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TheFacesofJanus
MarxismandFascism in the
Twentieth Century
A. James Gregor
Yale University Press New Haven and London
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Thefaces ofJanus:Marxism and Fascism in the
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<II
I
Contents
IX
Acknowledgments XI
1. OnTheoryandRevol utioninOurTime
2. TheFirstMarxistTheoriesofFascism 19
3. TheMarxistTheoryofFascismaftertheSecondWorld War 45
4. Fascismand Marxism-LeninisminPower 68
5. Fascismandthe DevolutionofMarxismintheSovietUnion 89
6. FascismandPost-SovietRussia 10
7
7. Fascismand Bolshevism 128
B. Fascism,Marxism,and Race 149
"F . "
9. aSClsms 166
Appendix:Chronology,1919-1995 I8S
Notes 193
Index 233
Preface
The turn of the century is as convenient an occasion as any to take stock of our
time. It has been a time of trouble. Two world wars grew out of the "belle
epoque"-and by the end of the century, more human beings would be killed by
their own governments than would die in those wars. In attempting to under-
stand something of that doleful reality, many have had recourse to the existence,
in our century, of "fascism." "Fascism," we are told, was "one of the most glaring
examples of political evil in modern history."! Fascism, we have been told, was
uniquely inhumane. We have been told that "anyone with any concern f()r
human dignity can sec the destructive effects ofthe fascist denigration of human
life."2 The implication of judgments of these kinds is that/ilScism, however that
term is understood, is responsible for much of the devastation of the
twentieth century. More than that, an effort has been made recently to identify
"fascism" with "right-wing extremism," and thereby credit the Right with vir-
all the infamies of our time.' Somehow or other, only the Right figures in
the catalog of horrors that make up contemporary history. Yet almost everyone
now acknowledges that the regimes of Stalin, Mao, and Pol Pot were stained
with the blood of millions of innocent victims-more than those of the extreme
right. We are left perplexed.
Even the most generous estimate would make the Left at least partially
responsible for the mayhem that distinguishes our century. The political Right
and the political Left seem to share something of a common malevolence. All
that notwithstanding, some Western scholars continue to treat the political uni-
verse as though it were divided between the evil Right and the benign Left.
4
The thesis of the present work is that much of the literature of the twentieth
century devoted to the analysis of violent revolution has failed to appreciate the
central issues around which the insurrectionary violence of our time has turned.
IX
.1
x PREFACE
Ii
iI
The failure of that literature is manifest in its treatment of the revolutions that
followed the First World War-and which continue to the present-as being
either of the Right or of the Left. Fascism is ofthe Right and Marxist-Leninist
ill
regimes are of the Left.
I,ll
I will argue that the major systemic revolutions of our time have been of
neither the Right nor the Left. Our error has been to attempt to force each
revolutionary instance into a procrustean bed of preconceptions. To this
some in the West remain convinced that while the revolutions of the Right have
been unqualifiedly "pathological" and "homicidal," those of the Left have been
compassionate and benevolent-and that only extraneous circumstances pro-
duced the horrors of the Great Purge, the Great Proletarian Revolution, and the
massacre of innocents by the Khmer Rouge.
There are others for at least two generations, have argued that the
universe we have known since the Bolshevik and Fascist revolutions has
not been divided, primarily, by conflicts between the Right and Left, but be-
tween representative democracies and anti-democratic "ideocracies." The con-
test has been between systems that base legitimacy on electoral results and those
whose legitimacy and authority rest on appeal to an ideology considered iner-
rant, the guidance of a "charismatic leader," and the armed suasion of a hege-
monic party. Among the latter movements and regimes there is no Right or Left.
There are only anti-democratic systems.
However convenient and inf<mnative the distinction between Right and Left
may be in local politics, it is largely irrelevant in dealing with the revolutionary
movements that have shaped the international environment during the last
hundred years. There have been many who have recognized as much.
This work is an effort to restate the case for the latter view. It attempts to
supplement the argument advanced a quarter ofa century ago that there is more
"fascism" in the Left: than most Western scholars have heen prepared to recog-
nize.o Recent developments in post-Soviet Russia and post-Maoist China elo-
quently make the case.
I attempt to trace the decay of Marxist theory among left-wing intellectuals.
Bereft of much of its mummery, Marxist theory reveals itselfas a variant of generic
fascism. The contest of the twentieth century, which has cost so much in human
was not between the Right and the Left. It was hetween representative de-
mocracies and their anti-democratic opponents. It has been an arduous struggle.
The anti-democratic temptation continues to have appeal to those who feel
themselves to be oppressed and humiliated. One of the implications of the dis-
cussion in what follows is that, at the end of the century, there really is very little
convincing evidence that the democracies have won the contest. That does not
bode well for the twenty-first century.
Acknowledgments
Preparing an academic manuscript for publication necessarily makes one in-
debted to many persons and institutions. lowe a deep debt of gratitude to the
University of California, Berkeley, for providing me with an intellectual home
for most of my professional life. I also owe a great deal to the officers and staff of
the Marine Corps University at Quantico, Virginia, for generously allowing me
to use their handsome research center for my work. My stay there as
Professor (1996-1997) was stimulating and
To my wife, Professor Maria Hsia Chang, lowe access to the Chinese
literature to which I refer in the text. She provided not only access to the Chinese
materials, but priceless insights into Chinese political culture. To Mr. Leonid Kil
lowe access to the Russian language material, which he knows so well.
Professor Zeev Sternhell of Hebrew University continues to be an inspira-
and Professor Alessandro Campi of Perugia introduced a bit of psychic
energy into a life of study that had become more than a little fatigued.
out our work together, Mr. John Covell and the staff of the Yale University Press
have been more patient and forthcoming than I had any right to expect. I hope
this book is worthy, in some small measure, of the contributions of so many good
people and fine institutions.
A. JAMES GREGOR
Berkeley, California
xi
OnTheoryandRevolutioninOurTime
By the end of the twentieth century, it had become clear that academicians in the
for the most part, had failed to understand the nature of the revolutions
that had overwhelmed their time.
l
Fascism, for frequently invoked as a
generic concept, but rarely persuasively characterized, was employed in attempts
to comprehend the major social and political dislocations that shaped a substan-
tial part of the century.2
Now, in the I 990S, interpretation has become still more problematic as a new
generation of scholars have sought to employ the concept fascism in an effort to
understand something about present and future politics. Unhappily, the term
fascism has been dilated to the point where its cognitive use has become more
than suspect.
In the most recent efforts, the term fascism has been pressed into service to
identify anything that could in any way be described of as "right-wing extrem-
ism"-from any resistance to permissive immigration policies, expressions of
exclusivity, instances of "hate speech," to the "spewing forth" of "con-
servative" sentiments.; Recently the European Parliament commissioned two
major committees of inquiry charged with responsibility for investigating the
recruitment and electoral successes of "fascism" on the Continent. The reports
that ultimately appeared contained long, doleful recitations of terrorist attacks
on foreign workers, assaults on Jewish schoolchildren, incidents of arson at
refugee hostels, mindless violence at soccer matches, and advocacy in print of
homicide.
4
Defined as "anti-Jewish violence and racist vandalism,"
"fascism" was found everywhere.'
Communism, in turn, was as frequently invoked as a concept in the discus-
sion of the century's revolutions-and just as frequently addressed in a manner
that left one more confused than illuminated.
6
Terms like communist, Marxist-
3
ON THEORY AND REVOLUTION IN OUR TIME
Leninist, or simply Marxist were used indiscriminately to identify politi-
cal systems as different as the Soviet Union of Josef Stalin, the China of Mao
Zedong, and the Cuba of Fidel Castro.
This kind of confusion was apparent at the very beginning of the "Marxist
in 19'7. John Reed, the American adventurer and
witness to the Bolshevik was among the first to suggest that Lenin's
revolution was the of what would ultimatelv be a worldwide "left-
wing Marxist future."
That a "Marxist" revolution would occur, in whatever in a
primitive economic environment, characterized more by peasant life than by
proletarian consciousness, did not seem to puzzle very many Western thinkers.
Many were clearly disposed, as was John Reed, to see the Bolshevik revolution as
a of an imminent universal Marxist revolution. V. I. Lenin and his entou
rage did advertise themselves as Marxists-defenders of the proletariat-and a
number of Western scholars continued for seven decades to think of
the Soviet experiment as an effort to realize the Marxist dream of equality and
peace. There is no other way to explain the admiration with which Western in-
tellectuals like George Bernard Shaw, Sydney and Beatrice Webb, Andre Gide,
Ignazio Silone, Arthur Koestler, or Howard Fast studied the Soviet revolution.
What this contributed to was a systematic difference in the scholarly em-
ployment of the two concepts, fascism and communism. References to fascism
were almost always mercurial and fugitive and almost invariably carried moral
in their train. For the half-century after the end of the Second
the
spo-
ken of as "narcissistic and megalomaniac," as well as and
"psychopathological."7
"Marxist," "Marxist-Leninist," or "communist" systems, on the other
were rarely treated with such unqualified condemnation. Early in the history of
the Soviet Union, E. H. Carr could argue that V. I. Lenin and Josef Stalin really
sought to increase "the sum of well-being and human opportunity" through
achievements that "impressed the rest of the
Even when such systems were convincingly identified with purges, mass
murder, and pandemic political violence, they were deemed "psycho-
pathological" or "sadistic." As late as '984, Norman Mailer could still lament the
treatment of the Soviet Union as an "evil force," and others refused to acknowl-
edge that political terror might function in some intrinsic fashion in the commu-
nist systems of Josef Stalin, Mao Zedong, or Kim II Sung. For a very long time,
there was an abiding sense, among many Western intellectuals, that the Soviet
Union was no more "evil" than the United States.
9
Fascism was an unmitigated evil, but any such characterization of Soviet or
Chinese Marxism-Leninism-for a very long time-was understood to be a
product of "paranoia" brought on by the "anti-communist hysteria" of the cold
war. For years, between the two world wars, and subsequently throughout the
decades of the cold war, many intellectuals in the West seemed to judge Marxist-
Leninist regimes, not by facts that had become increasingly available, but in line
with wish and utopian fantasy. to For an inexplicably long time, the Bolshevik
was seen by many Western intellectuals as the fulfillment of social-
ism's historic a of the world's salvation.
The collapse of Marxism-Leninism forced everyone, everYWhere, to attempt
a reassessment of the entire revolutionary experience of the twentieth century.
Undertaken in the wrong countries, by the wrong classes, under conditions that
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels insisted could neither foster nor sustain the
salvific socialism they anticipated, Marxist-Leninist movements, and the re-
gimes they fabricated, were rarely treated as what they were: historical anoma-
animated by an intellectual pretension for which there was little warrant.
11
The consequence of all this has been to leave modern scholarship without a
coherent understanding of what the revolutionary history of the twentieth cen-
tury was all about. An omnibus "fascism" and a curiously misunderstood "com-
munism" make up much of the political history of our time.
However they understood or misunderstood these terms, most Western in-
tellectuals, throughout the century, decided that some very fundamental differ-
ences separated fascist and communist revolutions. Fascist revolutions were in-
extricably and irremediably of the Right and Marxist-Leninist revolutions of
the Left.
Well into the middle of the 1990S, Western academics continued to find
and hope in the few remaining left-wing Marxist-Leninist systems
that survived the collapse of the Soviet Union in '991. Left-wing regimes in
North Korea and in Castro's Cuba still evoked positive sentiments from some.
12
At the same time, other Western academics were
"neofascism" in Italy, Germany, and the United KingdomY
Thus, with a certain measure of consistency, scholars in the twentieth cen-
tury have persisted in distinguishing right-wing revolutions from those on the
Left. It has never been altogether clear what the distinction really implied except
in general, right-wing revolutions necessarily involved unspeakable hor-
rors-while those on the Left, well-meaning if errant, manifested themselves in
attempts to lift the burdens of poverty and oppression from the shoulders of the
unfortunate. 14
However emphatic the sentiment that insisted on the distinctions between
revolutions of the Right and Left, it is uncertain whether now, at the end of the
century, the differences between fascism and communism remain as dearand
as thev wereonce imagined to be. Attheendofthecentury, it
has becomealmost todeterminewhatthenotionright-wing meansto
to say that, for many, its reference is "fascism." We are told,
withconfidence,that"theextremeright'sideologyis provided by fascism."I';
Forsome, "rightwing" and "fascism" both involve "nationalism,hierarchi-
cal structures,and the 'leader principle.'"1(, Forothers, both mean "antiliberal-
ism,anticommunism,andanticonservatism." Forstill others,both"rightwing"
and"fascism"aregivenovertocommunitarianism,anti-individualismandanti-
rationalism, or they entertain a "beliefin the authority ofthe state over the
onnaturalcommunity;distrustforindividual
tation and parliamentary arrangements; limitations on personal and collective
collective identification in a great national destiny, against class or
ethnic or religious divisions; and acceptance ofthe hierarchical principle for
social organizations."17 Should that be the case, we are left with an abiding
puzzlement. We can take littlecognitive comfortin the distinctions thatsuch a
rehearsalofpolitical traits pretendstodeliver.
Once one drops below the high level ofabstraction such characterizations
offer,onefindsdenotativeright- and distinctionshardto maintain.We
are informed, for example, that "there is overwhelming evidence that the old
communist regimes had always harboured sentimentsofinherent nationalism
andeven xenophobic prejudicesbarelyhiddenunderthecloakofMarxist
nationalism."IB By the mid-1990s, moreover, no one denied the "hierarchical
structures"orthepredominantroleof "leaders"inallcommunistsystems.There
is hardlyanydoubtthatMarxist Leninistsystems were, and remain,"commu-
nitarian and anti-individualist." Whether they were or are "anti-rationalist"
really turnsonone'sdefinitionof"rationalist."
That Marxist-Leninist systems are or have been anti-liberal and anti-
parliamentarianhas never really beencontroversial.Thattheyhavearguedthat
their respective nations have a "great national destiny" is
dispute. In fact, for a longtime, thedistinction between the oolitical Rillhtand
Lefthas beenrecognizedassingularlyinsubstantial.
l
,! In
Mikhail arguedthatwhatever
itwascertainlynot
maintained that Soviet domestic and fiJreign policy was torn be-
tweenits"radicalrightnature"and the"radicalleftlegitimacy"ofitsideological
pretensions.
211
By theendofthe 1920Sandthe beginningofthe 19305,Stalin had
created a regime that had abandoned every principle that had presumably typ-
,I]
ified left-wingaspirationsand hadgiven himselfoverto notionsof"socialismin
onecountry" all theattendantattributes:nationalism,theleadership
ciple, anti-liberalism, anti-individualism, communitarianism, hierarchical rule,
missionary zeal, the employment ofviolence to assure national purpose, and
anti-Semitism-making the Soviet Union unmistakenly "a cousin to German
NationalSocialism."21
We are left with a budgetofparadoxes.Giventhe seeminglogic ofthepro-
posed classificationofright-wingDolities-
cal structures, and charismatic
and Marxism-Leninism would seem to be political prC)(lucts or nght-wmgex-
tremism.Should thatbe thecase, the revolutions undertaken by BenitoMusso-
AdolfHitler,JosefStalin,and MaoZcdongwereall right-wmgendeavors.
Thus,wearetold, in fact and for example, thatthe Romanian Communist
regimeofNicolaeCcausqcu,"mixingnationalismandStalinism,"wasaregime
notofthe butoftheRight.
22
It was "nationalistic,"as all Marxist-Leninist
systemsappearto havebeen;it washierarchical,as all Marxist-Leninistsystems
havebeen;anditwasinf<mnedby the"leaderprinciple,"asall Marxist Leninist
systemshavebeen.If CeausCcu'sCommunismhadbeen allcommu-
nistsystemswould havetobe
Giventhese itwouldseemthat likefascism-
however counterintuitive the idea be-was a right-wing revolutionary
movement. As a consequence, we are now counselled that "perhaps we have
tended to misjudge thecommunistelites ofyesterdayand failed to notice their
latent nationalism all along."ll And perhaps we never really appreciated the
hierarchical character ofcommunist systems, or the role played in the various
regimes by theVozhd ortheChairman,theDearLeaderortheLider lWassimo.
Itis unclearwhatall thatmightsuggest.Itis nowgenerallyaccepted,forex-
ample,thatJosefStalinwasananti-Semite,andthattheSovietUnion,whatever
its internationalist pretenses, had always been inspired by a form ofirredentist
and reactive The fact is that, throughout the twentieth century,
both fascismandcommunismwerecommittedtothecreationof"anew revolu-
todowith"theold,rotten,decadentlantecedent]
likecommunism,advocated theachievementofa"newrevo-
lutionary order, a new society and, even, a new man." For both fascism and
communism, that would necessitate "a general, collective, unitary effort by the
whole nation, [requiring that] all the nation's energy ...be mobilized and
channelled totheachievementofits new(and revived)greatness." fn bothcases,
mobilization would beafunctionof"theleader'scharismaticappeaL"25
Both fascism and Marxist-Leninist systems have demonstrated an
distrustof electoraland parliamentaryrepresentation.Bothentertainedthecon-
viction thatindividualsand groupsofindividuals mustsubmitto theauthority
ofthe hegemonic state-and it would be the hierarchical, nonrepresentative
7
ON THEORY AND REVOLUTfON IN OUR TIME 6
of "a great national destiny," that would overcome all class,
and racial divisions.
26
with varying degrees of faithfulness, as
much to Stalin's Soviet Union, Mao Zedong's China, Kim II Democratic
People's Republic of and Fidel Castro's Socialist Cuba as they do to
Mussolini's Italy. The fact remains that if "right-wing extremism" telescopes
"fascism," then it appears that Josef Stalin's Soviet Union was not onlv fascist. it
was an instantial case of right-wing extremism.
In the years prior to the Second World War, Rudolf Hilferding, the interna-
noted Marxist theorist, attempted to bring some clarity into a discussion
that had become increasingly opaque. On the issue of left- and right-wing
economic strategies, for he pointed out that "the controversy as to
whether the economic system ofthe Soviet Union is 'capitalist' or 'socialist' seems
to me rather pointless. It is neither. It represents a totalitarian state economy,
a system to which the [fascist] economies of Germany and Italy arc drawing
closer and closer."27
The fact is that the Soviet Union of Josef Stalin was more like fascism than
intellectuals throughout the decades from the 1930S to the 19805 seemed pre-
pared to allow.
JH
Only with the collapse of the Soviet Union have an increasing
number of specialists shown a readiness to acknowledge the similarities.
29
With
its collanse, Marxism-Leninism, at the end of the twentieth century, is being
reassessed.
the 19905, it was no longer possible to speak, with any intellectual integ-
of the Soviet Union of Stalin as
economic system, or of a "working-class" government. No more cre-
dence is invested in the Stalinist, Maoist, or Castro "proletarian state" than was
invested in the "proletarian" character of the "German National Socialist Work-
ers' Party" or the "Fascist State of Labor."
