UNIT - 3

Thermal properties of metals- Heat capacity,

thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, thermal
stress, thermal fatigue, thermal shock.

Electrical properties of metals- Electrical

conductivity, electronics and ionic conduction,
energy band structures in solids, electrical
resistivity of metals, electrical characteristics of
alloys used for commercial purposes.
Thermal stresses:

Thermal stresses are induced in a solid body as a result

of changes in temperature. These stresses can lead to
fracture or undesirable plastic deformation.
To understand the origins and nature of thermal
stresses, let us consider a homogeneous and isotropic solid
rod that is heated or cooled uniformly; i.e., no temperature
gradients are imposed.

For free expansion or contraction, the rod will be stress

free. If however, axial motion of the rod is restrained by
rigid end supports, thermal stresses will be introduced.
Thus due to temperature changes, material may
experience thermal stresses (σthermal).

σthermal = αEΔT

where E – elastic modulus of the material. Thermal

stresses in a constrained body will be of compressive
nature if it is heated, and vice versa.
α is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion.
Another source for thermal stresses is thermal gradient
within the body when a solid body is heated or cooled.

It is because temperature distribution will depend on its

size and shape.

Temperature gradients across a body, frequently caused

by rapid heating or cooling, in that the outside changes
temperature more rapidly than the interior.
For example, upon heating, the exterior of a specimen is
rather hotter and, therefore, will have expanded more than
the interior regions.

Obviously, compressive surface stresses are induced and

are balanced by tensile interior stresses.

However, the interior-exterior stress conditions are

reversed for rapid cooling such that the surface is put into
a state of tension.
For example: Zerodur – a glass-ceramic material that
consists of 70-80% crystalline quartz, and the remaining
as glassy phase.

Negative thermal expansion coefficient of glassy phase

compensates for the positive thermal expansion coefficient
of the crystalline base, leading to a zero thermal
expansion.

This material has many applications like parts of

telescopes in astronomy. Many ceramic materials for
critical thermal applications are developed based on
sodium-zirconium-phosphate, that have a near-zero
thermal expansion coefficient.
THERMAL FATIGUE:
The change of temperature imposed upon a body of the
specimen produces alternate thermal gradients and hence
changing stresses.

These changing stresses have the effect of creating

thermal fatigue in the specimen. The stresses generated by
changing temperature are often high in magnitude
creating plastic deformation.

Under such conditions, the material fails due to low

cycle thermal fatigue. The failure of the material is further
hastened because of bad effects of temperature on
mechanical strength.
THERMAL SHOCK:
Thermal shock is generation of sudden and high stresses
due to sudden and severe changes in temperature.

Thermal shocks created by cooling are much more

dangerous than those from heating as this process creates
tensile stresses on the surface.

Surface of any material is weaker than inside surface of

the material for various reasons. For ductile metals and
polymers, alleviation of thermally induced stresses may be
accomplished by plastic deformation.
However, the non-ductility of most ceramics enhances
the possibility of brittle fracture from these stresses. Brittle
materials are weak in tension.

The capacity of a material body to withstand the thermal

stresses brought about by sudden and severe temperature
changes is termed its thermal shock resistance (TSR) and
usually denoted by P.
P will be function of elastic properties and thermal
conductivity of the material and expressed as
P (TSR) = [σfK]/Eα
= [σu/Eα]
where σf is high fracture strength, σu → ultimate tensile
strength, E →modulus of elasticity, α→ coefficient of
thermal expansion, ρ→ density and C → specific heat.

One may prevent the thermal shock by altering the

external conditions to the degree that cooling or heated
rates are reduced and temperature gradients across a body
are minimized.
Modification of the thermal and/or mechanical
characteristics in above equation may also enhance the
thermal shock resistance of a material.

The introduction of some relatively large pores or ductile

second phase may also help to improve the thermal shock
characteristics of a material, i.e., both serve to impede the
propagation of thermally induced cracks.

Usually, there is a necessity to remove thermal stresses

in ceramic materials as a means of improving their
mechanical strengths and optical characteristics. This may
be achieved by an annealing heat treatment.
 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
INTRODUCTION:

Engineering materials are important in everyday life

because of their versatile structural properties.

Prime physical properties of materials include: electrical

properties; thermal properties; magnetic properties; and
optical properties.

The electrical behaviour of engineering materials are

diverse(very different), and their uses in electrical
applications.
Few examples of electrical applications:

Copper and aluminium wires used in power transmission.

Amorphous silicon in solar cells; LEDs.
Gallium-arsenide chips used in modern day computers,
cell phones, digital assistants; etc.

The electrons in the outermost shell of atoms controls

the electrical and magnetic behaviour of substances.

 In the recent developments solid state devices very

useful in the field of electronic structure of substances.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION:
Electrical conduction is the movement of electrically
charged particles through a transmission medium.

The ability of electrons to pass through some material is

called conduction.

Metals are good conductors because their atoms have

low attraction to electrons.
Non-Metals are poor conductors because their atoms
attraction to electrons strongly. 

Motion of Electrons is known as current.

Coulomb/second = Ampere is the units of current.
Electrical conductivity of a material is defined in terms
of a material transmits an electrical current.

Electrical current (I) is flow of electrons, and driving

force for the flow of electrons is called voltage (V). Ohm’s
law relates these parameters as follows: VαI
V = IR (1)
where R – is the materials resistance to flow of electrons
through it. V, I, and R respectively have units as volts,
amperes, and ohms (Ω).
The electrical resistance (ρ) of a material is probably the
most important of all physical properties.

