CONDUCTION IN SOLID MEDIA

Content
1. Abstract

Insulating media in electrical engineering is a material that serves to prevent

the flow of electric current in it when given a different voltage. But in practice the
function isolation media is not as ideal as imagined. When the insulating medium is
given a different voltage low, a very small current will flow (order of micro amperes).
Otherwise if you get a high voltage difference, the current rises sharply and a
breakdown occurs the voltage (flash over / break down) that carries a very large
current. The phenomenon of conduction and voltage breakdown in this insulating
medium is a study which is very interesting because each medium has certain
properties so that gave rise to theories, such as the theory of Townsend in gas
media.The conduction of heat and electricity in solid media is a complex process that
involves multiple physical phenomena. It is affected by material properties such as
thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, heat capacity and electrical resistivity, as
well as the geometry of the material and its surface. To accurately model and predict
the conduction of heat and electricity in solid media, it is important to understand the
underlying physical phenomena as well as the parameters that affect the conduction
process. The conduction of heat and electricity in solid media is affected by various
factors, including the material properties, the geometry of the material, and the
surface properties. The thermal conductivity of the material determines the rate of
heat transfer in a solid material, and it is affected by the thermal properties of the
material and its surface. The electrical conductivity of the material determines the rate
of electrical current flow, and it is affected by the electrical properties of the material
and its surface. The geometry of the material also affects the conduction process, and
it is important to consider the shape, size, and arrangement of the material when
modeling the conduction. This paper intends to provide effective thermal properties
related to the conduction problem , Analysis considering steady state heat transfer in
solid media ,by understanding and taking into account all of these factors and
phenomena, it is possible to accurately model and predict the conduction of heat and
electricity in solid media.

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 2. Introduction

The insulating material is one of the most important components of electric

power besides the conductor material. These two materials have opposite electrical
properties, insulators function to prevent the flow of electric current while conductors
function vice versa. Due to this important function, the use of electrically powered
insulating materials is very widely used so that studies on these materials are always
up to date and give rise to new methods, formulations and even theories.
Insulating media in electrical engineering is a material that functions to
prevent the flow of electric current in it when given a different voltage. However, in
practice the function of the insulating media is not as ideal as imagined. If the
insulating medium is given a low voltage difference, a very small current will flow
(order of micro amperes). On the other hand, if you get a high voltage difference, the
current rises sharply and a flash over / break down occurs, which flows a very large
current. The phenomenon of conduction and voltage breakdown in this insulating
medium is a very interesting study because each medium has certain properties that
give rise to theories.
Solid media as an insulator are very common in the field, such as high voltage
chain insulation, because they have a higher dielectric strength than liquid media and
gas media. As an insulator aims to inhibit current flowing when getting a voltage
difference. The breakdown voltage in solid insulation is a very important thing to
study because of its advantages and proven wide application in electrical power
engineering. The breakdown mechanism in solid insulators is a complex phenomenon,
which depends on the time the voltage is applied.
Solid dielectric materials are used in all kinds of electrical circuits and devices
to insulate one current carrying part from another when they operate at different
voltages. A good dielectric should have low dielectric loss, high mechanical strength,
should be free from gaseous inclusion, and moisture, and be resistant to thermal and
chemical deterioration. Solid dielectrics have higher breakdown strength compared to
liquids and gases.

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 The mechanism of breakdown is a complex phenomenon in the case of solid,
and varies depending on the time of application of voltage as show in figure.

The various breakdown mechanisms can be classified as follows:

● Intrinsic or ionic breakdown,
● electromechanical breakdown,
● failure due to treeing and tracking,
● thermal breakdown,
● electrochemical breakdown, and
● breakdown due to internal discharges.

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 3. Problem

Problem Conduction in Solid Media

In physics, conduction is the transfer of heat or other forms of energy from

one object to another by direct contact. Conduction is based on the fact that energy
can be transferred through a solid material when two objects that are in contact are at
different temperatures. In solid media, conduction occurs when heat is passed through
the material itself, or when the material is used to transfer heat from one object to
another.