By the time of its disappearance at the end of the I 980s and the beginning of
the 19905, it was no longer plausible to argue that the Soviet Union offered a
clear alternative to the "right-wing extremism" of fascism. In fact, it was no
longer clear what "right-wing" or "left-wing" might be taken to mean in terms
of the major revolutions of the twentieth century.
If by the end of the twentieth century, some, if not many, intellectuals have
been driven to identify both fascism and communism as right-wing revolution-
ary movements and regimes, how might one explain the fact that for almost the
entire century a sharp distinction was drawn between the two on the basis of a
right- and left-wing dichotomy? It has become increasingly difficult to
the persistence of the right- and left-wing distinctions that were so long labored
in the academic literature devoted to accounts of revolution in our time.
In fact, during the first years after the termination of the Second World War,
there were Western intellectuals, whatever their notions of "left" and "right"
political persuasions might have been, who were fully prepared to address that
issue. They advised the subsumption of both fascism and communism under
the rubric "totalitarianism," arguing that each manifested traits that identified
many particular differences may have distinguished them-as
members of the same political genus. There were more than a few among
Western specialists who resisted the subsumption, insisting that the notion that
fascism and communism might share some fundamental properties was an
"ideological weapon" in the war against the Soviet Union.
lo
For some, the very
suggestion that f:lscism and Marxist-Leninist systems shared any major features
was totally unacceptable. Fascism was of the Right; communism was of the Left.
But totalitarianism, as a concept, irrespective of the objections of many aca-
demics, remained part of the lexicon of comparative political analysis. The pre-
occupation was not with the distinctions of Right and Left, but with the shared
totalitarian traits. In fact, by the last decade of the twentieth century, we were
told that "all the attributes of totalitarianism had antecedents in Lenin's
Russia: an official. all-embracine: ideolo!!v; a single party of the elect headed by a
terror; the ruling party's control of the
means of communication and the armed las well asl central command of
the economy."31 Totalitarianism, as a political had aooarentlv been as
much an invention of the Left as of the Right. A left and a
seemed to share space in the universe of political discourse.
The Stalinism that followed the totalitarian intimations of Lenin's Russia,
was not only totalitarian, it was infused by an "almost fascist-like chauvinism,"
with a "bureaucratization, absence of democracy, censorship, police
" and, as has been suggested, by an irrepressible and increasingly
intrusive anti-SemitismY By the mid-1990S, it was increasingly acknowledged
that left-wing totalitarianism more and more began to resemble right-wing
totalitarianism.
ll
The distinction between the totalitarianism of the Left and that of the Right
seems to have reduced itself to whatever convictions each entertained concerning
private property and the role of the market exchange of goods and services. Even
that, however, is no longer considered to be as substantial as once
that post-Maoist China has permitted the existence, expansion, and protection
qualified property rights under "communist" auspices, the distinctions between
right and left political persuasions have become still more diaphanous.
What seems to have become transparent, except to those irremediably doc-
is that the distinction between the Right and the Left, long considered
critical to the understanding of revolutionaries and revolutions of the twentieth
8
9
century, has become increasingly insubstantial." Whatever the putative moral
and empirical differences that originally urged the distinction on analysts, an
extraordinary measure of confusion continues to stalk any efftHt to distinguish
between the fascist and Marxist-Leninist movements and regimes of our unfor-
tunate time-in terms of discrete right- and left-wing attributes.
By the end of the twentieth century, the distinction between Right and Left
has increasingly become a distinction largely without a difference. That seems
not to have been apparent throughout much of the last half of the twentieth
century. For much of that time, it was the prevailing conviction that fascism,
however it was to be understood, was an exacerbated expression of the political
Right, while Marxism-Leninism was a product of the "Enlightenment left."
Even at the end of the twentieth century, there were still many intellectuals
in the industrial democracies who resisted abandoning the right- and left-wing
distinctions with which they had become so familiar. Some remained reluctant
to acknowledge that "leftist" regimes were more homicidal than those of the
"right." Most commentators, however, had closed a painful chapter in their
intellectual history. The long romance with the revolutionary left was largely
overY' Whatever they would subsequently make of Marxism and Marxism-
it would never be quite the same.
By the mid-1990S, it had become evident to almost everyone that the
tion of social science to the study of the "left-wing" Soviet Union, "perhaps the
greatest case study of the behavioral age," had been a failure--testimony to a
fundamental intellectual problem in the assessment of revolutions in the twen-
tieth century.!7 Western intellectuals seem to have bad serious difficulties in
taking the measure of revolutionary movements and the regimes they created.
There have been those who have already undertaken to register the moral
indifference to the excesses of the Left that seemed to have haunted Western
scholars throughout much of the twentieth century. There have been those who
have explored the psychological dimensions of the peculiar fascination with
communism and communist systems frequently displayed by \Vestern intellec-
tuals.
lH
Curiously enough, what has not really been systematically undertaken is
a treatment of Marxism-Leninism as itself a "theoretical" system, with social
science pretensions, capable of explaining both itself and its opponents.
That is not to say that the study of the intellectual origins of communism has
been neglected. A virtual cottage industry has grown up around the production
of studies dealing with Marxism and Leninism as intellectual systems. There
have even been studies of "Mao Thought" as intellectual history and
scholarly treatment of the stream of consciousness ideology of Fidel Castro.
Marxism-Leninism, we have been told, was predicated on a "coherent" and
"systematic doctrine derived from the ideas of Hegel, Marx and Engels, as
redefined by Lenin and Stalin." More than that, it "incorporated an economic
and a "series of dialectical laws." The clear implication was that Marx-
ism and Marxism-Leninism were theoretical systems capable of providing ex-
and predictive purchase on complex political events.
By the end of the 19805, concurrent with growing evidence of the failure of
"Marxist" such claims aroused increasing skepticism. It was increas-
ingly recognized that "Marxist categories and arguments icouldJ be used ideo-
to rationalize any situation one pleases."3'! More and more scholars were
prepared to recognize that Marxism, as "theory," was singularly empty of any
empirical implications. Whatever its intellectual coherence, its economic theo-
ries, and its dialectical laws, Marxist theory was incapable of accounting for the
major revolutionary changes that have overwhelmed our century.
Worst still, for all its theoretical machinery and "scientific" sophistication,
during times of crisis Marxism could apparently do nothing to insulate the
it animated from taking on the "common features" of those fascist
states it presumably opposed.
iO
Marxism, in the hands of its practitioners has
been singularly incapable of anticipating systemic crisis in the very systems it
operated-or explaining such crises after their
Some Western academics have been fascinated by Marxist theory since its
lCeption in the mid-nineteenth century. A veritable avalanche of volumes de-
voted to the explication and dissemination of Marxist theory has poured from
university presses for over a century. That those same authors who produced
that abundanet: should have sought an explanation, within the body of Marxist
speculation, for revolution and the rise of fascism in the twentieth century can be
easily understood.
In fact, it will be argued here that it was Marxist and Marxist-Leninist
speculation that laid down the first theoretical outlines of an explanatory strategy
in the effort to understand revolution in our time. By the end of the first quar-
ter of the twentieth century, doctrinaire Marxists had provided all the recom-
mended conceptual materials, the social science categories, and the compulsory
normative assessments, to be invoked in any discussion of "right-wing" and
revolutions and regimes.
By the mid-1930s, the judgments of many Western scholars were fixed in
those categories and those assessments. In retrospect, it appears that such
tions can best be explained by appealing to the principles of the sociology of
knowledge, rather than by cataloging whatever evidence was mustered to sup-
port such categories and assessments.
It was not the case that throughout the history of Stalinism, Western scholar-
knew nothing of Stalin's massacre of innocents, his physical destruction of
entire classes of citizens, his political oppression of any opposition, his exploita-
, I
ill
Ii
ON THEORY AND REVOLUTION IN OUR TIME 10
tion ofthe peasants and workers, and his general denial ofcivil and pUllULd.
rights toa subject population. Many Western scholarssimplychose to
the political life ofthe Soviet Union by an entirely differentmeasurefrom that
appliedto Fascist Italy.
Throughout a good part ofthe history ofthe twentieth century, fascism,
however it was understood, was taken to be an unmitigated evil by Western
"Marxism,"in its variousguises,was not.AnysuggestionthatMus-
solini's Fascism and "communism," in whatever form communism manifested
shareaffinitieswas repugnanttoWestern scholarship.
Asa consequence, for a very long time,any"Western scholars whohad the
to link Mussolini ...withCommunism in any way...risked harass-
ment."41 Only with the definitive collapse of Marxist and Marxist-Leninist
systemsinthe19805and19905weremoreandmoreWesternacademics
to tell us, without much equivocation, that "Bolshevism and
cism were heresies ofsocialism," having both arisen out ofthe
aspirations ofintransigentsocialists.12 Only then were we told that they shared
ideasconcerningsociety, revolution,andthemassmobilizationofpersons.
it has been argued, is attested to by the fact that at the founding ofthe Fascist
movement,andthroughoutits initial revolutionary phase,thelargestnumberof
Mussolini's "theoreticians" were f()rmer communists and intransigent Marx-
ists.
4l
In fact, wearenowtold thatmuchoftheideological inspirationofFascism
came from revolutionary socialists, and that Mussolini, like V. I. Lenin, was a
leaderofradical Marxists. More than any othersocialist before tbe First World
Mussolini resembled Lenin.'"
"mainstream" opinion among Western scholars had
Thecaseforafamilyresemblancebetween right- andleft-wingrevolu-
tionaries was no longerconsidered exotic. Fora varietyofreasons, the intellec-
tual environment had been transformed. An account of that transformation
cannot be undertaken with any real confidence-but part ofsuch an account
"4,)
wouldhavetoincludean assessmentofMarxismas
Socialsciencehostsacollectionoflinguisticartifactsthatrange
others, lexical definitions, throughclassificatory schemata,torr."r
works and,finally, "theories"-withtheories understood to
power.
46
Theoriesareimaginedtoaccountforsequencesofeventsthatotherwise
would remain inscrutable,impenetrabletoscience.
Thetermtheory insocialscienceisgenerallyappliedtoabodyof thoughtthat
has at least some predictive pretension. Minimally, "theory" is understood to
conveysomesenseof empirical ornormative"understanding"of events.
Thatsocial science, in is an informal science means, among other
that the criteria for qualifying as a "theorv" are neither particularly
nor systematicallyapplied. [n social science it is often thecase thatany
coherent collection ofsentences qualifies as a "theory" as long as it
generatesin oneoranotheraudienceanappropriatesenseof"understanding."
Thereareanynumberof candidatetheoriesinsocialscience,some
short-lived,othersthathavebeen enduring.All havecontributedin somesense
and some measure to our comprehension ofour time. Among them, Marxist
theoryhasbeenperhapsthemostenduring.Howmuchithascontributedtoour
understandingofthe twentieth century has become one ofthe maior issues of
contemporaryscholarship.
KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelscoinedany numberofsocialscience predic-
tions in thecourseoftheirworkduringthe nineteenthcentury. Timehas failed
tofulfill anyofthem. Nonetheless,someacademicshavefound theideasofMarx
and Engels so attractive-for whatever reason- that they have been loathe to
measurethemagainstthe requirementsof standardscience.
The consequence has been that Marxist categories and Marxist normative
have survived in the professional literature ofsocial science to an
extent that mi!!ht not otherwise have been expected for a "theory" that enjoys
confirmation. The very abundance ofmaterial left to
allowedacademicstheoooortunitv.shouldthey
be so to rummage to find a sufficient number ofimplicit
causesoferror, qualifications, and ltologies to insulate thesystem from final
disconfirmation.Thatmanywereso wasorobablvaconsequenceofthe
fact thatclassicalMarxism wasintrinsicallyseductive.It pretendedtodelivernot
onlyanelaborate"theory";italsosatisfied themoralsensibilitiesofacademics.
GivenMarxism'sappeal,bytheturnofthetwentiethcentury,therewereany
number ofWestern scholars who were prepared to anticipate the
"emiseration"ofthe proletariatatthe handsofcapitalistoppressors-injustthe
mannerthatMarxhadpredicted.Therewereanynumberof Westernacademics
prepared to see in the "proletariat" the "Promethean" class Marx had antici-
pated. Therewere "political theorists" whofully expected that the "vastmajor-
ofworkers in a capitalist system that had "exhausted its potential" would
come to power in the moribund economies ofthe West, bringing classlessness,
and ultimate fulfillment to humankind. It was a vision so
attractive to many thatit became a inalienable feature ofWestern
academiclifeandremainsattractivetoWestern scholarstothisday.
Thefact is thatMarxism has always been morenormativeenjoinmentthan
social science. Both MarxandEngelswereaware thattheirsystemwasa
deductive"philosophy" ratherthanan "emoiricism."Whiletherewas
talkofturningHegelianism,withits
with "earthly" content, there was remarkably little
I
13 ON THEORY AND REVOLUTION IN OUR TIME 12
provide substance to conjectures about how the world of economics and
class psychology actually functionedY More than anything else, Marxism was a
partially formalized deductive system-what has been called a "dialectical dance
of categories"-almost entirely devoid of empirical content-consciously or un-
consciously designed to support some deeply felt moral convictions.
4H
In general, cosmopolitanism, c1asslessness, eguity, and peace unproblemat-
ically recommend themselves to most Westerners. A "theory" that conceives such
outcomes to be the "ineluctable" conseguence of processes already in act, is one
that has irresistible appeal to all right-thinking people. Any political system that
purports to be inspired by such thoughts has much to recommend it.
Several considerations, however, urge themselves on anyone with intellectual
prudence. Such systems of thought cry out for objective review. So
attractive are such bodies of rumination that anyone with judgment will suspend
commitment until they have been fully
In retrospect, at the end of the twentieth century, we can look back on the
influence of Marxist theory on our effi)rts to understand what has transpired in
what is perhaps the most savage century in the history of humankind. Given the
evident reality that has overwhelmed the end of the twentieth century, Western
scholars are now prepared to recognize that Marxism could not now serve, and
never served, as a "metatheory of politic5"-as a guide to the inter-
pretation of contemporary revolution.
4
'1 Marxism, in all its theoretical and in-
stitutional variations, appears to have contributed very little to the making or
understanding of revolutionary movements and revolutionary re!limes in the
twentieth century.
For all that, it appears that the complexity of its theory and its normatively
attractive content shaped Western academic thought about revolution for three-
quarters of a century. While many in the academic community were content to
limit themselves to the descriptive criterial traits by virtue of which they identi-
fied the various revolutionary movements and regimes of our time-"fascist"
and "Marxist"-there were others who sought "theoretical" understanding. Dis-
satisfied with the categories of comparative politics, they searched for a com-
prehensive account that gave predictive and normative leverage over the com-
plex realities that make up the histories of the fascist and communist revolutions.
As early as the end of the 19205, the London Times recognized the species
similarities between Stalinism and Fascism, and in 1934 George Sabine spoke of
the Soviet Union, National Socialist Germany, and Fascist Italy as representing a
new form of political regime-one governed by "unitary parties" that to
"totalitarian" control.
50
The Times and Sabine made classificatory and pretheo-
retical efforts to "understand" a new political phenomenon. For many Western
academics, that could hardly be enough. What many sought was theoretical
substance, whatever they thought that substance to be. What seems clear is that
many conceived Marxist theory as delivering that substance. Observed sim-
ilarities between fascist and communist systems were dismissed as "superficial."
What was sought was theoretical understanding. And that, we were told, was
offered by a Marxist theory of revolution.
Only now, at the apparent end of the cycle of "Marxist" revolutions, can one
look back and attempt an assessment of the influence of Marxist theory on our
understanding of ourselves and our time. Only now do many feel confident
enough to raise the guestion of why the family resemblances between Mussolini's
Fascism and had never been fully recognized or acknowl-
or why it took considerable courage to suggest that fascist regimes in any
way resembled those of the political Left.' I What this new independence has
suggested to specialists in Soviet history, in is that a more profound under-
standing of Elscism "shed much on the regime that emerged from
the Russian Revolution."52
The present exposition attempts to address some of these issues. The elabo-
rate effort by Marxist intellectuals to understand "fascism" as a political category,
and Italian Fascism specifically, reveals a great deal about Marxism Leninism as
a cognitive enterprise. More than that, it reveals a great deal about Fascism.
What this exposition entails is a general review of the Marxist theory of
fascism, commencing with the first eHorts on the part of
theoreticians in the early 1920S. As will be argued, it became obvious early on
that the best theorists were never satisfied with their inter-
pretation of Fascism. Initially convinced of Fascism's "reactionary," "counter-
revolutionary," and "conservative" character, over the years they progressively
discovered its "revolutionary," "anti-conservative" properties. It is the account of
that transr()rmation that will occupy us in the first part of the present exposition.
It will be devoted to the Marxist interpretation of Mussolini's Fascism as that
interpretation transformed itself through seven decades of oartisan intellectual
The fact that the Marxist effort at interpretation was partisan renders its
assessment of fascism all the more interesting. By the time of the disintegration
of the Soviet Union, Marxist theoreticians had begun to evaluate fascism in a
totally unanticipated fashion. That, combined with the failure of the Kremlin's
theoreticians to foresee the collapse of their own system, offers a special perspec-
tive on the nature of Marxist "theory."
More than that, as Marxist theorists were compelled to reinterpret fascism in
the light of empirical evidence and political circumstances, the fundamental
affinities shared by Marxist and fascist regimes became apparent. Little of this
has been discussed bv Western specialists at any length; yet it affords precious
15 ON THEORY AND REVOLUTION IN OUR TIME 14
insight into both the between Marxism and fascism and the
of Marxist social science.
The fact that Marxist intellectuals were never satisfied with the time-
conditioned interpretation of general and specific fascisms, modifying their ac-
counts to satisfy circumstances and in response to reality, indicates a general
failure to really gain durable insights into the phenomena. Marxist "theory" was
intrinsically flawed. Conversely, the failure of Western thinkers to appreciate
what was transpiring in the course of time, and with the Marxist interpretation of
fascism, suggests something about the non-communist intellectual environments
in which the "left/right" dichotomy evolved during the interwar years and
after the Second World War. The fact that the conviction still per-
sists that one can cognitively distinguish fascist and communist systems on the
basis of a left/right distinction is a case study 111 the of prejudgment.
The argument that follows rests on the conviction that many of the notions
that have governed Western political thought have been a by-product of
Marxist analyses. That Mussolini's Fascism was an "extreme right-wing" re-
sponse to "proletarian revolution" was really a product of orthodox Marxist-
Leninist speculation. While Western scholars, in part, were not orthodox
Marxist-Leninists, they nonetheless succumbed to the "profound theoretical"
analysis provided by Marxist-Leninists. From the first quarter of the twentieth
century until its close, the influence of "theory" continued to
obscure much of the substance of revolutionary thought in our time.