The value of electrical resistance is influenced by

specimen configuration, and for many materials is
independent of current.

However the resistivity of material is independent of the

specimen geometry. RA/l = ρ (2)
ρ = VA/Il (3)
where A – cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of the
current, and l – the distance between points between which the
voltage is applied. Units for ρ are ohm-meters (Ω-m).
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (σ):
Reciprocal of the electrical resistivity, known as
electrical conductivity (σ), is used to express the electrical
behavior of a material.

σ =1/ρ = L/ RA (4)
Electrical conductivity has the following units: (Ω-m)-1 or
mho/meter.
R = ρ . L/A
V/I = ρ . L/A
V/L = I/A . ρ
E = J. ρ = J. 1/ σ
current density J = σ E
Electrical conductivity is indicative of the ease with a
material is capable of conducting an electrical current. It is
also expressed in Siemens/m.

When an electric field E is applied to a conductor an

electric current begins to flow and the current density by
Ohm’s law is
J=σE (5)
The conductivity may be defined as the movement of
electrical charge from one point to another and it depends
on the number of charge carriers (n), the charge per carrier
(e) and the mobility of carriers (µ),i.e.

σ = neµ (6)

The unit of mobility (µ) is m2 V–1s–1. Mobility is an

important term in the study of semiconductors.
The electrons move in a specific direction under the
influence of the electric field. The directional motion of a
free electron is called a drift. The average velocity gained
during this drift motion is termed as drift velocity.

As electron is being negatively charged particle, the

force acting on it under the electric field intensity E is,
Force (F )= –eE (7)
The electron drift is in a direction opposite to that of the
applied field. During the accelerated motion, the electron
collides with the defects in the lattice.

The effect of the crystal lattice may be reduced

considerably due to a retarding force (may be due to
damping).

This force is proportional to the velocity v and mass m of

the electron. The retarding force is represented as –αmv,
where α is a constant.
We can write the equation of motion of the electron as
m = dv/dt = –eE = –αmv (8)
or dv = – (Ee /m) dt
or v = – (eE /m)t + constant (9)

But at t = 0, v = 0 (immediately after each collision) and

hence the integration constant in (9) is zero. Thus (9)
takes the form
v = - (eE /m)Ʈ
Obviously, the mean velocity = –eEƮ/m, where Ʈ is
called the relaxation time and is time interval in which
there is unit probability of a collision.

When there is a collision of lattices (resistance), the

current density J due to n electrons per unit volume of
charge e and drift velocity v is expressed as
J = nev (10)
= ne( eEƮ /m) (11)
=σE (12)
σ =J/E=ne2 Ʈ/m = ne (eƮ ) (13)
The velocity in a unit electric field, i.e. v/E is the mobility
(µ) of the electron. Hence
µ = v/E
Using Eqs. (10) and (12), one obtains

J = neµE
and σ = neµ (14)

Equation (14) is of immense importance for solid

materials.
From (14), we note that electrical conductivity depends on
two factors: (i) the number n of charge carriers per unit
volume and (ii) their mobility,µ.
Usually conductivity allows us to compare different
materials. Solid engineering materials exhibit very wide
range of electrical conductivity.

Hence the materials for electrical applications are

classified according to their electrical conductivity as: (i)
Conductors (ii) Semi conductors and (iii) Insulators:
Metals and their alloys are good conductors. Copper,
silver and gold are among the best conductors of
electricity, followed by aluminium, iron and nickel.

Some semimetals, e.g. graphite also fall in this group.

According to free electron theory, when the outer orbit of
an atom has less than one half of the maximum 8
electrons, the material is usually a metal and a good
conductor of electricity.
Metals have conductivities on the order of 107 (Ω -m)–1.
The electrical resistivity of conductor range from 10–9 to 10–
4
(Ω-m).
Semiconductors are materials which behave are
insulators at 0 °K but a significant rise in electrical
conductivity is observed as the temperature rises.

At room temperature, the electrical conductivity of

semiconductor falls between that of a conductor and
insulator.
The electrical conductivity semiconductors ranges from
about 105 to 10–7 (Ω-m)–1, as compared with the conductivity
on the order of 107 (Ω - m)–1 for good conductors and
minimum conductivity of 10–15 (Ω – m)–1 for good insulators.

Semiconductors form the base materials for a number of

electronic devices. Germanium and silicon are the widely used
common semiconductors.
According to free electron theory, when the outer orbit
of an atom has exactly one-half the maximum eight
electrons, the material has both metal and non-metal
properties and usually exhibit semiconducting properties.

We must note that the electrical resistivity of a

semiconductor is usually strongly dependent on
temperature. There are also materials with very low
conductivities, ranging between 10–10 and 10–20 (Ω-m)–1.
These are electrical insulators. Mica, PVC, rubber, porcelain
and bakelite are few examples of insulators.

The resistivity range of insulators extends from 104 to 1017

(Ω-m). According to electron theory, when the outer orbit of
an atom has more than one half of the maximum eight
electrons, the material is usually a non-metal and non-
conductor.
Electrical Conductivity:
Ag = 107
Cu = 106
Gold = 104
Al = 104
Concrete = 10-9
Porcelain = 10-10 - 10 -12
Nylon = 10-12 - 10 -13
Polystyrene = 10-14
Copper, Silver, Aluminum, Gold, Steel and Brass are
common conductors of electricity.
Good examples of semiconductor materials are
germanium, selenium, and silicon.
Some common insulators are glass, air, plastic, rubber,
and wood.
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