A common problem associated with conduction in solid media is the heat

transfer rate. Heat transfer rate is the rate at which heat energy is transferred through a
material. In order for heat to be transferred, the material must conduct heat and the
temperature of the two objects in contact must be different. If the temperature of two
objects in contact is the same, no heat will be transferred.

Another problem associated with conduction in solid media is the thermal

conductivity of the material. Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to
transfer heat. The higher the thermal conductivity of a material, the greater the rate of
heat transfer through it. Different materials have different thermal conductivity, so it
is important to choose a material for conduction that has the highest thermal
conductivity for the application at hand.

The last problem associated with conduction in solid media is the thermal
resistance of the material. Thermal resistance is the ability of a material to resist the
transfer of heat. When the thermal resistance of a material is high, the rate of heat
transfer through it is low. Materials with low thermal resistance are ideal for
conduction applications as they will allow for the most efficient transfer of heat.

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 Overall, conduction in solid media is an important part of energy transfer. It is
important to consider the thermal conductivity, thermal resistance and the heat
transfer rate when selecting a material for conduction. By taking these factors into
consideration, it is possible to ensure that the most efficient transfer of heat is
achieved.

4. Example

As an example, let us consider the effect of impurities in a germanium crystal.

Atoms of germanium have 4 outer electrons each. If one atom of antimony which has
5 outer electrons replaces one atom of germanium, there will be 1 excess electron in
this region. The energy-level structure is locally altered, and this electron may be set
in motion by the application of a small electric field. A germanium crystal with this
type of impurity is called an n-type crystal, the n standing for negative charge. On the
other hand, if an atom of indium, which has only 3 outer electrons, replaces a
germanium atom, there will be a deficiency of electrons, or a hole left in this part of
the crystal. Again the energy-level structure is locally altered, and if an electric field is
applied to such a crystal, electrons from other parts of the crystal flow toward the
holes, leaving holes in other parts of the crystal. Thus the current in this type of
crystal may be considered as the motion of holes.

There are certain types of breakdown which do not come under either intrinsic
breakdown, but actually occur after prolonged operation. These are, for example,
breakdown due to tracking in which dry conducting tracks act as conducting paths on
the insulator surfaces leading to gradual breakdown along the surface of the insulator.
Another type of breakdown in this category is the electrochemical breakdown caused
by chemical transformations such as electrolysis, formation of ozone, etc. In addition,
failure also occurs due to partial discharges which are brought about in the air pockets
inside the insulation. This type of breakdown is very important impregnated paper
insulation used in high voltage cables and capacitors.

When a solid dielectric subjected to electrical stresses for a long time fails, normally
two kinds of visible markings are observed on the dielectric material. They are:

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a) the presence of a conducting path across the surface of the insulation:

b) a mechanism whereby leakage current passes through the conducting path finally

leading to the formation of a spark. Insulation deterioration occurs as a result

of thesesparks. The spreading of spark channels during tracking, in the form of the
branches of a tree is called treeing. Consider a system of a solid dielectric having a
conducting film and two electrodes on its surface. In practice, the conducting film
very often is formed due to moisture. On application of voltage, the film starts
conducting, resulting in generation of heat, and the surface starts becoming dry. The
conducting film becomes separate due to drying, and so sparks are drawn damaging
the dielectric surface. With organic insulating materials such as paper and bakelite,
the dielectric carbonizes at the region of sparking, and the carbonized regions act as
permanent conducting channels resulting in increased stress over the rest of the
region. This is a cumulative process, and insulation failure occurs when carbonized
tracks bridge the distance between the electrodes. This phenomenon, called tracking is
common between layers of bakelite, paper and similar dielectrics built of laminates.
On the other hand treeing occurs due to the erosion of material at the tips of the spark.
Erosion results in the roughening of the surfaces, and hence becomes a source of dirt
and contamination. This causes increased conductivity resulting either in the
formation of conducting path bridging the electrodes or in a mechanical failure of the
dielectric. When a dielectric material lies between two electrodes as shown in Fig.
4.3, there is possibility for two different dielectric media, the air and the dielectric, to
come series. The voltages across the two media are as shown (V1 across the air gap,
and V2 across the dielectric).