In order to make the case for the influence of Marxist-Leninist theory,
a rather detailed exposition of its formulations recommends itself. After that
somewhat detailed exposition of the Marxist theories of Fascism, some substan-
tial time will be spent in dealing with the apologetic, theoretical, and interpreta-
tive literature generated by Fascist thinkers during the interwar years-with the
conviction that such material not only reveals a great deal about their belief
system, but documents their awareness of the affinities that united fascist and
communist
Prevalent among "progressive" Western thinkers much of the
century has been the conviction that Fascism and communism were fundamen-
tally antithetical-communism rich with intellectual tradition and Fascism en-
tirely empty of serious thought. That, together with the emotional repercussions
of a war fought against Fascism, with communism allied to the West, created the
conviction that the two were morally and intellectually incomparable. The pre-
dictable consequence among intellectuals was that fascism was conceived as both
devoid of intelligence and the incarnation of evil, while communism was re-
garded, in general, as both rich in ideas and involving a flawed attempt to uplift
the weary and
The result was that "right-wing" Fascism was seen as radically different
from Marxism, and that any effort to associate the two was regarded
as the product of intellectual indigence or moral perversity. Such efforts were
dismissed as both morally repugnant and intellectually benighted.
. with the catastrophic collapse of the Soviet Union and the critical
disillusion that followed in its train has Western
tion to reevaluate the entire communist tradition-and its to f:lscism
in general and Fascism in particular. It was the total
tionalized socialist ideology, revealing its fundamental lack not
ence, but of relevance for a revolutionary political community undergoin
stresses of accelerated economic growth and industrialization, that has led to a
reevaluation of Marxism-Leninism as a belief system.
The fact that a form of fascism has made its appearance in the former Soviet
Union has reopened the entire issue of the atlinities between the Marxism and
fascism of the twentieth century.51 That the fascism that has arrested the atten-
tion of international scholarship was, and is, in substantial part, a product of
"critical Marxists" is of particular significance in attempting to understand revo-
lution in our time.'4
Over time, critical Marxists in the Soviet Union became increasingly uncom-
fortable with the disjuncture between Marxist rhetoric and the reality of estab-
lished communist systems. They Identified the transparent hypocrisy of what
purported to be a "classless society" in which a self-selected "new class" of state
functionaries, using monopoly party control, governed in a fashion that resulted
in the exaction of more tribute from subjects than any class-based autocracy in
history. It was they who compared the promise of "humanity" and "liberation"
found in the writings of Marx and Engels to the reality of the totalitarianism that
Marxism--Leninism had constructed. It was they who recognized the dysfunc-
tional nature of the economic system and the prevalence of nationalist sentiment
in a polity that promised "unlimited abundance" and celebrated the resolution of
"all national questions." It was they who revealed not only the intellectual pov-
erty of Marxism-Leninism, but its incompetence as a guide to conduct as well.
the end of 1989, in a conference held in Moscow, sponsored by the Central
Committee of the Communist Party several speakers expressed profound
about the relevance of Marxism's "historical and dialectical material-
ism" to the makinrr of social
Marxism, with all its talk of
had
very little to say to the first Bolsheviks, or their heirs, who found themselves
facing the armed hostility of advanced industrial nations with only a
retrograde agrarian economy, peopled largely by peasants, at their disposal.'56
The response of Soviet intellectuals took essentially one of two alternative
17
courses: ta) rejection of the Soviet system as a non-Marxist caricature of "true
Marxism"; or (b) search for an ideology that better represents the character and
intent of the system that made Russia one of the great world powers of the
twentieth century. The first course provided the world with the "democratic
reformers" who have rejected the old system in its entirety; the second course is
represented in the "nationalist opposition" that, at the turn of the century, threat-
ens an emerging Russia with the recreation of a non-democratic, authoritarian,
and developmental future.
In the dying Soviet Union, as will be argued, critical Marxists began to put
together an alternative ideology for "national salvation." They began to appeal to
latent nationalist and patriotic sentiments. They spoke of authoritarian and
elitist modalities to salvage the nation from the wreckage of catastrophic failure.
They invoked determination and heroism, leadership and discipline.
Once the implications of all this are understood, the entire question of
whether socialism in the twentieth century was of the Left or of the Right can be
rofitably examined. If scholars arc now prepared to acknowledge that Stalinism
was "utterly irrational" -the system created by Marxism-Leninism fundamen-
tally "pathological"----then what used to provide the moral grounds for distin-
guishing between the political Left and the political Right can no longer serve.'?
If"mass murders," numbering in the millions, are now "freely attributed to Sta-
who Iis I acknowledged as one of the greatest criminals in history," it becomes
increasingly difficult to draw the traditional separation between "humane" com-
munism on the Left and "homicidal" fascism on the Right.>H Marxism-Leninism
can no longer be conceived as uniquely "rational and constructive," and Fascism
as uniquely "irrational and destructive.")') The major markers employed to dis-
tinguish the political Left from the political Right in the past are forfeit.
The search for an adequate, general account of socialist revolutions in the
twentieth century arises out of the intellectual crisis that attends the contempo-
rary reemergence of "fascism" in Eastern Europe and the f()rmer Soviet Union.
One aspect of this crisis is reflected in the inability of scholars to settle on anyone
account of what the Russian Revolution of 19I7 was all about.
There will be those, of course, who will continue to attempt a more-Dr-less
"orthodox" interpretation of the revolutionary history of the twentieth century-
with "Marxism" on the Left and fascism on the Right-but it is unlikely that
such attempts will be anything more than hapless and helpless. More
ing, perhaps, is pursuit of what the now acknowledged affinities between Fas-
cism and Bolshevism might mean. This involves moving outside the customary
grooves of standard twentieth-century historical interpretation, using Musso-
lini's Fascism as a paradigmatic instance of what revolution in our time mi!!:ht be
taken to mean and drawing out whatever that might
In the litter of what were once socialist states, contemporary historians and
scientists have identified the delusions that confused half a century of
analysis. Marxism, the idea with an army at its back, became flesh in the wrong
country, leading the wrong people, pursuing
course of their revolution, the Bolsheviks betrayed, or were soon to betray,
almost every political principle they had proclaimed in their struggle for power.
As an inescapable consequence, it will be argued, Marxist socialism transformed
itself into something that only fascists, and some few Russian and Western
intellectuals, could recognize. It became an identifiable variant of f;lscism.
Fascists had early anticipated the advent of the total state and its function in a
world of unequal competition, in which each nation found itself compelled to
pursue economic growth, industrialization, self-sufficiency, resource acquisition,
and the search fiJr space. The advent of the total state was predicated on neither
"reaction" nor the preservation of privilege; it was understood to be neither a
"tool of capitalism" nor a device f()r the slaughter of innocents. Whatever else it
was conceived to be, it was seen as a functional response to the demands ofless-
developed countries in their unequal contest with the established
In that sense, Fascist concepts were neither of the Left nor the Right.f>1l They
represented a complex conception of the nature of revolution in the twentieth
century that remains instructive to this day. Western intellectuals, caught up in
the synthetic dichotomy of Left and Right, have generally failed to appreciate the
revolutionary authenticity of Fascist thought, and have thereby lost whatever
leverage they had in terms of seeking to understand not only what was transpir-
ing during the years between the First and Second World Wars, but during the
entire period of the cold war as wel!.61
Given the truth of such an account, bscism in general and Mussolini's Fas-
cism in particular have been almost universally misperceived, and, as a conse-
quence, their relationship to Marxist-Leninist systems has been almost entirely
misunderstood. The attempt to make a plausible case for these contentions will
take the present discussion into the literature and history of "Marxism" and
"fascism" as contested concepts. The course of exposition will commence with
Marxisms first theoretical efforts to understand fascism, undertaken in the lan-
guage of orthodox Marxism - Leninism as that language was understood
Western scholarship.
It was "theoretical" Marxism that mesmerized Western intellectuals and
imposed on them the conviction that what scholarship was dealing with was a
distinction between Right and Left. In fact, it will be argued that the
proposed distinction was an artifact of Marxist-Leninist "theory" itself. The
distinctions made were quasi-deductive derivations of entirely abstract, em-
pirically untested notions. In fact, so little did Marxist-Leninists understand
I
"I
f
"i
,
!
fascism that they failed to anticipate its reappearance at the end of the cold war.
For all its intellectual pretensions, Marxism-Leninism offered very few cogni-
tive insights into some of the most important events of the twentieth century. In
fact, it failed to appreciate some of the most important political and intellectual
developments within Marxism-Leninism itself.
At the conclusion of the brief history of Marxist ideas concerning Fascism, an
attempt will be made to present the Fascist interpretation of what was transpir-
ing in the twentieth century.62 For Fascism, the revolutions of the twentieth
century were those of poor, less-developed nations mobilizing their populations
against the "demoplutocracies," the privileged nations that had acceded to indus-
trialization, with all its attendant benefits, in the nineteenth century or early in
the twentieth. The revolutions of "poor nations" anticipated by the Fascists were,
and would be, revolutions that found their inspiration in neither the political
Left nor the political Right. They were mass-mobilizing movements of reactive
nationalism that sought a place in the sun for economically backward and indus-
trially retrograde communities. They were, and would be, aggressive revolutions
prepared to fight for what they considered, and today consider, equity and justice
in the international arena. If the Fascists were right, we will yet see more
members of the species.
TheFirstMarxistTheoriesofFascism
For whatever reason, by the end of the First World War many intellectuals in the
West found Marxist "theory" fatally attractive. It was complex and seemingly
profound. It augured a world without war, in which the meek and the disadvan-
taged would share, without distinction, the anticipated material and spiritual
abundance generated by advanced industrial capitalism.
The horrors attendant on the first world conflict apparently left intellectuals
in the West hungry for assurances that humankind might effectively gain control
of its destiny-and that the future would bring a surcease from pain, want, and
oppression. The Marxism of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels seemed to promise
just such an eventuality.
Orthodox Marxism was so seductive in those circumstances that many of the
major intellects of the first years of the twentieth century became transfixed by
the ideas found in the tomes left as an intellectual legacy by Marx and Engels.
The First World War was conceived of as the product of reactionaries and chau-
vinists, all in the service of monied interests. They were the forces of the Right.
The forces of the Left, the socialists, humanists, internationalists, and feminists,
all opposed war, nationalism, imperialism, and invidious class distinctions.
By the end of the First World War, those notions were deeply embedded in
the consciousness of many Western intellectuals-and they supplied the matrix
into which Marxists were to insinuate their first "theories" of Mussolini's Fas-
cism, to subsequently extend their coverage to generic fascism as well. That
Marxists chose to characterize Mussolini's Fascism as "right-wing," "reaction-
ary," and "counterrevolutionary" at the time of the confrontation between Marx-
ism and Fascism on the Italian peninsula was only to be expected. Political
circumstances on the Italian peninsula, at the conclusion of the First World War,
had made Fascism the bitter enemy ofItalian Socialism and Communism.
19
21 THE FIRST MARXIST THEORIES OF FASCISM
20
Those socialists who had followed Mussolini into Fascism had been "inter-
ventionists," advocates ofItaly's entry into the First World War. They had taken
on all the coloration of nationalism and had sought the resolution of national
roblems through international conflict. For Marxists, they must surely be of the
"right." As early as I9I5, when Mussolini and the syndicalist "suhversives" of the
Italian "radical left" joined in the clamor for war, the leaders of I talian Socialism
had indicted Mussolini and those around him as "Marxist renegades"-Marxists
who had rejected the official party position with respect to Italy's participation in
the First World War. As though that were not enough, Fascism's first recruits, at
the conclusion of the first world conflict, were violently opposed to the anti-
of official Socialism and the newly organized Italian Communist
Party. As survivors of the war, the socialist interventionists were committed to
nationalism, a defense of Italy's victory, and "restoration" of Italy's "lost territo-
ries." For Marxists, all that was irremediably "bourgeois"---hence,
Furthermore, the first Fascists were opposed to organized socialist and com-
munist political institutions. That could only be "counterrevolutionary" and "re-
actionary." All of that was particularly galling to Marxists. The first Fascists were
almost all Marxists-serious theorists who h;ld long heen identified with Italy's
intelligentsia of the Left. Mussolini, himself, had been a leader of the Italian
Socialist Party and was an acknowledged leader among Marxist intellectuals.
1
It was the issue ofItaly's intervention in the First World War, not right-wing
versus left-wing dispositions, that, at first, deeply divided Italian Marxists.
2
In
1914 and 1915, the majority of organized Italian Socialists championed neu-
trality in the war that had broken out in Europe, while a small but aggressive
minority of socialists, for a variety of reasons, advocated I taly's entry into the
conflict on the side of the Allied powers.
Ultimately, the Italian government did enter the war, on the Allied side. The
subsequent heavy losses suffered by the Italian military and the continued de-
nunciation of the war by the official socialist organizations generated intense
feelings among those who had lost comrades in the carnage. The issue of the war
created venomous dissension in the ranks of Marxist theoreticians, with some of
the most intellectually accomplished joining the first Fascist squads. The final
insult for Marxists was the defeat by Fascism of both domestic Socialism and
Leninist Communism, in a test of strength that concluded, on the I talian penin-
sula, with the Fascist march on Rome in October 1922.
The enmities bred by the dispute ultimately reached such intensity that
Marxists of whatever variety and nationality refused to acknowledge the hereti-
cal Marxist origins of the first Fascism. Italian Marxists simply attributed the
"defection" of some of their foremost intellectuals to venalitv and mmnrtll
THE FIRST MARXIST THEORIES OF FASCISM
For their part, most foreign Marxists never even knew of the Marxist ori!!ins of
the first Fascism.
For Italian Marxists, the next step in the of denial was to conceive of
Fascism itself, together with its Marxist "apostates," as venal and opportunistic.
The final step was to see Fascism, in its entirety, as the suborned "tool of reac-
tion"-since only monied "reaction" could offer sufficient benefits to those who
sought to profit from their apostasy.
Almost immediately after the Fascist seizure of power in Italian Marx-
ists and Marxist-Leninists began to produce theoretical literature that pretended
to explain the necessarily "reactionary" and "right-wing" character of revolu-
tionary Fascism. The very first extended treatments of Fascism that shaped the
conceptions of Western intellectuals were those produced by domestic Italian
Marxists. Almost immediately, intellectuals in Austria, Germany, France, and
England began to contribute to the formulation of an elaborate account of why
Fascism was reaction;lry, right-wing, and, of necessity, inhumane.
Those formulations fit so well into the entire roster of preconceptions enter-
tained by many Western intellectuals that, for most of our century, they were
part of the folk wisdom of political science. Those notions succeeded in defining
the greater part of the political universe for many Western scholars for three-
quarters of a century. Fascism was to be f()rever a reactionary, and
inhumane" excrescence, while Marxism Leninism was to be pro-
gressive, and humane."
Confronted by one of the most arresting political nhpnnrn of the
twentieth century, Western Marxists of ;111 kinds rummaged through the rela-
tively informal body of literature left to them by the nineteenth-century found-
ers of their movement in the effort to attain some measure of understanding of
what was transpiring. They sought explanations in the abstract speculations of
Karl Marx's nco-Hegelianism.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels left their intellectual heirs a loosely formu-
quasi-deductive set of convictions about economic matters, society, and
revolution. Composed of essentially nonempirical conjectures about the nature
of material production, the sources of the intrinsic value of commodities, the
lawlike relationship between increments in the production of wealth and decre-
ments in the general standard ofliving in capitalist society, together with a faith
in the "inevitable" positive outcome of all those processes, classical Marxism was
more morality play than science. Because critical terms were ill-defined, and the
relationship between independent and dependent variables was frequently cast
in terms of metaphor and analogy, very few, if any, of the DroDositions ofclassical
Marxism were or are testable.
l
23 THE FIRST MARXIST THEORIES OF FASCISM 22
The central notions of classical Marxism left Marxism's intellectual heirs, a
set of beliefs about society and the nature of material production that reinforced
every preconception entertained by leftist Western scholarship. Marxists believed
that the Marxism they had inherited provided a "theoretical" understanding of
the generic fascist phenomenon when Mussolini's Fascism first manifested itself
on the Italian peninsula after the conclusion ofthe Great War of 1914- 18.
However much they were welcomed by some Western scholars, whatever
their convictions, Marxist theories of fascism, from their very first appearance,
were largely derivative products, attempts to account for complex empirical
events by drawing out the entailments of premises inherited from a nineteenth-
century intellectual tradition. All this notwithstanding, many Western scholars
were not concerned with empirical truth or falsity. They wanted affirmation of
their visions of the future.
Before the middle of the nineteenth century, Marx had convinced himself
that modern society had irreversibly divided itself into two, and no more than
two, diametrically opposed, historically relevant classes-the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat. The former were "reactionary" agents of the prevailing "relations
of production," while the latter represented the rapidly burgeoning "forces of
production."4
For Marx and Engels, human history was, in essence, the interplay between
material productive forces and the relations of oroduction. Productive forces
were in providing goods, and relations of production governed their
distribution. As long as the one was "compatible" with the other, society was in a
relatively stable state. When the forces of production outgrew those
social change was inevitable.
At some stage in the evolutionary process that governs economic systems,
according to Marx, the relations of production that govern the allocation of
goods produced would increasingly act as a "fetter" on the forces of production.
In capitalist society, as a case in point, the benefits produced by the system are
allocated in accordance with the laws of property and private profit. Given the
existence of private property, the argument continued, production in modern
society is geared exclusively to the generation of profit-to the satisfaction of the
needs and wants of the ruling class, the owners of the means of production. As
long as the economic system was responsive only to the requirements of class
the forces of production could not develop fully nor freely. Ultimately,
Marx contended, the forces of production would no longer be capable of de-
veloping at all.
In his mature account, Marx argued that only living labor was capable of
creating value. "Constant capital"-the instruments of production, the invest-
ment in plant, the cost of rent, and fixed assets in general-was dead labor,
incapable, in and of itself, of creating value. Of the value generated by living
labor, part is employed as "variable capital," distributed as wages necessary to
a suitable work force. Variable capital provides the "minimum subsis-
tence wage" necessary to sustain the work force and provide for its replacement
in the normal course of events. The amount of value remaining after the pay-
ment of wages and the expenses involved in the cost of acquiring, maintaining,
renewing, and expanding the material means of production and their ancillaries,
Marx identified as "surplus value"--which, to all intents and purposes, con-
stitutes capitalist profit.
In Das Kapital, Marx argued that as the "organic composition" of capital
changed (the measure of dead versus living labor), not only would the ratio of
constant to variable capital change, but that the rate of profit (the ratio
value to the sum of constant and variable capital), over time, would tend to fall."
Given enterprise competition and the technological change that competition
generates, modern production becomes increasingly capital-intensive, the or-
ganic composition of capital changes, and the rate of profit must necessarily
decline. When the rate of profit approximated zero, as Marx argued it eventually
must, the entire system would shudder to a halt.1>
At that point the vast majority of humankind in capitalist society-the "pro-
letariat"-would seize the means of production and turn its products to human
use rather than profit for an exiguous class of capitalists. The accession of the
proletariat to power and the abolition of private property and private profit
would create circumstances that would signal the end of war, privation, and
oppression. Iluman beings would no longer compete for space and sustenance.
