move through the wire when the
light is turned on.

3. The fire department says you should never run appliances off extension cords. Why?

Page 1
Student Section The Nature of Resistance

4. Why do power lines have a large diameter and why does the tungsten filament in a
light bulb have a very small diameter?

Prelab Materials
Soccer Activity sheet

Pre-lab Activity
Study the Soccer Activity sheet and answer the following the questions.

5. Draw an arrow on both pictures from the initial to the final ball position. What is the
difference between the two vectors?

6. Assuming no barriers (i.e. trees and rocks), explain what geographic feature could
have caused the soccer ball to take such a different path.

7. If the soccer ball represents an electron, what does the geographic feature you
identified represent in an electrical system?

2. Electron Motion in a Metal

2a. Thermal Motion:
(How and electron moves in a metal at temperatures above absolute zero)

Materials:
Two color pencils
One dice
Small ruler
Thermal motion activity sheets. (Instructions on sheet)

Answer the following questions after completing Thermal Motion activity:

8. Length of your net vector (in cm): ___________________

9. Class average for the net vector length (in
cm):___________________

10. On the chart to the right, indicate with a vector the general direction
of your resulting direction from your starting point (use a colored pencil).
1
3
2
4
Page 2


12. Explain the class results and the effect demonstrated by rolling the dice?

13. In order to make something move it requires energy. Where did the electrons get the
energy in this activity?

14. What happens to the atoms in the metal as the temperature increases?

15. What is the ideal condition that would allow no movement of atoms in a metal?

16. What effect does this ideal condition have on the conductivity of a metal?

(How an electron drifts in a metal when you apply a voltage)

In the first dice activity you learned that electrons at room temperature are constantly
moving, even if their net motion is very small. Now lets see what happens to the net
motion of electrons in a metal at room temperature when a voltage is applied.

Materials:
Two color pencils
One dice
Small ruler
Thermal Motion + Voltage activity sheet. (Instructions on sheet)

Answer the following questions after completing theThermal Motion and Voltage
activity:

1
3
2
4
17. Length of your net vector (in cm): ___________________

18. Class average for the net vector length (in cm):________________

Page 3

direction from your starting point (use a colored pencil)


21. Explain the class results and comment on why these results are different from those
for the thermal motion activity.

22. The arrow in this activity indicated a voltage applied to the conducting material. What
rule change between this activity and the Thermal Motion modeled the presence of
voltage?

23. The soccer ball in the opening activity was influenced by gravity pulling the ball
down the hill. What if you were kicking on a smaller hill than the one in the Soccer
Ball Activity? Draw the path the ball would take on a smaller (less steep) hill.

24. What is the relationship between temperature and drift velocity?

25. Explain the effect of temperature on resistance in terms of concepts explored in the
dice games.

A common misconception is that electrons travel in straight lines down a wire in a closed
circuit like water flows through a pipe. Another common misconception is that electrons
travel through a conductor at the speed of light. The truth is: an electron moves with a
speed approximately 10
6
cm/s between collisions (1/100 of the speed of light). But this
motion isnt producing current, since on average the electrons arent going anywhere, as
you saw in the first dice activity!

26. Based upon this dice activity, describe how current carrying electrons really move in
a metal.

Page 4

27. Under typical operating voltages, electrons drift at a velocity approximately 10
-3
cm/s
(1 billion times slower than the electron speed between collisions!).How long will it
take an electron to traverse a 10 cm long wire if its drift velocity is 10
-3
cm/s? Show
your calculation and express your answer in hours. Is this what you expected?

28. If the soccer ball represents an electron and the hill represents the voltage, how would
reducing the voltage affect the electrons drift velocity?

3a. Atomic BBs: how do defects affect the resistivity,

This activity is used by permission of MAST (Materials Science and Technology
Teacher's Workshop) Department of Materials Science and Engineering University of
Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Materials:
Copper BBs in a clear CD case

Directions:
The BBs in this activity represent atoms in a metal. Atoms occupy specific, ordered
positions in crystalline metals. In a perfect crystal (as represented by this 2D BB model)
each atom (BB) is surrounded by 6 atoms (BBs). (See Figure 1 on the next page.)

Holding the case of BBs flat and just slightly at an angle to the horizontal try to make
a perfect crystal with the BBs in the CD case.

Crystalline metals have many types of defects. We will explore two of them with the
BBs. A vacancy (Figure 2) is a missing atom. A grain boundary is the disordered region
betwen two crystalline regions of different orientation (Figure 3).