where V is the applied voltage

Since 2 1 ε 〉ε most of the voltage appears across 1 d , the air gap. Sparking
will occur in the air gap and charge accumulation takes place on the surface of the
insulation. Sometimes the spark erodes the surface of the insulation. As time passes,
break-down channels spread through the insulation in an irregular “tree’ like fashion
leading to the formation of conducting channels. This kind of channeling is called

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treeing. Under a.c. voltage conditions treeing can occur in a few minute or several
hours. Hence, care must be taken to see that no series air gaps or other weaker
insulation gaps are formed. Usually, tracking occurs even at very low voltage of the
order of about 100 V, wherea streeing requires high voltages. For testing of tracking,
low and medium voltage tracking tests are specified. These tests are done at low
voltages but for times of about 100 hr or more. The insulation should not fail.
Sometimes the tests are done using 5 to 10 kV with shorter durations of 4 to 6 hour.
The numerical value that initiates or causes the formation of a track is called “tracking
index” and this is used to qualify the surface properties of dielectric materials.

Treeing can be prevented by having clean, dry, and undamaged surfaces and a
clean environment. The materials chosen should be resistant to tracking. Sometimes
moisture repellant greases are used. But this needs frequent cleaning and regressing.
Increasing creeping distances should prevent tracking, but in practice the presence of
moisture films defeat the purpose. Usually, treeing phenomena is observed in
capacitors and cables, and extensive work is being done to investigate the real nature
and causes of this phenomenon.

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 6. Analysys

1. Intrinsic Breakdown

When voltages are applied only for short durations of the order of 8 10 sthe
dielectric strength of a solid dielectric increases very rapidly to an upper limit called
the intrinsic electric strength. Experimentally, this highest dielectric strength can be
obtained only under the best experimental conditions when all extraneous influences
have been isolated and the value depends only on the structure of the material and the
temperature. The maximum electrical strength recorder is 15 MV/cm for polyvinyl-
alcohol at -1960 C. The maximum strength usually obtainable ranges from 5 MV/cm.

Intrinsic breakdown depends upon the presence of free electrons which are
capable of migration through the lattice of the dielectric. Usually, a small number of
conduction electrons are present in solid dielectrics, along with some structural
imperfections and small amounts of impurities. The impurity atoms, or molecules or
both act as traps for the conduction electrons up to certain ranges of electric fields and
temperatures. When these ranges are exceeded, additional electrons in addition to
trapped electrons are released, and these electrons participate in the conduction
process. Based on this principle, two types of intrinsic breakdown mechanisms have
been proposed.

a. Electronic Breakdown

Intrinsic breakdown occurs in time of the order of 10-8 s and therefore is

assumed to be electronic in nature. The initial density of conduction (free)
electrons is also assumed to be large, and electron-electron collisions occur. When
an electric field is applied, electrons gain energy from the electric field and cross
the forbidden energy gap from the valence band to the conduction band. When
this process is repeated, more and more electrons become available in the
conduction band, eventually leading to breakdown.

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 b. Avalanche or Streamer Breakdown

This is similar to breakdown in gases due to cumulative ionization.

Conduction electrons gain sufficient energy above a certain critical electric field
and cause liberation of electrons from the lattice atoms by collision. Under
uniform field conditions, if the electrodes are embedded in the specimen,
breakdown will occur when an electron avalanche bridges the electrode gap.

An electron within the dielectric, starting from the cathode will drift towards
the anode and during this motion gains energy from the field and loses it during
collisions. When the energy gained by an electron exceeds the lattice ionization
potential, an additional electron will be liberated due to collision of the first
electron. This process repeats itself resulting in the formation of an electron
avalanche. Breakdown will occur, when the avalanche exceeds a certain critical
size.