Humankind would make its "leap from necessity to freedom." A classless society
would be ushered in by the "ineluctable" processes of history. rn effect, in Marx's
judgment, there were forces intrinsic to the capitalist mode of production that
would ultimately and "inevitably" lead to the collapse of the system. The
ist mode of production would ultimately prove dysfunctional and, given the
anticipated course of history, reactionary.
For Marxists, in general, history has a goal. Its ultimate goal is the lifting of
the burden of inequality and exploitation from the shoulders of the vast majority
of humankind through "proletarian revolution"-the uprising of the "nine-
tenths" of the population of moribund capitalism. "History" had established that
when the profit rate of the capitalist mode of production fell to zero, industrial
capitalism could only become irremediably "reactionary," and that only the
SUccess of the proletarian revolution could salvage the future. Only the pro-
letarian revolution was indisputably "progressive." The eschatology of final ends
that so appealed to the normative desires of many \Vestern scholars was given its
"theoretical" vindication. Many would never abandon the dream.
25
THE FIRST MARXIST THEORIES OF FASCISM 24
These were the central convictions that animated Marx's heirs in the Second
International and engaged the commitment of many, many Western intellectuals.
After the death of in 1896, the Second International became the major
exponent of Marxist views in Europe and throughout the world. By that
Marx's conjectures concerning the capitalist mode of production and its super-
session by proletarian socialism had become articles offaith for many leftist West-
ern intellectuals and were central to the propaganda of the Second International.7
For all its complexity, Marx's "theory" was empty of empirical content. It
trafficked on definitions and their entailments. The entire system was little more
than a quasi-deductive set of claims derived from suspect premises. Although all
Marx's conjectures were advanced with the calm assurance of prophecy, they
were neither self-evident nor amenable to confirmation. With or without confir-
mation, however, the Marxism of Karl Marx provided his intellectual successors
in the early twentieth century with an entire vocabulary ofemotive and evocative
terms that could be used to good effect against real or fancied opponents.
The availability of that entire system of linguistic devices left many scholars
in the West without critical judgment. As a consequence, entire periods of his-
tory and the most complex series of events were dismissed with loosely framed
"explanations." Distinctions were made where no differences existed, and real-
ities were overlooked in the service of fancy.
The empirical vacuity of Marxist theory became fully apparent only in subse-
quent history. Only the catastrophic collapse of Marxist-Leninist systems, the
total inability of Marxist theoreticians to anticipate events, and the utter failure
of Marxism-Leninism's "predictions" finally convinced most Western intellec-
tuals that Marxist speculations were largely without empirical merit.
Until that realization, however, Marxists and leftists, in general, continued to
interpret both Fascism and fascism as though Marxist thought had concrete
application. Only gradually did it become obvious to the orthodox Marxist-
Leninists in the Soviet Union that the "Marxist-Leninist theory of fascism" was
fundamentally flawed.
Throughout the period from its inception until its abandonment, however,
the Marxist Leninist theory of fascism influenced not only Soviet, hut also West-
ern, intellectuals. The intellectual Left needed an account that accorded with its
notions of a political world divided into "reactionaries" and "progressives."
A few days after the Fascist march on Rome in October 1922, Julius Braun-
thaI, an Austrian Marxist intellectual, published a piece entitled, "Der Putsch der
Faschisten" in the Social Democratic Party journal Der Kampf Braunthal em-
ployed all the evocative language of "theoretical" Marxism, instinctively identi-
fying the Fascism of Mussolini as "reactionary" and a "brutal expression of the
property-owning classes' desire for domination." Without citing any empirical
TilE FIRST MARXIST THEORIES OF FASCISM
evidence whatsoever, he described Fascism as "counter-revolution in its modern
form of militaristic violence."B
That Bolshevism had employed "militaristic violence" in its revolution was a
matter of little concern. That there were more victims in Russia at the hands of
the Bolsheviks than elsewhere at the hands of Fascists was irrelevant. Since
Fascism arose in Italy as a declared opponent of "proletarian" revolution, it could
hardly have been anything other than "reactionary." For Marxists, to be "reac-
tionary" meant to oppose oneself to the "progressive" unfolding of history. Since
Marxists accepted the notion that only a revolution undertaken by a c1ass-
conscious proletariat could be truly progressive, Fascism was, hy definition,
reactionary. Although by the time of the march on Rome there were more
industrial workers in the ranks of Fascism than there had been in the Bolshevik
ranks at the time of Lenin's revolution, Fascism was still deemed "reactionary,"
and the workers in its ranks as impaired by "false consciousness."
Early in 1923, another Marxist intellectual, Julius Deutsch, offered his own
interpretation of Italian Fascism. As might be anticipated, he found that Fascism
was a f()rce enlisted in the service of "profit-mad capitalist reaction."'! Without
the suggestion of empirical evidence that could tie Fascists to "profit-mad cap-
italists," he was prepared to make his claim with absolute assurance. He further
embellished his account with the suggestion that Fascism had succeeded in
imposing itself on Italy not only by serving "profit-mad capitalists," but also by
"fanaticizing" petty bourgeois and "adolescent" elements of the population with
the kind of "dark mysticism" so appealing to "Latin psychology." Fascism was
not only the "tool of reaction," it was irrational in its appeals.
The petty bourgeois and "adolescent" elements in the population were
moved by irrational appeals to serve the fully rational, if occult, interests of
"reaction." All this was truc for Deutsch because it was evident to him that any
rational appeal to any and all classes, or fragments of other than "monop-
oly capitalists," would nccessarily recommend the proletarian revolution antici-
pated in Marx's apocalyptic vision of the "ineluctable" course of history.
It is difficult to imagine how any of this could possibly pass as credible, but all
of it continued to provide the substance of the initial Marxist notions about
Fascism for the European intellectual community. The Fourth World Congress
of Lenin's Third International, held immediately after Mussolini's accession to
power, correspondingly declared Fascism to be an "instrument" of counter-
revolutionary reaction consciously employed against the "working masses" by
the "agrarian capitalists" of the Po valley.
Not long after, however, it was decided that Fascism was not simply the
reactionary instrument of the landed bourgeoisie. By that time "rural Fascism"
had engulfed the major urban centers. Empirical fact, not theory, convinced
Marxists that Fascism was not a weapon in the service ofthe agrarian bour-
geoisie,butpartofthe "politicaloffensiveofthe[entire] bourgeoisieagainstthe
workingc1ass."(1)
At about the time that European Marxists had apparently settled on the
judgment that Fascism was a tool ofthe entire bourgeoisie, the IIungarian
intellectual Gjula Sas published (under the pseudonym Giulio Aquila) his Der
Faschismus in Italien, in whichheaffirmedthatFascismrepresented,in"essence"
and "historically," neither an instrument ofagrarian capitalists nor a weapon
ofthe entire ownership class; rather, Fascism was a tool ofItaly's "industrial
bourgeoisie."II
For thefirst few years following its each Marxistidentified his own
elementofthereactionarybourgeoisieasthe"realmaster"of Fascism.Itremains
uncertain what evidence was used in making those determinations. Neither
documentary nor empirical evidence linked Fascism with any element ofthe
class,"butEuropeanintellectualswere,nonetheless,certainthatFascism
mustnecessarily be reactionary. Marxisttheoryleftnoalternativeto identifying
Fascismas reactionaryand thetooloftheforces ofoppression.
That Mussolini's Fascism was understood to be reactionary was the simple
consequenceof holdingtruesomeof thecentralconjecturesofclassical Marxism.
ThatFascism was "counterrevolutionary" was simply a recognition ofthe fact
that,amongmanyotherthings,Fascism haddeclareditselfunalterablyopposed
to any ofthe then prevalent hlrms ofsocialism. Beyond that, the first Marxist
theoreticianswhoattemptedtoprovideinsightintoFascismhadverylittletosay
i I
thatwaseitherempiricallyconfirmed,particularly novel, instructive,orpersua-
sive. ForMarxists,any form ofgovernmentotherthan the "dictatorshipofthe
proletariat" was necessarily reactionary, counterrevolutionary, and fundamen-
tally irrationaL
Thus, it was perfectly predictable that the first Marxist interpretations of
Fascism would unanimously identify Mussoliniand his movementas reaction-
ary andcounterrevolutionary. ForMarxists,any governmentotherthan thatof
the "revolutionary proletariat" could be nothing other than "a committee for
managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie."12 It followed that
Mussolini'sFascismcouldbenothingless. Tohavesaid thatis nottohavesaid a
great deaL Notwithstanding, the interpretation became the substance ofthe
Western understandingofFascism.
In order to make the entire account more persuasive, a more elaborate
presentationwouldberequired.IfMussoliniwas toserveas theconscioustoolof
reactionary purpose, the logic oftheir position required that Marxists identify,
somewnereamongall thedisparateelementsofthe bourgeoisie, the real "mas-
ters" ofFascism. However clear the intellectual imperative, the first Marxist
.........
interpretersofItalianFascismcouldnotseem to decide,withany conviction,in
whosespecificservice Mussolini's reactionarylaborswereundertaken.
InMarx'slexicon,thebourgeoisie,asaclass,wasfairlyinclusive.B Itincluded
all those whoownedthe"meansofproduction." Besides thefamiliar ownersof
assetsandequity,thisincludedsubclasseslike thelandedgentry,therentierclass,
and established professionals. The"grand bourgeoisie," in turn, was composed
ofindustrialandfinancecapitalists. Forits part,the petty bourgeoisiewascom-
ofa varietyofsubgroups, including peasants,academics, artists,
craftsmen,smallshopkeepers,pettymerchants,andsalariedbureaucrats.
Given theabundance ofcandidates, it remained uncertain in whose service
Italian Fascism,as the"paidagent"ofthebourgeoisie,wasemployed.Sincethe
petty bourgeoisie were being "fanaticized," they could hardly qualify as the
"masters"ofFascism. Thatstill leftanabundanceofpossibilities, butthere was
hardlyenoughevidence available duringthe first years ofMussolini's regimeto
allow Marxiststomakea responsiblechoice.
Irrespectiveofthelack ofconvincingevidence,however,Aquiladecided not
onlythatMussoliniwasa"consciousagentof thebourgeoisie,"but,morespecifi-
cally, that he was the agent ofthe "magnates ofheavy industry" who could
the movementand its leader the support essential to victory.I1 Aquila,
consequently,understood Fascism tobeanagentprimarily,ifnotexclusively,of
Italy's industrialcapitalists. In themore than half-a-century sincethepassingof
Fascism,scantevidencehasbeenproducedtosupportsuchacontention;butlack
ofevidence has never proved a handicapas far as Marxist pronouncementsarc
concerned.
Thelack ofevidenceclearlydid notinhibit Aquila. Atbcst,hisclaims were
inferentialandascompellingashispremisesweretrue.Infact,hispremiseswere
speculativepremisesofclassical Marxism.
Fascismdidconducta long,violentstruggleagainstsocialist revolutionaries,
and under the established capitalists did make profits, and property
rights were secured. Noneofthat, however,established the fact that Mussolini
was the conscious and venal instrument of the bourgeoisie in general or of
industrial capitalism in particular. Least ofall did any ofthat make Fascism a
"right-wing"movementor a "right-wing" regime unless "right-wing" is taken
tomean,by definition,anymovementorregimethatdoesnotservethe"revolu-
tionary proletariat."
However well or poorly supported, Aquila's arguments were so well re-
ceivedbyWesternintellectuals,manyofwhomwereforeign membersof Lenin's
International,thattheypassed,almostwithoutanychange,intothereport
delivered by ClaraZetkinto the executive meetingoftheCommunist Interna-
tional held in Moscow in June I923. In fact, Zetkin's Der Kampf gegen den
Faschismus was little more than a synopsis of the account provided by the Hun-
garian intellectual Aquila.
15
Not only are the general theses of Zetkin's communication identical with
those of Aquila, but whole phrases from Aquila '5 essay reappear in Zetkin's
prose. For Aquila, Mussolini's Fascism was not a "simple victory of arms, but an
ideological and political victory" over the working class movement. For Zetkin,
Italian Fascism was not a "military phenomenon," but an "ideological and
cal victory over the working class movement."I(, Moreover, in providing the data
she advanced as evidence ofItalian Fascism's "bourgeois" essence, Zetkin simply
with only the slightest modification, the events and the catalog of
legislation bearing on political, social, fiscal, and military affairs forthcoming
under the Fascist regime to be found in Aquila's account.
17
It was clear that by
1923 European intellectuals had already put together a set of convictions that
characterized Fascism as a product of right-wing reaction.
Zetkin's case, like that of Aquila, depends on there being one interpreta-
tion of the data offered in support. If the intent of the and the political
decisions of the Mussolini regime could be given no more than a inter-
pretation, then the case advanced by Zetkin and Aquila might have been persua-
sive. In retrospect and in fact, Mussolini's behavior and the legislation of his
regime have been variously and no interpretation of their
intent has been generally accepted.
Whatever the case, it soon became evident that not even the theoreticians of
Lenin's Third International were content with the account provided by Aquila
and Zetkin in I ()23. By J()26, the Italian Communist Party prepared a more
generous official version. That version agreed with the one of Aquila and Zetkin
insofar as the "inherent weaknesses of capitalism" remained the critical neces-
sary conditions for the appearance and success of Fascism. According to their
rendering, capitalism, no longer sustainable and facing imminent proletarian
revolution, created and unleashed Fascism.
The version of 1926, like that of Aquila and Zetkin, argued that the immedi-
ate contingent condition for the victory of Fascism was the "betraval" of the
proletariat by the reformist Social Democratic of pre-Mussolinian
Italy. While the workers were being abandoned their rcf()rmist socialist
leaders, Fascism was recruiting and "fanaticizing" the petty bourgeoisie of the
urban areas and the "new petty bourgeoisie" of the rural regions. What was
different in the version provided by Italian intellectuals in 1926 was the identi-
fication of Fascism as the "instrument" not of the "ind ustrial bourgeoisie," but of
"an induJtrial and agrarian oligarchy."IH
In the account of 1926, Italian Fascism was conceived of as an "industrial-
agrarian reaction" to "revolutionary communism" that resulted in an "industrial-
agranan dictarorship."19 The change was significant. For Aquila, Mussolini's
Fascism served a "progressive function" in dismantling the old political system
that reflected "financial and agrarian interests." Aquila saw those interests con-
flicting with the growth requirements of "heavy industry." In pursuit of their
interests, the barons of industry assigned Mussolini the task of deal ing with those
representatives of the financial and agrarian bourgeoisie who obstructed the
passage of the industrial development on the peninsula.
Because of her dependence on Aquila's account, Zetkin seemed to entertain a
similar perspective. Zetkin's interpretation had Italian Fascists responding to the
needs of the "North Italian industrial bourgeoisie" and against those of
the "agrarian and finance capitalists."
All this apparently made Fascism appear far too rational and progressive for
the intellectuals of the Italian Communist Party in 1926. According to their
Marxist Mussolini's Fascism could not possibly serve any progres-
sive function. Fascism was deemed totally reactionary, functioning as an un-
dictatorship for both industrial and agrarian
By 1928, the Communist International had settled on a suitably
interpretation of Fascism. Mussolini's Fascism was simply "the terroristic dic-
of big capitaL" Fascism was conceived to be the institutional expression
of the "undivided, open and consistent dictatorship lofl bankers, the big indus-
and the agrarians."}(l Fascism was no longer considered exclusively or
the reactionary, right-wing "tool" of agrarian capital or the industrial
bourgeoisie. Nor was flscism the joint dictatorship of both the industrial and
agrarian bourgeoisie. By 1928, fascism had become a "joint dictatorship" of a
collegium of "big capital."
Thus, in 1928, Palmiro Togliatti repeated most of the central theses
and Zetkin, insisting, however, that Fascism was not the lackey of "industrial
" but served the interests of the entire "big bourgeoisie" (La grossa
borghesia).21 In Togliatti's judgment, the Fascist movement did not initially in-
tend to serve as a dictatorship of "industrial and finance capitaL" But since its
"social base," the petty bourgeoisie, possessed neither a "political consciousness"
nor a will of its own, Fascism, in order to survive, was driven into the service of
the "great bourgeoisie and the agrarians." Ultimately, Mussolini's Fascism lost
whatever autonomy it had and was compelled to effect, with "brutality and
without reserve," the political purposes of "finance capital" and "big industry."
Mussolini had become the tool of "finance capital and heavy industry (fa grande
industria)."
Because Togliatti was a member of the Third International, his formula,
whatever its cognitive merit, had to be politically acceptable to the Executive
Committee. Togliatti went on to indicate that Italian Fascism was not simply the
31
I
",I
"dictatorship of heavy industry" or the "dictatorship of heavy industry and
agrarian capitalists" -it was the "dictatorship of financial, industrial and agrar-
ian capital. The Marxists of the Third International, together with many
European intellectuals, were putting together a standard version.
Needless to say, such a generous reformulation of the theses of Aquila and
Zetkin indicates the porosity of the original "theory." More than that, such a
reformulation generated some real empirical and theoretical tensions for the
Marxist interpretation of Fascism. Not only was it for Marxist theore-
ticians to oroduce documentary evidence to confirm Mussolini's "conscious deci-
sion" to serve as a "paid tool" for the bourgeoisie, but it was evident that any
that attempted to satisfy all the demands of all the financial, indus-
and agrarian interest groups in the national community would find itself
tested.
It is an economic commonplace that agrarian interests, in general, arc best
served by free trade policies, while the representatives of nascent or destabilized
national industries favor import substitution strategies. Some agrarian interests
(like Italy's beet sugar and sugar refineries), of course, tend to favor protection.
it is generally argued that industrial capitalists, with well-estahlished
industries enjoying a heavy volume of export trade (like Italy's textile factories of
the period), tend to favor free trade to reduce the threat of retaliation on the part
of trading partners. Noncompetitive industries (like Italy's maritime
111 turn, tend to favor protection, while those industries which, even if only
established, depend on the importation of essential raw materials
the steel industry of Italy), tend to favor free trade. Some financial groups
tend to favor inflationary fiscal policies, while some others oppose them.
dictatorship that attempted to serve as a tool for all such disparate interests
would not enjoy a long half-life. It could not possibly serve all its putative
patrons.
25
It could be argued, of course, that such problems might be resolved through
negotiation among the constituent elements of the "dictatorship" -and the bour-
might prefer some such arrangement to one in which the representatives
of organized labor or the public at large might intrude themselves. If class
warfare threatened the survivability of the system, the bourgeoisie might prefer a
Fascist dictatorship, whatever its inconveniences, to any "liberal bourgeois" ar-
rangement. All that would be required to confirm such conjectures would be
some relevant documentary or trace evidence. In the case of Fascist Italy, very
little has been forthcoming.