Examine your attempt at the perfect crystal to see if you have these defects. If not, see
if you can create vacancies (Figure 2) and grain boundaries (Figure 3)

Perfect Crystal

Figure 1 Figure 2
Figure 3
Page 5

29. What did you do to come as close to making a perfect crystal as possible?

30. What processes did you simulate in your manipulation of the BBs?

31. Comment the importance of temperature and the nature of temperature changes in the
quest for a perfect single metal crystal based on your experience in this activity.

32. In the box to the right, based upon your observations of the BBs in your CD case,
draw a vacancy. Represent the atoms as circles.

33. In the box below, draw two grains and the grain boundary between them from your
BB model. Use circles to represent atoms and carefully show the arrangement of
atoms at the grain boundary and within the grains.

This activity explores the effect of defects on electron drift. This is seen at really low
temperatures (where the thermal effect is small) or for very small grain sized materials
(nanomaterials).

Materials:
Two color pencils
One dice
Small ruler
Thermal Motion + Voltage + Grain Boundaries activity sheet

Answer the following questions after completing the Thermal Motion + Voltage+ Grain
Boundaries activity:

Page 6

34. What is the effect of grain boundaries on electron drift in a metal?

35. Study the two pictures of grain structure in a metal below. If both images were taken
at the same magnification, which one would have higher resistivity at low
temperatures, where the thermal contribution to resistivity is small? Explain your
answer.

A
B

4. Play-Doh Resistor: (how l and A affect R)

Now you have learned something about what happens inside a metal and explored factors
that affect its resistivity, . You will now examine how the geometry of a resistor affects
its resistance using play-Doh. Play-Doh doesnt conduct electricity via mobile electrons,
as in a metal. Instead, play-Doh is an ionic conductor; it conducts through the motion of
ions. A large component of Play-Doh is salt, which you know from chemistry, is an ionic
compound. It is the salt and water in the Play-Doh that provide a source of mobile ions
that can generate current.

Note: Exposure to air and current dries out the Play-Doh, which will adversely affect
your measurements. Minimize the time your play-doh is out of the container to keep it
moist. When taking electrical measurements, take as little time as possible between
measurements and immediately disconnect the circuit when you finished taking data.

Remember that:
A
l
R

= where l is the resistor length and A is the resistor cross-sectional area

Page 7

Materials:
Play-Doh
3/4 Play-Doh resistor form
2 pieces of copper wire
multimeter
2 AA batteries
AA battery holder
3 connecting wires w/ alligator clips
small ruler
graph paper or access to a graphing program (ie Microsoft EXCEL)
small plastic knife
sandpaper

4a. Explore how the resistor length affects the resistance
Read through the directions carefully before you begin this activity.
Measure the length and diameter of the resistor. Record your data in the table on the
next page.
Using the PVC form, fill it with enough Play-Doh to overflow the form when it is
closed. Press the form closed and trim the excess Play-Doh off the edges.
Remove half of the Play-Doh form.

Hold your resistor stably in place on the table by pressing it into a blob of Play-Doh.
Insert one copper wire about 1.0 cm into the end of the play-doh resistor. This is the
stationary probe. Make sure it is inserted in the middle and perpendicular to the cross-
sectional area of the resistor. Support the other end of the copper wire by placing
something under it so the probe maintains good contact with the play-Doh.
You will now take a series of current
measurements along the length of the resistor
starting at the end with the stationary probe.
moving probe
The first measurement is illustrated in the
following figure. Push the moving probe
about 3 mm into the top of the Play-Doh.
stationary probe
Take this measurement 3 cm from the end of
the resistor. The measured resistor length is
the distance between the probes. In this case,
it is 2 cm.
Page 8

Hold the probe steady while you take the measurement to maintain good contact with
the Play-Doh. The current will drop very quickly upon insertion of the probe. Record
the current value 5 seconds after you insert the probe.
Quickly remove any play-doh from the probe tip using the sandpaper.
Take more current measurements using the same method at one centimeter intervals
along the resistor and record your data in the table.
Calculate the resistance using Ohms
Law and fill it in the table.
3/4 diameter PVC form
Battery voltage: Cross-sectional
area:

Resistor length
(cm)
Current
(mA)
Resistance
()
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Plot the resistance vs. length.