In practice, breakdown does not occur by the formation of a single avalanche

itself, but occurs as a result of many avalanches formed within the dielectric and
extending step by step through the entire thickness of the material

2. Electromechanical Breakdown

When solid dielectrics are subjected to high electric fields, failure occurs due
to electrostatic compressive forces which can exceed the mechanical compressive
strength. If the thickness of the specimen is d0 and is compressed to thickness d under
an applied voltage V, then the electrically developed compressive stress is in
equilibrium

3. Thermal Breakdown

In general, the breakdown voltage of a solid dielectric should increase with its
thickness. But this is true only up to a certain thickness above which the heat
generated in the dielectric due to the flow of current determines the conduction. When
an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current however small it may be,
flows through the material. The current heats up the specimen and the temperature

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rise. The heat generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction
through the solid dielectric and by radiation from its outer surfaces. Equilibrium is
reached when the heat used to raise the temperature of the dielectric, plus the heat
radiated out, equals the heat generated. The heat generated under d. c. stress E is
given as :

Wdc = Eσ W/cm3,

where σ is the d. c. conductivity of the specimen.

Under a. c. fields, the heat generated :

Wa. c. = W/cm3 ,

where, f= frequency in Hz,δ = loss angle of the dielectric material, and E= rms
value. The heat dissipated (Wr ) is given by :

Wr = Cv + div

where, Cv= specific heat of the specimen, T = temperature of the specımen, K

= thermal conductivity of the specimen, and t = time over which the heat is dissipated.

Breakdown occurs when W or W d.c. a.c. exceeds Wr. The thermal instability
condition is shown in Fig. 4.2. Here, the heat lost is shown by a straight line, while the
heat generated at fields E and E 1 2 is shown by separate curves. At field E2
breakdown occurs both at temperatures T and T A B heat generated is less than the
heat lost for the field E , 2 and hence the breakdown will not occur

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 Material Maximum thermal breakdown stress in MV/cm

Dalam Dalam
medan dc medan ac

Muscovite mica 24 7,18

Rock salt 38 1,4

High grade porcelin 2,8

-

9,8
H.V. Steatite -

Quart-perpendicular to 1200
axis -

Quart-paraller to axis 66
-

Capacitor paper 3,4-4,4

-

Polythene 3,5
-

Polystryene 5,0
-

It can be seen from this table that since the power loss under a.c. fields is
higher, the heat generation is also high, and hence the thermal breakdown stresses are
lower under a.c. conditions than under d.c. conditions.

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4. Breakdown Due to Treeing and Tracking

When a solid dielectric subjected to electrical stresses for a long time fails,
normally two kinds of visible markings are observed on the dielectric material. They
are:

a) the presence of a conducting path across the surface of the insulation:

b) a mechanism whereby leakage current passes through the conducting path

finally leading to the formation of a spark.

Insulation deterioration occurs as a result of these sparks. The spreading of

spark channels during tracking, in the form of the branches of a tree is called treeing.

Consider a system of a solid dielectric having a conducting film and two

electrodes on its surface. In practice, the conducting film very often is formed due to
moisture. On application of voltage, the film starts conducting, resulting in generation
of heat, and the surface starts becoming dry. The conducting film becomes separate
due to drying, and so sparks are drawn damaging the dielectric surface. With organic
insulating materials such as paper and bakelite, the dielectric carbonizes at the region
of sparking, and the carbonized regions act as permanent conducting channels
resulting in increased stress over the rest of the region. This is a cumulative process,
and insulation failure occurs when carbonized tracks bridge the distance between the
electrodes. This phenomenon, called tracking is common between layers of bakelite,
paper and similar dielectrics built of laminates.

On the other hand treeing occurs due to the erosion of material at the tips of
the spark. Erosion results in the roughening of the surfaces, and hence becomes a
source of dirt and contamination. This causes increased conductivity resulting either
in the formation of conducting path bridging the electrodes or in a mechanical failure
of the dielectric.

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 When a dielectric material lies between two electrodes, there is possibility for
two different dielectric media, the air and the dielectric, to come series. The voltages
across the two media are as shown (V1 across the air gap, and V2 across the
dielectric). The voltage V1 across the air gap is given as,

Since ε2 〉 ε1 most of the voltage appears across d1 , the air gap. Sparking will
occur in the air gap and charge accumulation takes place on the surface of the
insulation. Sometimes the spark erodes the surface of the insulation. As time passes,
break-down channels spread through the insulation in an irregular “tree’ like fashion
leading to the formation of conducting channels. This kind of channeling is called
treeing. Under a.c. voltage conditions treeing can occur in a few minute or several
hours. Hence, care must be taken to see that no series air gaps or other weaker
insulation gaps are formed.