Quite independent of the fact that Marxists have never produced anything
like the required evidence, the Marxist accounts of 1928 were far from convinc-
ing for other reasons as well. The fragmentary evidence in support of their thesis
was laced together by a tissue of suppositions and prejudgments that involved
chiliastic speculations about history, as well as an unsupported faith in the reality
of complex conspiracies.
All of this became increasingly obvious to intellectuals in the West. By the
mid-1930s, the intellectuals closest to the Third International began to put to-
gether more comprehensive accounts of a "reactionary," "right-wing" generic
fascism. Not only had such a task increasingly urged itself upon the European
intellectuals of the period, but it was during this period that Hitler's National
Socialism began to assume center stage. "Fascism" was no longer a Latin eccen-
tricity; it loomed large in one of Europe's most im portant nations.
In 1935, the Stalinist Communist International was prepared to formulate a
statement concerning its interpretation of generic fascism. In that year,
Dimitroff delivered his report on fascism to the Seventh World Congress
of the Communist International. He informed his audience that fascism was a
product of the "most profound economic crisis," the "sharp accentuation of the
general crisis of capitalism." Within the secular decline of industrial capitalism,
characterized by the progressive reduction in its overall rate of profit, a "sharp
accentuation" had provoked the "ruling bourgeoisie" to undertake "exceptional
predatory measures against ... toilers" everywhere. "Imperialist circles," in
order to solve their problems of diminishing returns, conjured up the forces of
fascism. "Fascism, in power" was understood to be "the open terrorist dictator-
ship of the most reactionary, most chauvinistic and most imperialist elements of
finance .,-,.. , , : ~ r . l : ,,_"' "14
However articulate the reports of the Communist International, what was
was a comprehensive treatment ofa subject that had become critical for
the world communist movement. It was evident that a coherent major effort
would be required.
In Europe, what resulted were two major interpretive works: one by the
French Trotskyist Daniel Guerin, Fascism and Big Business, and the other, Fas-
cism and Social Revolution, by the Anglo-Indian Rajani Palme Dutt.
25
Those
books, and others like them produced by leftist intellectuals during the period,
attempted to develop a more cognitively satisfying "Marxist theory of fascism'"
any that had been forthcoming. In those accounts, it was recognized that it
was not enough simply to identify fascism as a "capitalist reaction" to the threat
of "proletarian revolution" in circumstances of a "general crisis of
There had been "capitalist reactions" to the threat of "proletarian revolution"
ever since the mid-nineteenth-century Paris Commune. What was needed was a
coherent, persuasive explanation of why "capitalist reaction" had taken on a
specifically fascist form at that specific time.
As early as the late 1920S, Nikolai Bukharin, Leon Trotsky, and Palmiro
Togliatti had all identified the first two decades of the twentieth century as a
"new epoch" in the historical evolution toward the anticipated socialist society.26
Capitalism had begun its "general crisis" -its ultimate, irreversible contraction.
Fascism was the frenzied resistance of industrial capitalism in its final agony.
Marxist-Leninist thinkers, both Trotskyist and Stalinist, sought to explain the
origins, the advent, and the success of fascism by conceiving of it as the real-
world product of Karl Marx's speculations about the inevitable conclusion of
contemporary industrial history.
As has been suggested, for Marx, the "inevitable" victory of the proletariat
was predicated on a number of "theoretical" considerations. Marx argued that
industrial capitalism was destined to destroy itself because, ultimately, its frenetic
;lctivity would not be able to sustain an appropriate rate of profit. At some stage
or another, capitalism was destined to sink into a fatal torpor because it would no
longer be able to profitably empty its inventories. There were "iron laws" to
which capitalism was compelled to conform. Among these was the irreversible
secular decline in the rate of profit that would condemn industrial capitalism to
systemic collapse-an inability to complete its required cycles of expanded repro-
duction. Incapable of sustaining a requisite rate of profit, the system could not
survive. Ultimately, modern industrial capitalism would lapse into irremediable
crisis.
n
Given this set of convictions, Daniel Guerin began his classic interpretation
of Elscism with the affirmation that fascism was the "spawn" of capitalism in
irreversible and fatal decline-it arose at a point when the "economic crisis" that
had descended on the industrialized democracies after the First World War had
become "acute," and the "rate of profit sinks toward zero."2H Guerin was making
a specific claim that was to serve as a central conviction for almost all subsequent
Marxist interpretations during the 193os.29 According to Guerin and those of his
persuasion, fascism appeared in Europe because industrial capitalism had en-
tered the final, inevitable phase of its senescence. In those circumstances, the
"captains of heavy industry," wedded to the "magnates of high finance" with a
"stake in heavy industry," sought salvation in Caught in the "iron
laws" of capitalist senescence, facing a rate of profit that approximated zero,
those who controlled finance and industry attempted to sustain the system by
having recourse to fascism. Fascism was assigned responsibility for salvaging the
profits of heavy industry and finance capitalism at the cost of barbarizing society
and exploiting the working c1asses.Jl
Because Marx had argued that only living labor produced the surplus value
that made up the substance of profit, he could plausibly maintain that the secular
rate of profit for industrial capitalism would be expected to decline as more and
more of the system's resources were committed to fixed capital investments in
"dead labor" -in plant, technology, and machines. Around this predictable, irre-
versible, and secular decline were the periodic business cycles that testified to cap-
italism's inability to generate enough demand to profitably empty its inventories.
According to the original Marxists, the ebb and flow of unemployment, the
precariousness of the lives of workers, the inability of small businesses to survive
in competition with increasingly large manufactories. all attested to the "contra-
diction" between the enormous productive power of modern industry and the
inability of modern society to distribute its benefits. But, beyond that, there
would be the final descent into systemic stagnation and decay as the rate of profit
declined to zero. As the rate of profit approximates zero, the resistance of
ism's "wage slaves" increasingly threatens the survival of the system. Capitalism's
ruling "magnates of finance and industry" become desperate. They gamble on
fascism.
It was R. Palme Dun who provided the full account ofthe Marxist-Leninist
interpretation of fascism that was to become standard in the literature and
constitute the substance ofthe leftist interpretation offascism's reactionary right-
wing character. Like Guerin, Palme Dun sought to draw out of Marx's account
of the inevitable decline of industrial capitalism and the equally inevitable rise of
the revolutionary proletariat an interpretation of fascism.
l2
Like Guerin, he identified the first decades of the twentieth century as the
end time of industrial capitalism. By the end of the First World War, capitalism
was presumably in its final throes of internal disintegration. The "inner laws of
capitalist development" had "inevitably" led to a catastrophic economic crisis
such that capitalism could no longer profitably operate the productive forces at
its disposal. As early as the first years of the 1920S, Marxist-Leninists insisted
that modern industrial capitalism could no longer develop the fi)rces of produc-
tion. Capitalism's historic functions had been fulfilled. The "forces of produc-
tion" had been throttled by incompatible "relations of production." Industrial
capitalism had reached a stage of irreconcilable conflict with the material needs
of humankind.
ll
As needs increased, the capitalist industrial system contracted.
In its effort to resist the inevitable, capitalism conjured up fascism. However
confusing fascism may have appeared to others, Marxist-Leninists understood
that fascism's "objective," "reactionary" responsibility was to serve as "guardian
of a capitalism which [had] collapsed."34
Since fascism's tasks ran counter to the course of history, fascism was not only
reactionary, it was irrational. The forces it was compelled to conjure up to
discharge its reactionary responsibilities could only be barbaric and inhumane.
By the mid-1930s, all this had been given something like academic expression in
the works of Guerin and Palme Dutt. For Guerin, fascism was "the monstrous
product of the capitalist system in decline."3s For Palme Dutt, fascism was "the
most complete expression of the whole tendency of modern capitalism in de-
cay."3" As the profit rate of industrial capitalism approached zero, the system had
become increasingly pathological. Fascism was the product of an attempt to
sustain an entirely irrational economic, social, and political arrangement.
According to this thesis, the old techniques of governance, the old methods
of intensifying the rate of exploitation of labor, the old strategies of increasing
market share, and the old devices for maintaining monopoly prices no
worked. Capitalism could no longer be sustained without extraordinary mea-
sures. Only fascism offered "big business" and the "magnates of high finance"
what seemed to be a solution.
This entire interpretation of fascism hung on the truth of the conviction
that the final "general crisis of capitalism" had overwhelmed the industrialized
West-and that the "rate of profit" of Western capitalism approximated zero.
These were the notions that provided the theoretical foundation for the work of
both Guerin and Palme Dutt and constituted the intellectual core of the interpre-
tation oHascism as a "right-wing," "reactionary," "pathological" phenomenon.
Palme Dutt argued that since capitalism had entered the final, fatal crisis
predicted by Marx, only desperate measures afforded the "big any
prospect of salvation. No longer capable of realizing profit the produc-
tion of commodities for competitive exchange, Palme Dun continued, the entre-
preneurial bourgeoisie was compelled to employ extraordinary measures. One of
those measures was to systematically restrict output, curtail technological inno-
vation, and stabilize production at the level of simple reproduction. Expanded
production would be precluded, and consumption would be confined to ar-
low levels. Cartelized or monopolized production would be distributed
in quantities and at prices fixed at levels that maximized profit.
37
Fascism
was assi2:ned just such reactionary tasks. Fascism was charged with the task of
society's productive capabilities to an artificially low level in order to
optimize the profits of monopoly capitalism. Fascism was charged with return-
ing modern society to preindustrial barbarism.
Such an interpretation was plausible only if one accepted as unqualifiedly
true all the major theses of classical Marxism. It was plausible only if the private
ownership of the means of production revealed itself as inherent! y "incompatible
with the further development of production and utilization of technique," and if
industrial capitalism had entered its final crisis.
18
It was credible only if the profit
rate of capitalism was, in fact, approximating zero.
By the mid-1930s, Pal me Dutt could confidently maintain that all this was
true. As a consequence, the only alternatives open to Western society were clear:
either the modern world chose "progressive" communism, or humanity was to
THE FIRST MARXIST THEORIES OF FASCISM ~
be abandoned to "reactionary" fascism. Fascism would not only restrict produc-
tion and abandon science and technology, it would also undertake "the system-
atic destruction of all science and culture ... [and lead] the revolt
education." Without the salvation that would come in the train of the
revolution, the industrialized West would have to accustom itself to a "return to
handwork"-a "return to the Stone Age." That would constitute "the final
logical working out of the most advanced capitalism and fascism."39
In retrospect, it is clear that there was very little substance to any of this.
Economists have never found evidence of a secular decline in the rate of profit in
advanced industrial systems. Industrial capitalism has survived repeated busi-
ness cycles, and while theoreticians regularly lament capitalism's failures, few
argue that a final collapse of the system is to be anticipated. Throughout the
1930S, irrespective of the protracted dislocations of the Great Depression, indus-
trial capitalism continued to operate without ratcheting down production to
some artificially low profit-maximizing level, or destroying science, culture, or
education-and nowhere in the capitalist world, National Socialist Germany
and Fascist Italy included, did material production fall anywhere near the levels
predicted by Palme Dutt.
40
Without the support of Marx's economic prognostications, the Marxist-
Leninist interpretation of fascism, standard in the '9305, really had very little to
say about fascism other than that it was to be seen as an attempt by the generic
bourgeoisie to maintain its privileges in the face of what Marxist enthusiasts
imagined was imminent proletarian revolution. Even that would have to assume
that contemporary society was objectively "rotten-ripe for the social
and that the bourgeoisie had no hope of salvation other than to throw in their lot
with fascists.
41
That society was "rotten-ripe for the socialist revolution" was predicated on
the conviction that profit rates in the system approximated zero-that sustain-
able rates could not be restored-and that the class-conscious proletariat under-
stood all this and was prepared to assume the responsibilities of rule. Only in
those circumstances would the characterization of fascism as the reactionary
armed guard of capitalism take on any plausibil
Only if all the speculations that made up Marxist-Leninist "theories" of the
world are accepted as true, might one conceive of fascism as discharging the
responsibility of protecting the survival of the system by supervising an overall
reduction in industrial output, restricting the growth in fixed capital assets,
cartelizing the entire economy, and imposing monopoly prices throughout. This
would entail the unpleasant business of reducing the gross national product,
mandating and maintaining extremely low wage rates, curtailing social services,
37
I
I
TIlE FIRST MARXIST THEORIES OF fASCISM
36
and imposing draconian discipline. The entire system would wind down to a
"lower technical and economic level" to satisfy the reclUirements of senescent
capitalismY
All this flew in the face of fascism's evident preoccupation with the possibility
of war. Whatever else it was, fascism was committed to making Italy a "great
power." In pursuing that goal, Fascists expected resistance on the part of the
"plutocracies" - resistance that might involve military contlict. Given that recog-
Fascists sought the rapid growth and industrialization of their economies
in order to provide the weapons systems and weapons platforms necessary to
sustain conflict in the twentieth century.
The entire standard Marxist-Leninist account of fascism
the inter-
war years was, at best, a caricature of the actual political and hIstorical sequence.
To suggest that Italian Fascism was "financed, controlled and directed" by the
capitalists," the "big landlords," the "big industrialists," or "finance
is so simplistic that it hardly merits
We know that Mussolini received subventions from agrarian and industrial
interests in their respective efforts to contain and neutralize the revolutionary
socialist movement. But we also know that Mussolini assiduously maintained his
political independence. While he cultivated support from a varietv ofentrenched
he maintained an independent political posture.
That Mussolini, in the course of the Fascist revolution, received the passive
or active support of the constabulary, the magistracy, and the military was a con-
sequence not of a "capitalist conspiracy" to preserve suitable levels of return in
the face of the declining rate of profit; it resulted from the fact that the Socialists
in Italy had succeeded in alienating almost everyone by 1920.43 They had de-
famed the military and attacked and abused war veterans. They had stigmatized
the constabulary as the "venal agents of the bourgeoisie.' They had made a
display of their contem pt for the "pctty bourgeoisie" -the professionals, intellec-
tuals, small landholders, shopkeepers, artisans, and salaried state employees-all
the "parasitic and nonproductive interstitial" strata of capitalist More-
over, by 1921, large sections of the working class itself had become disillusioned
with socialist strategies. Most independent intellectuals recognized as much.
Thus, it was not necessary to invoke obscure notions regarding a conspiracy
of tlnance capitalists and Italian Fascists to explain the
that Fascist squads received in Italy after the high wave of "proletarian" revolu-
tionary activity had crested in I920.44 Nor is it necessary to suggest that Italian
Fascism could not have come to power without the active intercession of "the big
bourgeoisie." However one chooses to construe the standard Marxist-Leninist
version of fascism, the candidate explanation remains unconvincing. We
know that Italian industrialists and "big capitalists" interacted with Italian Fas-
THE FIRST MARXIST THEORIES Of FASCISM
cists from a position of strength; we also know that their interests and the
interests of the Fascists coincided at critical and broad junctures. But all the
evidence we now have at our disposal indicates that the industrialists were never
able to "control," much less " Mussolini's Fascism.
Fascism frequently, if not regularly, compensated the organized industrial-
ists and financiers of Italy for their submission to control, but the evidence clearly
indicates that business and banking interests almost
nate to Fascist political priorities. Fascism's political
over capitalist interests when a choice had to be made.
45
Not only did Mussolini
sometimes sacrifice business and financial interests when it served Fascism's
purpose; he did not hesitate to dismiss, and in significant instances exile, influen-
tial business leaders in whom he had no confidence. Mussolini's alliance with
business, agrarian, and financial interests was always based on political consider-
ationsY' This was particularly true with respect to foreign policy, where he
operated with almost absolute independeneeY
Beyond that, it is clear that Fascism neither intended nor succeeded in wind-
ing down Italy's industrial or agrarian production.
4H
By the mid-1930s, Fascist
Italy had achieved an irregular rate of real economic growth in which some
sectors had made quite spectacular gains. So evident was this fact that, after the
Second \Vorld War, one Marxist commentator simply reported that "fascism
represented a development of capitalist forces ofproduction . ...
promoted1the expanded reproduction of the eond itions of capitalist
The total volume of agricultural production, for example, rose in Fascist
Italy from the base index of 100 in 1922 to 147.8 in 1937, while population
growth, similarly indexed, had risen only to 1 I I. By 1937, Fascist Italy was
15.5 quintals of wheat per hectare, whereas it had produced only 9.5
per hectare in 1922. For the first time in its modern history, Italy was
producing enough wheat for its domestic population.';o
The aggregate indices of industrial production in Fascist Italy suggest mea-
surable advances. There was a general improvement, with the index rising to
182.2 in 1934. The metallurgical, building, automotive, textile, and
hydroelectrical generating industries all showed advances. As as the mid-
19305, American economists reported that Fascist Italy had "made considerable
progress in the expansion of some of her industries."'!
The standardized figures that became available after the end of the Second
World War indicate that Fascist Italy sustained a credible rate of real economic
growth when compared to the resource-favored capitalist countries. By 1938,
the enormous costs of the intervention in and the war in Ethiopia not-
withstanding, the index of aggregate volume of output (using 1913 as a bench-
was 158.8. This compared favorably with that of France, whieh,
,
I:
stood at 109.4, and with Germany, whose index stood at 149.9. By 1938,
the aggregate index for output per capita stood at 145.2 for Fascist Italy, 136.5 for
France, 122.4 for Germany, 143.6 for the United Kingdom, and 136.0 for the
United States. The aggregate index for output per man-hour stood at HJLI for
Fascist Italy in 1938, as with 178,5 for France, 137.1 for Germanv. and
167.9 for the United Kingdom.
52
Whatever else might be said, it was clear that Fascist Italy did not "suppress"
or "restrict" the forces of production; nor did it "stabilize" at the level of the
"simple reproduction of capitaL"" By 1938, in Fascist Italy, 15.9 percent of the
gross national product was employed in fixed asset formation, as compared to
11.5 percent in the United Kingdom and 14 percent in the United States.
54
Monumental errors were made in the Fascist governance of the peninsula's
economy, total lack of essential resources, the absence of fossil
iron ore, and critical minerals, and the impact of the worldwide depression
after 1929, the performance could hardly be characterized as a "winding down"
of the national economy to a "lower technical and productive level." If the
calculating capitalist conspirators who "controlled and directed" Italian Fascism
were compelled by the inherent laws of capitalism to "wind down" the economic
system, they seem to have failed. If "decaying" capitalism requires a "suppres-
sion" of the productive forces, and the magnates of "high finance" are required
to engineer a system to effect that "suppression," then they and Fascism seem to
have been singularly unsuccessful.
All this was only part of the problem with the standard Marxist-Leninist in-
nrN::ltion offascism. Many Marxist thinkers not caught up in the requirements
imposed the Third International took exceDtion to much of the Marxist-
Leninist standard version.