4b: Explore how the cross-sectional area affects the resistance

Using the multimeter as a voltmeter, measure the battery voltage. Record this
value in the table below.
Now set up the multimeter as a current meter.
Your play-doh should be so moist that it is almost sticky. If it is not moist enough,
add water and knead it thoroughly.
Using the entire can of play-doh, roll out a play-doh cylinder that is 10 cm long.
Take care to keep the cross-sectional area as uniform as possible.
Measure the diameter of the play-doh resistor and record it in the table.
Connect the circuit as shown in the figure below, with the exception of the play-
doh resistor.
Lastly, push the copper probes about 1 cm into the center of each end of your
play-doh resistor, read the current, and disconnect the circuit immediately.
Record the current value in the table.
Now cut your cylinder in half and put the extra play-doh back in the container to
keep it moist.
Roll out the remaining play-doh so that it is again uniform in cross-section and10
cm long.
Measure the diameter and record the data in the table.
If the probe has dried play-doh residue on it, then use the sandpaper to clean it.
Page 9

Measure the current, disconnect the circuit immediately, and record the data.
Repeat this process one more time, so you now are using about of the original
amount of play-doh.
Using Ohms law, calculate the values for the resistance and fill in the table.

Effect of Cross-sectional Area on Resistance
(Resistor length = ~10 cm)
Battery
voltage:

Resistor
diameter (cm)
Resistor
Area (cm
2
)
Current
(mA)
Resistance
()

Play-Doh resistor
or equivalently
using
circuit diagrams
A

Answer related questions using your knowledge of Ohms Law and the following
equation:
A
L
R

=

37. Draw a line showing the general relationship between the following properties:

Resistor length
Current
Resistor Length
Voltage
Resistor diameter
Current Resistivity
Resistance

38. What is the resistivity of your Play-Doh? Use your plot of resistance vs. length to get
your answer. Show your work.

39. Would you expect the resistivity of play-doh to increase or decrease with moisture
content? Explain your answer.

Page 10

Post-lab Analysis

40. You know that energy cant be created or destroyed; it can only be transformed. What
energy transformation occurs in a resistor?

41. The current density, j, is the current/unit area (j = i/A). Using the concepts youve
learned in this lab, explain why for a given current, a thin wire would get hotter than
the fat wire.

42. The graph below represents actual information on the resistivity of copper. Using
what you learned in this lab, study the graph and answer the following questions:

Why is the resistivity higher
Resistivity ()
of Copper
Residual
Temperature
0
A
C
B
at point C than at point B?

Why does region A not extrapolate
to zero?

43. Lets say you and a friend are watching a bad science video on YouTube that models
electricity as ping pong balls flowing through a tube. How would you explain to your
friend what is wrong with this model?

44. AWG = American Wire Gauge. Normal household circuits are constructed using
mostly AWG 12 and AWG 14 wire. If 12-gauge wire as a diameter of 2.053-mm and
14-gauge wire has a diameter of 1.628-mm, why would you prefer to use 12-gauge
wire to wire your house?

Page 11

Page 12

45. The filament in an incandescent light bulb is made of a long, thin tungsten wire.
Explain why the filament heats up and is able to produce light energy when a voltage
is applied.

46. Electrical power stations are typically far from the point where the electrical energy is
put to use. If you have to transmit electrical energy long distances, what would be the
ideal properties of the wire?

1. Prelab: Soccer Ball Activity

Imagine you are in an open field and are given a soccer ball and the set of instructions below. Although you are a skilled soccer player
and you do your best to kick the ball according to the instructions, the result of your kicks is very different. What could have caused
your ball to take the paths shown in the figure below? Hints: 1) you do not put spin on the ball when you kick and 2) you are not on a
soccer field.

Answer related question on student sheet.

Page 1
Activity Sheets The Nature of Resistance

Instructions:

Kick the ball in the specific direction and
magnitude as indicated below.
Result of your kicks!
X
X

2a. Thermal Motion:
(How an electron moves in a metal at temperatures above absolute zero)

The rectangle below represents a piece of a metal wire. The black dot near the center of the wire represents an electron,
whose thermal motion you will follow. The circles numbered 1 - 6 represent the atom in the wire.

Rules of this activity:

1. Begin at the black electron dot drawn near the center of the wire.
2. Roll the die. The number rolled indicates the next atom the electron will move toward.
3. Here are the rules for moving to the next location:
a. You must choose the numbered circle closest to the current electron position.
b. If you roll the number of the atom you are currently on, you must remain on that number.
c. You may go back to the atom you just left.
d. If you have equidistant numbers go back toward the original electron position.
4. Draw a dot in the numbered circle to indicate the new position of the electron and an arrow pointing from the present
electron position to the new location based on the number rolled.
1
2
5. Continue this process for 15 rolls of the die.
6. Draw a fat arrow from the original electron position to the final electron position. This arrow is a vector that represents the net
motion of the electron.
7. Measure the length of the vector (in cm) and note its direction. Record your result on the student sheet.
8. Compare your drawing to your neighbor.
9. Answer questions on the student sheet.