Usually, tracking occurs even at very low voltage of the order of about 100 V,
whereas treeing requires high voltages. For testing of tracking, low and medium
voltage tracking tests are specified. These tests are done at low voltages but for times
of about 100 hr or more. The insulation should not fail. Sometimes the tests are done
using 5 to 10 kV with shorter durations of 4 to 6 hour. The numerical value that
initiates or causes the formation of a track is called “tracking index” and this is used
to qualify the surface properties of dielectric materials. Treeing can be prevented by
having clean, dry, and undamaged surfaces and a clean environment. The materials
chosen should be resistant to tracking. Sometimes moisture repellant greases are used.
But this needs frequent cleaning and regressing. Increasing creeping distances should
prevent tracking, but in practice the presence of moisture films defeat the purpose.

13
 Usually, treeing phenomena is observed in capacitors and cables, and extensive work
is being done to investigate the real nature and causes of this phenomenon.

5. Electrochemical Breakdown

In the presence of air and other gases some dielectric materials undergo
chemical changes when subjected to continuous stresses. Some of the important
chemical reactions that occur are:

-Oxidation: In the presence of air or oxygen, material such as rubber and

polyethylene undergo oxidation giving rise to surface cracks.

-Hydrolysis: When moisture or water vapor is present on the surface of a solid

dielectric, hydrolysis occurs and the material loses their electrical and mechanical
properties. Electrical properties of materials such as paper, cotton tape, and other
cellulose materials deteriorate very rapidly due to hydrolysis. Plastics like
polyethylene undergo changes, and their service life considerably reduces.

-Chemical Action: Even in the absence of electric fields, progressive chemical

degradation of insulating materials can occur due to a variety of processes such as
chemical instability at high temperatures, oxidation and cracking in the presence of air
and ozone, and hydrolysis due to moisture and heat. Since different insulating
materials come into contact with each other in any practical reactions occur between
these various materials leading to reduction in electrical and mechanical strengths
resulting in a failure.

The effects of electrochemical and chemical deterioration could be minimized

by carefully studying and examining the materials. High soda content glass insulation
should be avoided in moist and damp conditions, because sodium, being very mobile,
leaches to the surface giving rise to the formation of a strong alkali which will cause
deterioration. It was observed that this type of material will lose its mechanical
strength within 24 hrs, when it is exposed to atmospheres having 100% relative
humidity at 700 C. In paper insulation, even if partial discharges are prevented
completely, breakdown can occur due to chemical degradation. The chemical and

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 electrochemical deterioration increases very rapidly with temperature, and hence high
temperatures should be avoided.

6. Breakdown Due to Internal Discharges

Solid insulating materials, and to a lesser extent liquid dielectrics contain

voids or cavities within the medium or at the boundaries between the dielectric and
the electrodes. These voids are generally filled with a medium of lower dielectric
strength, and the dielectric constant of the medium in the voids is lower than that of
the insulation. Hence, the electric field strength in the voids is higher than that across
the dielectric. Therefore, even under normal working voltages the field in the voids
may exceed their breakdown value, and breakdown may occur.

Let us consider a dielectric between two conductors. If we divide the

insulation into three parts, an electrical network of C1 ,C2 ,and C3 can be formed In
this, C1 represents the capacitance of the void or cavity, C 2 is the capacitance of the
dielectric which is in series with the void, and C3 is the capacitance of the dielectric.

When a voltage V is applied, V1 reaches the breakdown strength of the

medium in the cavity (Vi) and breakdown occurs. Vi is called the “discharge inception
voltage”. When the applied voltage is a.c., breakdown occurs on both the half cycles
and the number of discharges will depend on the applied voltage. When the first
breakdown across the cavity occurs the breakdown voltage across it becomes zero.
When once the voltage V1 becomes zero, the spark gets extinguished and again the
voltage rises till breakdown occurs again. This process repeats again and again, and
current pulses will be obtained both in the positive and negative half cycles.