Throughout the I 930S, a number of reasonably' Marxist scholars
attempted to formulate interpretations of generic fascism that bore more corre-
spondence to political reality. August Thalheimer, for example, an "opposition"
member of the Communist Party of Germany, insisted as early as 1930 that
fascism could be most coherently understood as an autonomous mass mobilizing
political movement of the petty bourgeoisie that arose in social, economic, and
circumstances that found the "big bourgeosie" incapable of ruling effec-
As a consequence, the ruling bourgeoisie was compelled to surrender
power to the fascists in the frantic hope that fascism would protect their
economic and social position.
55
Arthur Rosenberg, in turn, accepted the principal outlines of the Marxist-
Leninist standard version, but insisted that the task" of Mussolini's
Fascism (naturally at the behest of industrial and finance capital) was to "further
develop the productive forces ofItaly." He insisted that there was clear evidence
that Italian Fascism had "systematically spurred" development in heavy indus-
try, in chemicals, automotive and aircraft industries, and the maritime trade.Sf.
Rather than "winding down" productive output, Fascism had created conditions
for its acceleration.
Otto Bauer, in 1936, insisted that generic fascism constituted too strong a
force to be contained by the established capitalist elites. It could not possibily be
employed as "a simple tool of the bourgeoisie." "Fascism," he maintained, "grew
over the heads of the capitalist classes." The bourgeoisie may have imagined that
they could dominate fascism, but fascism extended its power over all classes.
Bauer insisted that, ultimately, fascism came to terms with the
but he also indicated that the confluence of interest between fascism and its non-
fascist allies was at best temporary and contingent.
In Bauer's judgment, the foreIgn policy of fascism, with its disposition to
military adventure, predictably worked against the vested interests of broad
segments of the capitalist class. It is clear that for Bauer, the relationship between
fascism and the possessing classes was far more complex than anything suggested
in the standard Marxist-Leninist version of Palme Dutt.
7
the most significant variation in this general tradition was expressed
in an essay by Franz Borkenau in 1933. Borkenau denied that conditions in
Italy in 1920 were "ripe" for socialist revolution. I-Ic insisted that in an
sense," it was not that Fascism was "but that the demands raised
the maximalists and the Leninists in the post-First World War Italian situation
threatened "progress." What I taly required after the termination of the First
World War was not proletarian revolution, but a rapid increase in overall pro-
ductivity. The wage demands and the ill-conceived political innov;nions de-
manded by the self-selected "leaders of the working classes" at that time augured
ill for the weakened and only partially developed economy of post-First World
What Italy required at that time was a control on nonproductive
in order to assure that available assets could be devoted to basic
industrial growth and agricultural modernization.
"tempo of accumulation," a period of intensive
that would be requisite for a drive to industrial and
Fascism, Borkenau insisted, was alive with a modernizing fervor
the presence in its ranks of the Futurists, who were machine fetishists, and the
technical bourgeoisie, who advocated a rapid growth in the industrial potential
peninsula. Fascism, in Borkenau's judgment, was not the tool of industrial
or finance capital. Italian Fascism arose in a partially developed economy and
embodied all the "contradictions" common to such circumstances. However
Fascism's political character, one of its purposes was the inten-
sive and extensive growth of the Italian economy. Fascism was committed to the
41 , 40 THE FIRST MARXIST THEORIES OF FASCISM
creation of the preconditions for, and fostering of, the development of
It was not the product of "rotten-ripe" capitalism; it was a perfectly comprehen-
sible response to delayed development and thwarted industrialization.
In those circumstances, the industrial and finance capitalists were
Mussolini's masters; they were his allies at best and his dependents at worst. For
Borkenau, political Fascism was made up of a collection of and eco-
nomic modalities designed in large part to perform a time- and circumstance-
conditioned "historic function." Just as any knowledgeable Marxist might ex-
pect, Italian Fascism sought the steady expansion of industrial capabilities in an
economic environment in which the material f()rces of production remained
laggard.
Under Mussolini's electrification was undertaken and rapidly ex-
The automotive and textile industries flourished. The communications
system was expanded and rationalized. The banking system was centralized and
rendered more efficient. The independence of traditionalist agrarian financial
interests of the south were compromised in the service of northern industrialists.
Agriculture was modernized, and extensive road building and land reclamation
were undertaken. To accomplish all this, Borkenau maintained, the defense
p,tVllll1L:"t of to a minimum to
underwrite the rapid accumulation of investment capital, and collective enthusi-
asm kept at a high pitch to sustain the levels of energy required f()r moderniza-
tion7
1
Fascism, in Borkenau's judgment, was a mass-mobilizing developmental
dictatorship under single party auspices. It was a "transitional" form of rule
in an environment suffering marginal industrial development and
agricultural stagnation.
By the end of the '9305, it was no longer certain what "right-wing" might be
taken to mean. Even fascism's identification with "reaction" was no longer
certain. Independent Marxist intellectuals had begun to suggest an interpreta-
tion of fascism that differed markedly from that urged bv the Leninist Third
International.
Fascism was understood to be a kind of "Bonapartist" dictatorship that
enjoyed considerable autonomy in an environment characterized by the
librium of class forces" that existed, in general, in modern or modernizing
industrial society.60 Otto Bauer, the Austrian Social Democrat, argued that some
contemporary communities found themselves lodged between the class rule of
the bourgeoisie and the rising proletariat. In such circumstances, a "balance" had
been struck between the two classes that Marx had identified as the only real
historical protagonists, and the state, which had previously been the "executive
arm of the bourgeoisie," suddenly obtained a measure of autonomy.
In substance, Bauer rejected the notion that had entered its final
phase. Rather, the steady emergence over time of the proletariat had created an
equilibrium of social fc)rces in which a relatively thin stratum of bureaucrats,
political leadership, achieved a measure of independence
Thus, for Bauer, "Italian Fascism ... Iwasl the modern
counterpart of French Bonapartism in 1851. In each case, an adventurer, sup-
by bands of adventurers, sent the bourgeois parliament packing, ousted
the bourgeoisie from its position of political supremacy and established ...
dictatorship over all the c1asses."(d
Bauer's interpretation was a far cry from that of doctrinaire leftist thinkers.
What Bauer was addressing was the possibility, evident at the time and fully
confirmed by subsequent evidence, that neither Adolf Hitler nor Benito Mus-
solini were the "supine servants" of their bourgeois "masters."1'2 Independent
Marxists recognized that fascists acted with considerable autonomy in
with the critical issues of the period. I t was hard to conceive of ~ t s i s m ;J5 nothing
but the simple "tool" of capitalism. It was harder still to conceive of it as "identi-
cal with capitalism, representing a special method to maintain its power and
hold down the workcrs."ld
Whatever else (:ascism was, it certainly was not the tool of the "reac-
tionary magnates of capital." It evidently was not simply another form
ist rule. And it clearly was not the "open and terroristic dictatorship of the
most reactionary, most chauvinistic and most imperialistic clements of finance
"b4
There are very few non-Marxist economists who accept the claim that mod-
ern industrial society is dominated by "finance capital," or that banks control the
operations of contemporary capitalism. Without some such agency in con-
trol, it is hard to imagine how the bourgeoisie could simply "put f:1scism in
power" or control it when it was there. There were many independent Marxist
theoreticians who found it difficult to invest confidence in such notions.
Borkenau never acceded to the notion that "finance capitalism" somehow
controlled contemporary He suggested that fascism, free to pursue its
in an environment in which simple class rule, in whatever f()rm, was no
longer possible, sought industrial development and technological maturity, if for
no other reason than to maintain political initiative and provide for an assertive
policy of expansion. It was clear that Italian Fascism, for whatever reason
and with whatever efficiency, sought the industrial development and economic
modernization of the Italian
All these notions began to come in the outlines of an alternative
interpretation of fascism that was original. As early as 1924, Otto Bauer
43
II I
IIII
recognized that in the Soviet Union Lenin's Bolshevism had become a "dictator-
ship of a governing caste set above all classes in just like! ItalianJ Fas-
cism."66 By the mid-1930s, even Trotsky was prepared to the "fateful
similarities" between Italian Fascism and Stalinism.
o7
What was emerging was an interpretation that conceived fascism as one
form, among many, of developmental dictatorship under unitary party auspices.
It was uncertain what that class of regimes might be called. Trotsky, for example,
was prepared to recognize the features shared by Italian Fascism and the system
created by Stalin in the Soviet Union. He was prepared to admit that the Soviet
Union had been transformed under the ministrations of Josef Stalin. What he
to admit was that what had been intended as a "proletarian
had become a dictatorship of a bureaucratic stratum of technocrats,
and place-holders in a system committed to the rapid develop-
ment and rationalization of a developmentally retarded national economy. If
that were the case, how could one distinguish "right-wing reaction" from "Ieft-
wing progressivism"?
A perfectly plausible case can be made that Stalinism was the ideology of a
developmental national socialism-the "socialism" of an economically backward
nation. As such, it shared more than superficial similarities with the Fascism of
Mussolini. Years later, Bruno Rizzi was to suggest that "that which !Italian!
Fascism consciously sought, Ithe Soviet Union! involuntarily constructed."bH The
real question was, What, in fact, had been constructed in both the Soviet Union
and Fascist Italy?
Early in the history of the Fascist regime in Italy, both Giuseppe Prezzolini
and Rudolf!) Mondolfo had remarked on the attributes that characterized both
Fascism and BolshevismY) The similarities included an intense
the instauration of an authoritarian and anti-liberal state under a
"charismatic leader" who activated "masses" that included all "sound" and
ductive" elements of the population, a domestication oflabor, and state control of
the means of production through the of an enterorise and man-
agerial bureaucracy differential income and
levers of power.
All this took place within the confines of a political system dominated a
unitary party monopolizing the articulation and aggregation of interests. Con-
trol over the means of communication and the prevalence of special means of
social surveillance completed the picture of functionally analogous political sys-
tems. All that was now required was a specification of what purpose all this was
to serve.
Borkenau had suggested that at least one purpose of these political and
arrangements was the rapid economic development and industrial
modernization ofless developed economies. In circumstances in which industri-
alization had to the level of the most advanced systems, something
like fascism might emerge where a society sought to escape the real or fancied
restrictions imposed by history-lost wars, unequal impostures,
and the loss of national territories--burdens that followed as a consequence of an
eccentric past and unequal competition with more
Borkenau argued that the peculiar social, economic
Germany, for example, left it bereft of "typical" bourgeois institutions and
cal" bourgeois behaviors.71l Further, the defeat that followed the Great War of
1914-18 left Germany without the flexibility typical of mature economies and
mature political systems. Without independent sources of raw materials, without
secure export markets, burdened by onerous repatriation responsibilities, Wei-
mar Germany, with its fragile representative democracy, lapsed into a political
identified as "fascist."71
German fascism was manifestly different from that found in
whatever the differences. bv the beginning of the Second World War,
the first outlines of an inclusive class of lldllUlldll> mass-mobilizing, anti-
liberal and multi-class developmental movements and had made their
appearance. What was unclear was whether such systems were or
"left-wing" in character.
These were the notions with which Marxists faced the
and revolutionary problems of the interwar years. Initially, MarXIst theoreticians
pieced together the most simple-minded conjectures in order to dismiss Fascism
as capitalist reaction.
Over the years, this thesis became increasingly difficult to defend. Acknowl-
edging this, the more independent Marxists sought to provide a more plausible
rendering of then contemporary events. But these intellectual developments
were overtaken by the Second World War. Little survived the war. Fascism, on
the " had been defeated, while socialism on the "left," had allied itself with
the victors. Fascism was "reactionary"; Marxism was "progressive."
Leftist intellectuals in the West acknowledged none of the developments that
the earlv historv of the Marxist theorv of fascism. Had they done so, it
might have become clear that the Marxist-Leninist of fascism was
fundamentally flawed, and that the entire notion of a
tion in the Soviet Union and a right-wing revolution in Faseist
be defended.
Decades were to pass before the insights of Bauer and Borkenau were taken
up again to offer the outline of something like a competent interoretation of
'II
I
,I
what had transpired in Russia and Italy between the two world wars. In the
interim, the notion that fascism was nothing more than right-wing reaction, to
be forever distinguished from the political left wing, dominated most of the
learning institutions of the West. Curiously enough, it was among orthodox
Marxist thinkers in the Soviet Union that the first major reassessment of fascism
took place.
I
I
.1
d
I
-I:
II'
:!!
The MarxistTheoryofFascism
afterthe SecondWorldWar
The victory of communist arms on the battlefields of Europe and Asia during
the 1940S did little to improve the quality of the Marxist-Leninist interpretation
of fascism. Soviet academics had little immediate inccntive to try to produce a
more cognitively satisfying account.
For their part, academics in the West were generally prepared to trcat fas-
cism as a sim pie study in political pathology, better left to criminal justice than
intellectual reflcction. In the passion and horror of the Second World War,
Mussolini's Fascism had been swallowed up in the enormities of Hitler's Na-
tional Socialism. All distinctions were lost, and academics, East and West, were
perfectly comfortable dealing with a selective notion of "fascism" that included
within its compass only those movements and regimes somehow identified with
the "radical right"-to the exclusion of anything on the "left."
For some time after the end of the Second World War, Western scholars were
no more disposed to undertake a serious review and reconsideration of fascism
than were their Marxist-Leninist counterparts. Often as not, fascism was simply
consigned to history as an unhappy parenthesis in the history of civilization.
In the years immediately following the conclusion of the Second World War,
Soviet scholars, with some rare exceptions, seemed content to repeat all the stolid
implausibilities that made up the standard Soviet interwar interpretation of fas-
cism. In the Soviet Union, the postwar BriefPhilosophical Dictionary persisted in
defining fascism as the "open terroristic dictatorship of finance capital" as though
nothing had transpired in the world or in Soviet intellectual circles since 1930.1
Little changed until the 1960s. In 1965, Soviet commentators began to com-
plain of the lack of intellectual independence they had suffered under the Stalin-
ist "cult of personality." Stalin, according to Soviet Marxists, had forced the
discussion of fascism to assume an artificial and abstract character. Scholars
4<;
II
iii
II
47 46 AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR
revealed that they had been compelled to neglect the obvious realities of their
time and "replace concrete study" with the "repetition of this or that gen-
eral resolution of the Communist International."2 The 1960s revealed to Soviet
thinkers that they had been denied intellectual independence. In fact, the story
was much more complicated than that.
In 1970, Alexander Galkin published an interpretation of fascism that could
only count as a substantial revision of the original interwar standard version.
l
In
the revised version, fascism was nO longer identified with the final or general
crisis of capitalism. That thesis was abandoned, together with the conviction that
the world faced only one of two options-the dictatorship of the revolutionary
proletariat or the terrorism of fascism.
By 1970, Soviet theoreticians were prepared to acknowledge that real and
potential alternatives existed between the dictatorship of the proletariat and
fascism. Those alternatives might take on a variety of forms. Industrial capital-
Galkin argued. had not lapsed into its final crisis at the conclusion of the
First World War. Whatever Marxist theorists had written, there was no
cal evidence to support the contention that, by the time of the Great War,
J
had exhausted its potential for extensive and intensive growth. The
expansion of capitalist production after that war, renewed growth
after the Great Depression, and accelerated increases in yield during the years
following the end of the Second World War had made all that abundantly clear.
capitalism" had not only survived the First World War, it had pros-
pered. One of the major premises of the original stambrd interpretation of
fascism could no longer be defended.
For the purposes of discussion, it is interesting that the revised account was
to acknowledge that market-governed industrial systems still retained
the potential for significant growth, and that filscism was not simply a final
desperate strategy to salvage moribund capitalism. Whatever else it was, fascism
was not the final defense of reaction; nor could it be identified with a govern-
ment that had been compelled by the "intrinsic laws of capitalism" to confine its
domestic economic system to negative growth and technological primitivism.
It had taken Soviet intellectuals two decades after the end of the Second
World War to undertake a revision of the standard interpretation of fascism. The
revision took on some interesting features. What Soviet theoreticians affirmed
was that in the changed circumstances of the twentieth century, capitalism re-
the extensive support of the state to sustain itself. The state began to playa
major, nonsubstitutable role in the maintenance and expansion of capitalist pro-
ductive systems. Fascism was only a special variant of the state monopoly capital-
ism required by advanced industrialization.
In order to suitablv discipline its subject population, and to accumulate the
,'Ii
AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR
resources necessary to make the transition to a higher productive level, capitalist
economIes reqUIred the institutionalization of a new state system. According ro
this thesis. all capitalist states shared at least some of those features, but only
fascism exemplified them all.
Galkin argued that because the bourgeoisie" of many nations found
fascism to be a very risky they had found ways of makinl!: the
transition to a new level of economic growth and modernization without aban-
doning "one or another form of bourgeois democracy." Fascism was not a ques-
tion of "fatal inevitability, but a variant of the way of development."
What had become manifestly clear was that Soviet thinkers. by the mid-
19605, had put together a new interpretation of fascism. In the new account,
fascism was a variant of state monopoly capitalism with certain properties. Like
all forms of state monopoly capitalism, fascism represented a new state form that
gave expression to special economic strategies designed to attain "new levels" of
growth and development.
Fascism distinguished itsclfby its ready recourse to anti-democratic
systematic violence, and a willingness to embark upon military adventure. Fas-
cism was state monopoly capitalism without the restraint common to bourgeois
For Galkin, fascism was a rare by-product of "bourgeois" rule. It
had arisen during one of the recurrent crises of industrial capitalism, and it
succeeded in shepherding some capitalist states through those crises, but only at
the expense of violating some of the cardinal rules of bourgeois society. Fascism
satisfied special bourgeois requirements in the "late imperialist period"-but
only at a terrible price.
Fascism was a form of state monopoly capitalism that had proved itself
capable of putting together the instrumentalities that would protect
society during periods of serious dislocation. More than that, fascism, as a special
variant of state monopoly capitalism, f()stered and/or sustained a transition from
one level of economic development and modernization to another.
According to the new interpretation, fascism, within the confines of the
"capitalist mode of production," was a form of modernizing movement that
embodied itself in one type of modernizing regime. What distinguished fascism
other variants was its specifically anti-democratic character and its
recourse to genocidal violence.
When Galkin addressed himself specifically to the Italian case, he noted that
Mussolini's Fascism had arisen as an autonomous movement in circumstances of
special crisis, and that only subsequently had the "ruling circles" of the
recognized that it might serve their particular interests. The fact that Mussolini's
Fascism had an independent origin and pursued an independent course clearly
49 AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR 48
posed problems, in Calkin's judgment, for the "capitalist ruling class." While
Italian Fascism did satisfy some of the basic "interests of the ruling class and its
upper crust as a " it nonetheless "inevitably entailed infringement of the
concrete interests of its separate representatives and entire factions."