Wire
1 2 4 6 5 3 4 2 6 3 1 5 6 3 1 2 4 5
3 5 1 2 4 6 5 1 4 2 6 3 1 5 4 3 2 6
6 1 4 3 5 2 1 2 6 5 3 4 2 4 3 5 6 1
4 2 1 6 4 5 3 4 1 6 2 3 6 2 1 4 3 2
5 3 6 3 2 1 4 5 2 3 1 5 4 3 5 2 1 5
Page 2

(How an electron drifts in a metal under an applied voltage at temps above absolute zero)


1. Begin again at the black electron dot drawn near the center of the wire.
3. Here are the rules for moving to the next location (read carefully rules change slightly when adding a voltage!):
a. You must choose the numbered circle closest to the current electron position, even if it means going backwards.
b. If you roll the number of the atom you are currently on, move your electron to the closest same number.
c. If two numbers are equidistant from where you are, choose the number in the forward direction (in the direction of the
plus sign)
4. Draw a dot in the numbered circle to indicate the new position of the electron and an arrow from the present
electron position to the new location based on the number rolled.
1
2
5. Continue this process until you have reached the right end of the wire or have rolled the dice 15 times.
6. Draw a fat arrow from the initial position to the final position of the electron. This arrow is the vector that represents the net
motion of the electron.
7. Measure the length of the vector (in cm) and note its direction (right or left) and record your result on the student sheet.
8. Compare the length of this fat arrow to the fat arrow from the previous activity.
9. Compare your drawing for electron drift to your neighbors drawing.

Page 3

Wire
1 2 4 6 5 3 4 2 6 3 1 5 6 3 1 2 4 5
3 5 1 2 4 6 5 1 4 2 6 3 1 5 4 3 2 6
6 1 4 3 5 2 1 2 6 5 3 4 2 4 3 5 6 1
Wire connected in a circuit with an applied voltage indicated by + and - signs
4 2 1 6 4 5 3 4 1 6 2 3 6 2 1 4 3 2
5 3 6 3 2 1 4 5 2 3 1 5 4 3 5 2 1 5

(Effect of defects on an electron drifting at temperatures above absolute zero)

Grain boundaries, the regions where differently oriented crystals in a metal meet, are the dark lines in the figure
to the right. They separate the light regions in between them, called grains. Grain boundaries are defects since the
arrangement of atoms is more disordered there than within the well ordered grains.

1. Begin at the black electron dot.
3. Here are the rules for moving to the next location (read carefully there are additional rules for defects!):
a. Use the rules for the voltage activity.
b. In addition, you can only move across a grain boundary if you are on one of the adjacent atoms (indicated with a *).
c. When you are at an atom along the grain boundary, you must roll the number of the atoms just on the other side of the
boundary to cross it. If you do not roll this number, the electron must scatter back to the closest number you rolled.
d. Once you have moved passed a grain boundary, you can not cross back.
4. Draw a dot in the numbered circle to indicate the new position of the electron and an arrow from the
present electron position to the new location based on the number rolled.
1
2
5. Continue this process until you have reached the end of the wire or rolled the dice 15 times.
6. Draw a fat arrow from the original to the final electron position. This vector represents the net motion of the electron.
7. Compare your drawing to your neighbor.
Page 4

Wire connected in a circuit with an applied voltage indicated by + and - signs

Wire
2
4 6 3 1 5
5
2
1 4 2 6 3
1
2
6 5 3 4 2
2
1 6 2 1
3 1 2 4 5
4
2
3 1 5
4
5 2
6 4 3 2 6 3
3 3 5 6 1 5
3 5 1 2 4 6
1 6 1 4 3 5 2
5 3 4 2 1 6 4
4 6 5 3 6 3 2 1
1 2 4 6 5 3
2
2 1 4 3 2 4 3
3 2 1
Grain boundaries
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
5 4 6

Shortcut Directions for Dice Activities
Roll
1

2

3

4

5

6

Final
Net

II I
III
IV
Page 5

Wire
1 6 3 2 1 3 2 5 6
2 4 5 2 6 4 5 1 4
1
4 2
3
6 5
5 3
4
5 2 3 6 1
1 6 4 3

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Center for Nanoscale Systems Institute for Physics Teachers (CIPT)

632 Clark Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853

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