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 These internal discharges (also called partial discharges) will have the same
effect as “treeing” on the insulation. When the breakdown occurs in the voids,
electrons and positive ions are formed. They will have sufficient energy and when
they reach the void surfaces they may break the chemical bonds. Also, in each
discharge there will be some heat dissipated in the cavities, and this will carbonize the
surface of the voids and will caused erosions of the material. Channels and pits
formed on the cavity surfaces increase the conduction. Chemical degradation may
also occur as a result of the activate discharge products formed during breakdown.

All these effect will result in a gradual erosion of the material and consequent
reduction in the thickness of insulation leading to breakdown. The life of the
insulation with internal discharges depends upon the applied voltage and the number
of discharges. Breakdown by this process may occur in a few or days or may take a
few years.

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 Conclusion

From various explanations, problems, and sections of the conduction of solid materials
to high voltages, it can be concluded that...

a. Solid media as an insulator are very common in the field, such as high-voltage chain
insulators, because they have a higher dielectric strength than liquid media and gas
media. As an insulator, it aims to prevent current from flowing if it gets a voltage
difference. The breakdown voltage in solid insulation is a very important thing to
study because of its advantages and proven to be widely used in electric power
engineering. The breakdown mechanism in solid insulators is a complex
phenomenon, which depends on the time the voltage is applied.

b. The breakdown mechanism is a complex phenomenon in particular solids and

depends on the voltage variation and the time of application. In principle, the
breakdown failure mechanism in solids is the same as that which occurs in gases and
air.

c. breakdown mechanisme of solids according to the time of application of stress is

divided into,

1. intrinsic breakdown

Intrinsic breakdown occurs due to collisions with atoms, all the energy will ionize the
atoms and new electrons appear which are ready to undergo the same process. there
is a lot of electron conduction, so this intrinsic breakdown is usually called electronic
breakdown. because the translucent process is dominated by electronic processes.

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2. electromechanical breakdown

electromechanical breakdown occurs because of a polarity process where it seems as

if there is an expansion due to the attraction of the anode to the cathode due to the
arrangement of electrons in the insulator. then a field strength arises, if the voltage is
high then the field strength that arises is also high, so that a variation and expansion
occurs which will result in a large force. If this large emerging force is greater than
the electron suppressing force, then the insulator will break.

3. streamer breakdown

streamer breakdown occurs because the sharp electrode where the electrode is in
contact with solid electronics, if there is a sufficiently large electric field, the pointed
tip will damage the insulator.

4. Thermal breakdown

Thermal breakdown occurs due to the presence of insulation that operates in the
lattice conditions of the material. heating occurs due to dielectric losses, some of the
heat is channeled to the insulator.

5. Erosion breakdown

Erosion breakdown occurs due to the process of making insulating materials, where
at the time of manufacture there are air cavities, because the field strength that arises
in the air is greater than the ionization field strength itself. in air it is greater than
ionization insulation and gives rise to sparks. The spark generates ozone gas which
oxidizes the insulating material and changes its conductive properties.

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 Reference

1. Hayt, W.H. Jr., Engineering Electromagnetics, Kosaido Printing Company

Ltd., Tokyo, 1981.

2. Naidu, M.S. dan Kamaraju, V., High Voltage Engineering, Second edition,
Tata McGrow-Hill Publishing Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1995.

3. Razevi, D.V., High Voltage Engineering, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 1979.

4. Vitkovitch, D., Field Analysis: experimental and computatinal methods, D.

Van Nostrand Company Ltd., Toronto, copyright 1966.

5. Weber, E., Electromagnetic Fields: Theory and Applications, John Wiley &
Son, Inc, New York, 1950.

6. Zein, H., Teknik Tegangan Tinggi: teori dan pegangan untuk laboratorium,
Penerbit PT. Rosda Jayaputra, Jakarta, 1994.

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