Soviet Marxists were prepared to argue that fascism was a singularly strange
"bourgeois" regime. Fascists operated with independence, often at the expense of
the bourgeoisie. Galkin acknowledged that Italian Fascism, during its tenure,
extended its bureaucratic control over a very substantial part of the economic
system, and that "the settlement of questions which fi)r centuries were the
prerogative of the big capitalists, in some measure [became I the function of
the state bureaucratic " In the fascist state, power was concentrated in
the hands of the fascist leadership, and, as a result, "the handing over of power
the ruling classes I to the fascists imnlied at the same time subordination to
the regime."
[:
Furthermore, since "the transfer of leadership' a change in the form
of power, it inevitably led to a reconstruction and, in a number of cases, to a
breakup of the old party political mechanism. This ran counter to the intrinsic
conservatism of the bourgeoisie and dictated renunciation of its former political
and ties." All this meant not only that the "ruling bourgeoisie,"
composed as it was of heterogeneous interests, would relZulariv find itself suffer-
,I
"inconveniences and al times losses," but th;n fascism would violate
its intrinsic "conservatism." Under the circumstances, the bourgeoisie, as the
"ruling " afforded Italian Fascism, more frequently than not, little more
than "friendly neutrality."4
What the new interpretation succeeded in accomplishing was a discrete sepa--
ration of political power and control from the ownership of property. In
Mussolini could act as an arbiter of! taly's fate quite independently of the
propertied class." However much Fascists might accommodate themselves to the
"ruling class," Fascism, in principle, remained its own master. In Fascism's
power afforded it control over the propertied classes of the peninsula.
By the mid-I96os, Soviet Marxists were prepared to accept the thesis that the
control of property did not ensure political control of the system. Marxist-
Leninist theoreticians had put together an interpretation of fascism that con-
ceived of it as a modernizing movement that arose spontaneously in times of
socioeconomic crisis. The movement that had been considered the simple lackey
of finance capital by the theoreticians of the Third International was conceived
by the end of the 1960s, as capable of violating the interests and outraging the
sensibilities of those who owned the means of production. The "finance
'jll
J
ists," who, in the standard version of the Third International, had created and
controlled fascism, disappeared into a vague, omnibus "ruling " a class that
I
i
not did not dominate Mussolini or I but suffered at their hands. The
fascism that had been "supinely subservient" to the "big bourgeoisie" in the
account of Marxist-Leninists during the interwar years, had become an autono-
mous political power to which the capitalist class accorded, at best, only "friendly
neutrality. "
Outside the Soviet Union, there had already been a suggestion of substantial
revisions in the standard version by Soviet-friendly Marxist-Leninists. In the
years of the Paolo Alatri, an Italian warned that
the "mechanical" and "rigid" interpretation of halian Fascism must be aban-
doned. Moreover, he argued that it was absurd to suggest that the modern world
faced only two alternatives in its future: either the "proletarian revolution" or
fascism. Fascism. Alatri contended, was only one of the forms available to "anti,
"no one could dream of thinking that Mussolini
was purely and the executor of the directives of Italian industrialists."
During his tenure Mussolini was, in Alatri's judgment, "the absolute master of
Italy.'"
In Alatri's presentation of the revised standard version, the "finance capital-
ists" of Italy made only a Heeting appearance. It was the omnibus ruling classes,
not the finance capitalists, who conspired with Mussolini-and even they were
"deluded" into believing that Fascism could be domesticated to their purposes.
In Alatri's assessment, Fascism in Italy could not be domesticated, because it
operated from a position of strength. It had its own multi-class demographic
base, as Alatri acknowledged, specific class consciousness could be ab-
sent only where "the objective conditions for the Iproletarianl revolution had not
yet been realized."!.
Implicit and explicit in Alatri's account was a recognition of the separation of
ownership of the means of production in any given socioeconomic system and
the exercise of political power. In Italian Fascism, political control had been
separated from ownership. The revised interpretation of fascism that
attention be paid less to the economics of a system, than to its
This change in focus was reHected in the work of Reinhard Kuehn!. In 1971,
his work Formcn bucrgerlicher Herrschaft: Liberalismus-Faschismus provided a
German rendering of the Soviet revised standard version. Kuehnl was not dis-
posed to go as far as Calkin or Alatri on some issues, but he did grant that
fascism created a "qualitatively new" form of political structure, one of whose
functions was to maintain a high profit rate for industrial and agricultural
enterprise?-a guarded, elliptical way of saying that the Fascist state in
an opportunity for rapid capital accumulation and the attractive invest-
ment environment necessary for industrial expansion, technological
ment, and agricultural modernization.
I
51
I'"
Ii
(
AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR 50
Kuehnl's account was largely an affirmation and confirmation of those of
Alexander Galkin and Paolo Alatri. Whatever the variations, the revised version
of the Marxist-Leninist interpretation of fascism unmistakably conceived of
fascism as largely autonomous in origin, multi-class in character, revolutionary
in principle, developmental in function, modernizing in effect, and administered
at considerable expense to the "bourgeois ruling classes." The full implications of
the new Marxist-Leninist interpretation became abundantly clear in the
19705, when Telos published a chapter of a forthcoming book by Mihaly Vajda, a
researcher for the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in Budapest.
8
For Vajda, as for Galkin, fascism was a mass-mobilizing movement that, fi,r
a variety of reasons, assumed responsibility for resolving some of the nation-
specific developmental problemJ of industrial capitalism under particular crisis
conditions. Critical to understanding the dynamics of fascism, according to
was recognition that the movement and its leaders were involved in
initiating, frlstering, and sustaining "the development of the f()rces of produc-
tion" during capitalism's transition to a higher developmentallevd:
i
It was clear
to Vajda that all this occurred in the context of an industrial capitalism that had
not yet reached the limits of its "historical development." 10
argued that in order to accomplish the further development of pro-
ductive f()rces, fascism advocated an ideology of national reconciliation calcu-
lated to unite all elements of the community in a demanding enterprise. II Fas-
cism sought to mobilize the human and material resources of a given political
community in the service of rapid technological development, industrial ra-
tionalization, and agricultural modernization. In pursuit of that purpose, fas-
cists rejected all the traditional "bourgeois conceptions" of individuality, liberty,
and equality. Fascism was manifestly "anti-bourgeois" in conception and anti-
democratic in
Vadja argued that fascism, while serving some abstract conception of the
"general interests" of the "bourgeoisie," was a singular form of political arrange-
ment. It provided the institutional agencies that facilitated the transition from
one level of market-based economic development to another often, if not always,
at the cost of the propertied classes. A number of alternative arrangements
have succeeded as well, but under the peculiar conditions of the period, fascists
chose to employ modalities that left, within the system, qualified protection of
person or property.
In Italy, Fascism arose not because capitalism had exhausted its potential and
was senescent, but because agricultural and industrial capitalism was weak and
partially developed. By the turn of the twentieth century Italy had, in
just begun its economic development and modernization. In those circum-
stances the "pettv bourgeoisie" found itself marginalized in a system that no
provided place, much less upward mobility, for peasant farmers, artisans,
small shopkeepers.
12
Italian Fascism arose in an economically retrograde environment in which
the domestic labor movement had been anachronistically infused with revolu-
tionary enthusiasm. The petty bourgeoisie had been marginalized and alienated,
and the possessing classes were threatened from all sides. The working masses,
been successful, were fully capable of paralyzing production.
ll
Such a
would have ensured the continued deterioration of the life circum-
stances of both the petty bourgeoisie and the agricultural and industrial
ists. Under these conditions, it was the dissatisfaction and restiveness of the petty
bourgeoisie that provided mobilizable masses prepared for systemic change, and
the surrounding anarchy that prompted the threatened "big bourgeoisie" to
the financial, material, and moral support for a revolutionary political
movement led by "declassed" veterans who had survived the Great War. Given
the primitive state of economic development on the Italian peninsula,
letarian revolution," rather than fascist victory, would have been theoretically, as
well as practically, "untimely."
What this suggested to Vajda was that the demands of Italy's "proletarian"
masses immediately following the First World War were, in "objective fact,"
"reactionary." Had their demands been met, the burdens imposed on the com-
munity would have "hinder[ed] the development of the economy." Conversely,
Mussolini's Fascism, with its modernizing fervor and clearly industrial
offered the weak industrial bourgeoisie a potentially powerful ally in the effort
to industrialize the Italian peninsula. Fascism was not the creature of the "ruling
bourgeoisie," it was a singular political response to objective historical and eco-
nomic conditions.
In Vajda's judgment, at the conclusion of the First World War, Mussolini's
Fascism "remained the only solution" to the crisis ofItaly's economic
underdevelopment. Fascists, acting with independence, chose a
political course in response to prevailing crisis conditions that "consisted in the
capitalization of the economy." This course was pursued not because it was
by the propertied bourgeoisie, but because any other alternative would
been
Vajda maintained that, in Italy, "the defense of democracy against Fascism
from the position of proletarian democracy [would have beenl reactionary, since
the alternative between bourgeois democracy and Fascism was one between
economic stagnation and economic development."14 Neither bourgeois control
nor bourgeois democracy typified Mussolini's Fascism, because, in Vajda's judg-
ment, both would have been "reactionary" in the prevailing circumstances.
As a Marxist, Vajda recognized that only the full maturation of the
53
I'll
i !
tive forces and the material abundance they assured could provide the objective
economic f()Undation upon which socialist productive relations and a socialist
superstructure could be erected. Fascism, instrumental in the development of the
productive forces, was "progressive" insofar as it contributed to the creation of
the preconditions for socialism. What becomes evident in all this is that, in some
sense or another, fascism and socialism were united in the "logic of history."
More important than anything else, the revised Marxist-Leninist
the notion of "fascism" from any direct connection with the
of the means of production. "As soon as they came to power,"
reminded his readers, "both Italian and German fascism removed the traditional
ruling classes from political power."I) The fascists exercised political control,
themselves did not own the "means of production."I"
By the 19705, fascism for many Marxist-Leninists was no longer the "inevi-
table" economic and political product of the "rouon-ripe" last stage of monopoly
capitalism; it was an ideological and political novelty designed to sustain the
and sophistication of an economy poised to achieve a new station of
growth. In the course of its instauration, fascism seized power from the tradi-
tional bourgeoisie and operated with significant independence. Its leaders were
the autocratic masters of the new state f()rm.
Of course, much of the revised version of the Marxist theory of fascism that
emerged by the 1970S owed a great deal of its substance to the "nonorthodox"
Marxist interpretations of the interwar years. Vajda, f()r example, regularly
referred to the interpretation offered by Franz Borkenau to support his own
position.I
7
For Vajda, as for Borkenau, I talian Fascism was conceived of as
"progressive" in the sense that "the task of Italian Fascism was precisely that
of assuring the accumulation of capital necessary flJr the extensive growth of
the prevailing somethi ng that the I tal ian bourgeois democracy had
shown itself entirely incapable of accomplishing."IH Fascists were enlisted ill the
service of the productive forces, not the ruling classes, and, as a consequence,
as "progressive."
By the 1970s, the orthodox Soviet interpretation of fascism had been trans-
f()rmed. While fascism was still understood to somehow serve the "historic
interests of capitalism" of its major features were identified as "progres-
sive" and, in a significant sense, "revolutionary." Within the "capitalist mode of
production," f:1.scism fashioned a "new state system" sufficiently different from
the classic "bourgeois state" to qualify fascism as "revolutionary."
What is difficult to understand is why the new interpretation came into
being when it did, and why it had the character it had. Clearly, a great many of
the insights that passed into the revised version had been recognized for some
time bv both Marxist and non-Marxist theoreticians. As has been suggested,
there were notable non-Soviet Marxists in the 19305 who had made arguments
that appeared in the new version with remarkably little change. What had been
rejected as a fundamentally flawed interpretation of fascism by Soviet scholars in
the 19305 was fClUnd acceptable to Marxist-Leninists in the 1960s and 19705.
That the revised version was formulated and accepted by the intellectual
lership in the Soviet Union was not without cost. Certainly, the new account
generated a sense of paradox among Marxist-Leninists. Galkin, Kuehnl, and
Vajda admitted that, whatever else it was, generic fascism was very threatening
to traditional capitalist elites, wresting from them the prerogative of resolving
political issues and radically diminishing their control over their own properties.
They all granted, explicitly or implicitly, that the bourgeoisie, in permitting
fascists to seize political power, had lost control of their political environment.
Irrespective of that recognition, representatives of the postwar interpretation of
fascism maintained that the remained, nonetheless, a "form of bourgeois
rule." Although fascism "ran counter to the intrinsic conservatism of the
" it remained, for all that, "bourgeois."''!
All the evidence of fascism '$ use of political coercion and ultimately its use of
terror against individuals and whole segments of the "big" and "petty" bour-
geoisie notwithstanding, there remained an insistence that fascism was somehow
tethered to the interests of the "possessing class." Even though Italian Fascism
had so much autonomy that Mussolini, during his time, exercised something like
totalitarian control over many aspects of economic, political, and social life, there
remained the insistence that fascism somehow was forever enlisted in the service
of the "big bourgeoisie."
What is manifestly clear is that the revised Soviet standard interpretation of
fascism separated political power from ownership of the means of production.
Political power was understood, under certain conditions, to operate indepen-
dently of the ownership of property. Fascism had become a concept defined in
terms not of property relations, but of overt political behavior.
the notion that fascism was to be defined in terms of overt political
could diffuse the sense of paradox that accompanied the new inter-
pretation. Italian Fascism had arisen in industrially retrograde Italy; yet it was
somehow seen as the product of "late capitalism." It was an industrializing
movement in an essentially agrarian environment that was both modernizing
and reactionary. It had violated all the norms of traditional bourgeois society and
in the end had threatened the "socialization" of private property in its nationalist
drive to create a collectivistic "Greater Italy." Yet, somehow or other, Fascism
was a defense of capitalism and the enemy of the socialist revolution.
The revised interpretation of fascism, produced by Soviet and Soviet-
friendly scholars in the 1960s and 19705, created significant theoretical tensions
AfTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR 54
for many Marxist intellectuals. Nonetheless, it was sanctioned by the leadership
in the Kremlin. In retrospect, it seems clear that the new interpretation of
fascism served other than strictly intellectual and explanatory functions. The
conceptfascism was to be pressed into service for other than cognitive purposes.
That purpose can perhaps best be appreciated by considering yet another version
of the revised interpretation of fascism that came out in the '9705.
At that time a book appeared in the West that was identified as a special
contribution to the "controversies on the left" concerning- the interpretation of
fascism. Upon its publication, Nicos Poulantzas's work Fascism and Dictatorship
was identified as "the first major Marxist study of German and Italian fascism to
appear since the Second World War." As will be argued, it was certainly not the
first Marxist study of fascism to appear after the Second World War. What it was,
was a study of fascism from an anti-Soviet Marxist point of view. It was to
a new and "rigorous theory" of fascism as "an emergency regime for the
defense of capital"jimn a Maoist perspective.
20
In terms of the revised Soviet Marxist "general theory" of fascism, Poul-
antzas offered very little that was new. Fascism was understood to be but "one
form of regime among others of the exceptional capitalist state."l! No less had
been said by Galkin and Alatri-and bv Borkenau and Otto Bauer several
decades before. Like those who him, Poulantzas maintained that fas-
cism was the product of a peculiar "conjuncture of the class struggle," a
crisis taking place during the "imperialist stage of capitalism."22 That stage
involved the full articulation of monopoly capitalism as state power. The bour--
geois state, under the demands of "imperialist monopoly capital," assumes new
interventionist responsibilities within the economy. Nothing less had been said
those Soviet Marxists who had already revised the interwar standard version.
Poulantzas lamented the "theoretical failures" of the interwar Third Inter-
national. lIe that the international of the 1930S had succumbed to a
vulgar form of "economism," in which fascism was the consequence of the
"mechanical decomposition of capitalism, the miraculous contradiction between
the productive forces and relations of production." Galkin had said little less.
According to the privative notions of the Third International, Poulantzas
complained, fascism had been "reduced to [ani inevitable need" of "moribund
capitalism." Poulantzas explicitly rejected, for example, the notion that fascism
was intrinsically related to the "tendency towards a foiling rate of profit" that
heralded the imminent disintegration of advanced capitalist systems in the "era
of imperialism." Nothing less had been argued by that time bv the Marxist-
Leninists in the Kremlin.
Poulantzas was fully familiar with the work of the major theoreticians of the
Third International. He distanced himself from "the Third International's econ-
AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR ss
catastrophism, predicting las it did] the imminent disintegration
ism ... based ... on its conception of [thel tendency towards a falling rate of
as an 'inevitable law'" of modern industrial
For Poulantzas, fascism was not to be explained as an epiphenomenon of
economic factors. He argued that fascism was a very complex Fascism,
rather than being a "paid tool" of capitalism in decline, represented a
of capitalist forces of production . ... It i nd lIS trial de-
ve\opment, technological innovation, and an increase in the productivity of la-
bor." One of the fundamental mistakes entertained by the orthodox Marxist--
Leninists of the interwar years, according to POlllantzas, was to "define" fascism
as "a 'retarding' and 'retrograde' phenomenlonl," as a simple tool of "finance
capitalism" facing economic extinction.
24
the early 19705, the Kremlin's revised standard version of the Marxist
Leninist theory of fascism had already said as much. What distinguished Poul-
antzas's account was his emphasis on the role played by "the politics of class
struggle" in the emergence, victory, and endurance of fascism. Poulantzas was
emphatic about the primary role played by the Dolitics of class struggle. rather
than economics, in the history of fascism.2'i
As though to support his thesis, Poulantzas pretended to be able to identify,
without equivocation, not only the fundamental class interests that fascism
served, but also how political class struggle found expression in particular in-
stitutions in the fascist state. Thus, in the intense political class struggles that
shaped the history of Italian Poulantzas insisted that the educational
apparatus created by the ministerial reforms of Giovanni Gentile served as the
"refuge of medium capital." "Medium capital" somehow seized control of edu-
cation in Fascist Italy and somehow or other used it in defense of its interests.
The Roman Catholic Church, in turn, was a "stronghold of the landownerJ."
Poulantzas was convinced that the landed bourgeoisie of Italy had used the
Roman Catholic Church as a weapon in their own defense. The Italian mon-
archy, in Poubntzas's certain judgment, "was allied with medium canita!''' while
Mussolini was the spokesman for the "urban petty bourgeoisie.
the state, in Poulantzas's assessment, was essentially under the control of
the "hegemonic class" - "big capital"-"nonhegemonic classes," in the course of
struggles," politically controlled certain branches and institutions of the
stateP Poulantzas knew all this with the assurance of a sleepwalker. One could
only understand Italian Fascism in particular and fascism in Ileneral bv under-
standing the politics of class struggle. This conviction was
Poulantzas's new interpretation.
Once again, it is not the affirmation that is of interest, but the evident lack of
empirical confirmation. References to other Marxist authors constituted the bulk
57
-.,......
in support of his claims. Throughout
his text, Charles Bettelheim, Paul Baran, Paul Sweezy, Antonio Gramsci, Clara
Zetkin, Leon Trotsky, Karl Radek, Palmiro Togliatti, Karl Kautsky, Paolo Ala-
tri, Angelo Tasca, Arthur Rosenberg, and Daniel Guerin are referred to with
metronomic regularity. Non-Marxist historians are cited with some frequency as
collateral support, but there is none of the direct empirical evidence required for
the confirmation of his claims. Given the lack of empirical support, one can
wonder why Poulantzas was so insistent on affirming and defending his
lar thesis.
What distinguished Poulantzas's version of the Marxist-Leninist interpreta-
tion of fascism from others was his discovery of the primary role
specifically political struggle, expressed through institutions, rather than simple
economic factors. What is important is that Poulantzas identified this discovery
with the influence upon him of the "thought of Mao Zedong."2H
For Poulantzas, it was Mao Zedong who "introduced new and crucially
importam elements into Marxist-Leninist theory and practice."]" It was the
of Mao that moved contemporary Marxist theory beyond the economic
determinism implicit in the orthodox emphasis on the "material
forces." It was Mao, according to Poulantzas, who revealed the importance of
both the "relations of production" and "superstructural elements" in the revolu-
tionary history of our times. Itwas he who rejected the "metaphysical primacy
given to the 'productive forces'" and emphasized the significance of the "contra-
dictions" between the "economic hase" and the "superstructure" of any
society.30
In its form, what all this meant was that Poulantzas, like Mao, chose
to make class struggle a central notion in revolution and the analysis of revolu-
tion. Poulantzas sought a place for individual and collective strength of
conviction, ideas, and ideology as they found expression in class
conviction, ideas, and ideology have always been identified as "su-
perstructural" elements among Marxist theoreticians. It was Mao who con-
tended that they were a central issue. Itwas he who identified the failure of his
enemies with moral and ideological failure.
In the history of Marxism, there has been a protracted dispute between those
who held that economic factors exert preeminent influence on the outcome of
events and those who insisted that "class consciousness" and political leadership
served as determinants..!1 Marx argued that the "relations of production" into
which human beings enter "correspond to a definite stage of development of
their material productive forces." The development of the material productive
forces, together with their corresponding productive relations constitute the
of the "evidence" that Poulantzas
"economic base" upon which the "superstructure" political, and intellec-
tuallife is erected. 12
For more than a century and a half, many competent Marxists interpreted all
this to mean that the development of machinery and its attendant technology
constituted the foundation of social change. The relations of production-the
arrangements through which the material yield of the forces of production are
distributed-simply "correspond" to the available levels of output. The intellec-
tual life of a community, in turn, "re!lects" the economic base.
Should all this be accepted, it would seem that, as Marx suggested, in the final
"the productive forces ... are the basis of all ... history."ll Productive
relations would "correspond" to those forces; and "superstructural elements"
would be epiphenomenal. Thus, Marx maintained that "in acquiring new pro-
ductive forces, men change their mode of production; and in changing their
mode of production, in changing the way of earning their living, they change all
their social relations. The hand mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the
steam mill, society with the industrial capitalist. The same men who establish
their social rebtions in with their matenal productivity, produce also
principles, ideas and categories, in conformity with their social rdations."H
However much Mao Zedong and Nicos Poulantzas may have objected, the
fact is that these "theoretical" notions provided the grounds for what Poulantzas
called the "economism" of the Third International's interpretation of fascism. If
fascism marked a new stage in the evolution of capitalist society, Marxism rec-
ommended a study of changes in the productive base. Marxism suggested that
fascism could best be understood as a "reflection" of maior alterations in the
society.
the argument during the interwar years was that the
productive of capitalism had outgrown the existing property relations of
capitalist society. The evidence for that was the putative secular decline in the
rate of profit. The declining rate of profit served as an indicator of the economic
of the system. Fascism was interpreted as an effort to postpone the evident
and inexorable disintegration of the productive base of the system. Because of its
to forestall an inevitability, it found expression in irrationality. Its
irrationality was the product of the fruitless effort to arrest what the Soviet
Marxists of the period interpreted as the irreversible decomposition of industrial
capitalism.
Once that account was abandoned, an alternative explanatIOn was necessary.
If fascism could not be understood as a function of economic factors, recourse
would have to be made to alternative explanatory strategies. Poulantzas was
to conceive offascism as a product of political class struggle. Itwas class
59
r
l
58 AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR
conflict, noteconomic factors, thatultimatelygoverned theadvent,success, and
survivaloffascism in themodernworld.WhatPoulantzaswasarguingwasthat
an understandingoffascism required notscrutiny ofthe productiveforces, but
reflection onthe relationsofproductionand the superstructuralcomponentsof
moderncapitalist society. Thisnecessitated assessmentofclass relationsand the
ideological conflicts that typify contemporary society. In Poulantzas's new, fas-
cism could be understood only by applying the insights ofthe thought ofMao
Zedongtomodern history.
Whereas Mao had found his "class" enemies in a society in which private
propertyhadbeenabolished,so Mussolini'sFascism wasto be understoodnotas
a by-product ofeconomic factors, but in terms ofpolitical consciousness. Mao
had provided Poulantzasthekey to understandingfascism. All this, needless to
say, wasexceedinglycurious. Maoknewvery little, ifanything,aboutEuropean
history. Hekneweven less about fascism. Worsestill, it is notatall evidentthat
heknewmuchmoreaboutclassicalMarxism.'5 Atbest,hisMarxismwasexceed-
ingly thin.II> Nonetheless, Poulantzas found what to him was the secret to the
interpretationoffascism in theinsightsprovidedby MaoZedong.
In fact, Poulantzas's interpretation of fascism had very little to do with
~ :
serioustheoryconstruction. It hadmoreto dowith whatwastranspiringamong
'I
the leaders ofthe Marxist-Leninist systems that had survived and prospered
after the Second World War. By the time Poulantzas wrote his book, Maoism
I,II
had supplanted the Marxism-Leninism ofJosefStalin as the ideological com-
,
pass for many non-SovietMarxists. By then,therehadbeen thedenunciationof
the "excesses" ofStalinism at the Twentieth Party Congressofthe Communist
Party ofthe Soviet Union. More than that, Nikita Khrushchev, with his pro-
posed "de-Stalinization," had traumatized Marxist intellectuals everywhere.
Traditional Marxism-Leninism seemed to have entered into eclipse. Revolu-
tionary "Marxism-Leninism Mao Zedong Thought" began to appear increas-
ingly attractivetoalienated Marxistintellectualsin theWest.
Fora varietyofreasonsthatneed notdetainus,Maohadearlybeguntohave
difficulties with the leadership ofthe Soviet Union. After 1960, the tensions
between the two Marxist-Leninist regimes had become common knowledge.
v
Moresignificantfor thepresentdiscussion,by theturnofthedecadetheradicals
ofthe "Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution" in China were identifying the
Soviet Union, itself, as a "fascist dictatorship.n
lH
By the late 1960s and the early
1970s, Marxist theoreticians in both theSoviet Union and the People's Republic
ofChina began to employ the conceptfascism in their criticisms ofeach other's
system. Whatever motivated the employment, it became clear that the concept
fascism wouldhavetobe tailored to its newuses.
: !
/, II
....,.......
What appeared to be a simple matter of political interpretation to many
Westernacademicsbecameamajorpracticalpolitical issueintherapidlyescalat-
ingSino-Sovietdispute. Moreandmorefrequently, Sovietacademicsand their
Chinese counterparts invoked "fascism" to explain the controversy thatthreat-
ened armed conflict between Soviet and Chinese Marxism-Leninism. What
appearedtobeintellectualgrotesquerietooutsideobserverswas,infact,an issue
thick with implications for Marxist-Leninist practitioners. The Sino-Soviet
disputehadcompromised"proletarianinternationalism."Theuniversalsocialist
revolution had foundered on a dispute between two Marxist-Leninistsystems.
Marxist-Leninisttheoreticianswerecompelled toattemptanexplanationofthe
unanticipatedsequenceofeventsthatthreatened the very integrityofMarxism.
Whatemergedfrom theSino-Sovietconflictwasa revisedstandard version
ofthe Marxist-Leninistinterpretationoffascism that, in principle,allowed the
application ofthe conceptfascism to what were deemed failed socialist systems.
Thenew interpretationallowed an autonomous "revolutionary"and "modern-
izing" political leadership, whose power was independent ofproperty owner-
ship,tobeidentifiedas "fascist"evenifthatleadershipruledinasystemthathad
abolished privatepropertyand themarketexchangeofgoods. Nolongertiedto
ownershipof themeansof production,"fascists"wereconceivedof ascontrolling
political institutionsin theserviceofsomeremote"bourgeois" purpose-evenin
systemslegallydevoidofprivateproperty.
Thenewinterpretationalloweda system tobe"fascist" ifit couldbecharac-
terized, in some manner or other, as a variant of"state monopoly capitalism."
Suchasystem,dominatedby anautonomouspolitical party,mobilizingasubject
population to controlled, accelerated economic growth and industrial develop-
ment, might well be "fascist"-howeverit chose to identify itself-aslong as it
resisted the"truesocialism"oftheSovietUnionorMaoistChina.
Within the new interpretation,onemightexpecttofind "fascism" in other-
wise "progressive" (Soviet or Maoist) political arrangements, as long as those
arrangements threatened war against "proletarian internationalism," compro-
mised Marxism, and/or deflected world society from its ultimate communist
goal. In principle, in the new interpretation offascism, it was possible to find
fascism in themostunexpectedplaces, includingthosesocioeconomicsystemsof
theLeftthatotherwiseidentifiedthemselvesasMarxist-Leninist.ThatMarxist-
Leninistintellectualsin thelate1960sandearly 1970Sundertookarevisionof the
earlier Marxist-Leninist interpretation offascism was in part the result ofthe
growingSino-Soviet ideological and policy conflict. Marxist intellectuals were
obliged to explain how "proletarian revolutionary systems," presumably united
by theonetruesocialscience,couldfindthemselvespoisedonthebrinkof armed
I
61 AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR 60
-......
conflict. Those were the circumstances in which intellectuals like Galkin, Alatri,
Vajda, and Poulantzas an interpretation of fascism that had contempo-
rary relevance, one that account for a sequence of events that had shattered
the intellectual
As early as the first years of the 1960s, the Chinese Communist Party had
denounced the Soviet Communist Party for its failure to adhere to Marxism-
Leninism.") In a world presumably moving ineluctably toward communism, a
Marxist Leninist regime had abandoned Marxism. At the same time, Soviet
thinkers Maoism with having given itself over to "a variety of anti-
communism, petty-bourgeois counter-revolutionism and reactionary national
i5m."40 Maoism was seen as "a fusion of nationalism with great power chauvin-
ism and the theory of violence."41 Initially, Soviet thinkers were to discover in the
economic backwardness and massive poverty of the People's Republic of China
the reason behind Mao Zedong having turned "the Communist Party of China
from the Marxist-Leninist stand to a petty-bourgeois, nationalist ideological and
political platform."42 Soviet intellectuals argued that if the superstructure of a
society must conform to its economic base, then China's superstructure, its sys-
tem oflaws. beliefs, and convictions about Marxist theory, must be impoverished
and primitive indeed.
Chinese Marxists, for their part, argued that the of Marxism-
Leninism in the Soviet Union was the result as
1957, Chinese Marxists argued that some sort of political opportun
ism" and "revisionism" had surfaced in the Soviet Union and had caused "sectar-
ianism" and to undermine the Marxist of the system. The
deviance was ascribed to influences" that had somehow survived the
socialist revolutinn.
4l
It was a bourgeois influence independent of the existence of
property. Itwas the political expression of a subterranean "class strug-
that somehow persisted even after the abolition of private property and the
suppression of the market of commodities. Maoists were soon to dis-
cover that defenders of capitalism had survived not only in the Soviet Union but
in the People's Reoublic of China as well.
The theme of "bourgeois" intiuences in socialist was to playa central
role in the violence of Maoist China's "Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution."
Mao Zedong mobilized the masses to defend his revolution against a "reaction-
ary bourgeoisie" that had inexplicably survived in the very ranks of the Comrnu-
nist Party in spite of the socialist revolution, the abolition of private prop-
erty, and more than a decade of violent suppression.
In the course of the violent "class that tormented China for almost a
a substantial number of Communist Party leaders were discovered to be
themselves "hounreois capitalist roaders" attempting to "restore capitalism" in
China. The "state monopoly capitalism" they sought to impose on "revolution-
ary China" was nothing other than a form of fascism. That so many in the
ranks of the Communist Party of China had given themselves over to
the service of fascism threatened not only the integrity of the revolution, but its
rationale as well.
The argument put by Mao and his entourage to the defec-
tions was that, irrespective of the fact that "hourgeois property relations" had
been abolished in Communist China the revolution, bourgeois elements had
somehow survived, and "new bourgeois elements
ists of China had found that "a considerable number of ... anti-Party and anti-
socialist representatives of the bourgeoisie" had not only survived in Communist
but had infiltrated the Central Committee of the Party itself. They had
compromised the government at every level.
45
Almost twenty years after the succession of Mao Zedong to power in China,
the Marxist-Leninists there found themselves involved in what was subse-
to be characterized as "a life-and-death struggle, under the
of the proletariat, between the two major antagonistic the
the bourgeoisie."4(, Maoist China found itselflocked in class conflict in a socialist
environment devoid of private property and the private ownership of the means
of production. The bourgeoisie, as a was apparently more durable than the
"capitalist mode of production" itself.
What had t,lken place, of course. was a Maoist redefinition of class. Class was
no defined in terms of an ownership relationship to the means of produc-
tion. It was defined instead in political terms of "consciousness"-determined
whether or not one possessed "proletarian" or "bourgeois" consciousness. Con-
sciousness itself was no longer relatcd to "material life circumstances," but to
one's commitment to the "thought of Mao Zedong."47 Anyone who "mastered
Mao Zedong thought" was "proletarian." Anyone who understood that
sentence by Chairman Mao" was "the truth, and [carriedl more weight than
ten thousand ordinary sentences" was "prolctarian."4H Only armed with such a
atomic bomb" might humans become truly "proletarian. Only then
could the proletariat defeat "fascism," "social imperialism," and the "bourgeoi-
sie" that was their ultimate source.
For the Maoists of the period, "proletarians" and "anti-fascists" were those
who defended and followed Chairman Mao's teachings. Alternatively, the "hour-
geoisie" were those who "malign[edl Mao Zedong thought, extollledJ ... bour-
geois culture and strove for the restoration of capitalism."50 Class consciousness
was at the center of the conflict between socialism and fascism.
However uncertain orthodox Marxism had been in "class" and
class membership, the "thought of Mao Zedong" did nothing to
63
'I
62 AFTER THE WORLD WAR
enhance the of the subject or the credibility of the enterprise. the time
of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, "class" and "class struggle" had
little objective meaning to Chinese Marxist-Leninists. In the relationship
of classes to the material productive forces was no longer a matter of any conse-
quence. What mattered was what one thought about the world and society. What
was essential was one's ideological commitments. Anything other than Maoism
was irrevocably and irremediably "bourgeois." Politics was in command.
All this was apparently what Poulantzas, and those like him in the West,
found so illuminating.
51
These were what Poulantzas considered the "new and
important theoretical elements" that Mao Zedong supplied to contem-
porary Marxism-Leninism. They were the insights that allowed Poulantzas to
produce the interpretation of fascism that conceived of it as the political product
of an ideolopical "class
Fascism was not the final defense of moribund 111 socialist en-
vironments it was the resistance of the "bourgeois" to the "thought of Mao
Zedong." Given that notion, Maoists could argue that because the leadership in
Moscow had raised objections to Maoism, socialism in the Soviet Union had been
transformed into a "fascist dictatorship.""" \Vhat Maoists had discovered was
that while it was rdati vely easy to "drive out the landlords and capitalists," it was
difficult to offset the counterrevolutionary influence of the bour-
geoISIe Il1 general and those "petty bourgeois" clements generated bv "small
production" in particular."!
By the time Poulantzas's book appeared in English translation, China's Mao
ists had put together a notion of fascism that saw it as the product of ideological
class struggle in any environment, capitalist or socialist, in which "bourgeois
elements" were capable of politically defeating the "proletariat." In the Soviet
Union, such bourgeois elements had succeeded in accomplishing what Hitler
had attempted, but f;liled, to do. The bourgeoisie in the Soviet Union had
defeated the Marxist "dictatorship of the proletariat" and had there undertaken
the "all-round restoration of capitalism" and the imposition of a "fascist dictator-
">4 These were the "new and crucially important theoretical" insights into
fascism provided by the "thought of Mao Zedong."
By the time he wrote his major study of fascism, Poulantzas had accepted the
substance of Maoism. He confidently spoke of the "class struggle" being con-
ducted in the Soviet Union half a century after the revolution had destroyed
property. Poulantzas was convinced that "desperate class struggles" had
savaged the Soviet Union throughout its history. In a society that no
suffered private ownership of the means of production, the class struggle was
between the ideological "bourgeoisie" and the ideological "proletariat."55
the mid-I970s, it was clear to anyone who was not an uncritical enthusiast
AFTER TilE SECOND WORLD WAR
that theoretical Marxism was in a state of advanced putrefaction. Within that
general decay, the Marxist-Leninist interpretation of fascism that h;ld begun so
half a century before had been reduced to a collection of
loosely articulated convictions about class, class consciousness, class in-
terests, imperialism, and capitalism. It had become victim to political
between two Marxist-Leninist systems.
The entire notion of "class" was no longer associated with ownership of the
means of production or of having only one's labor power to scll. "Class" had
become a function of consciousness, and f:lscism was identified as any "bour-
geois" ideological and political effort to defend, sustain, or restore the kind of
"capitalism" to be found in the Soviet Union of Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid
Brezhnev. If, for Poulantzas, understanding f:lscism required an appreciation of
"the conjuncture of the class struggle" during ;1 specific historical period, it is
very difficult to see how the "thought of Mao Zedong" could have been of any
serious assistance in any such undertaking.%
However intellectually unconvincing the Marxist-Leninist interpretation of
fascism was in the interwar years, by the 1970S it was almost completely devoid
of interpretive substance. That Marxist--Leninists of whatever persuasion found
merit in the accounts delivered after the mid-196os speaks well for ideological
but says little about theoretical competence. That some Marxists
something theoretically important in Maoism is a testament to
loyalty. It tells us very little about fascism.
In the turmoil of the Sino Soviet dispute, there were other Marx
and fellow travelers who were to take up the new interpretation of
fascism and attempt its development. At the very commencement of his account
of fascism, Poulantzas alludes to the work of the "New Left" that had made its
appearance the early 19705.57
The fact was that there were some "neo-Marxists" in the West who at-
tempted new "theoretical" developments. Those attempts were predicated on
features of Maoism that became increasingly popular among "anti-imperialists"
around the time of the Vietnam War. The "nco-Marxist" thought of the North
and South American, European, and African "New Left" represented a
attempt to restore the relevance of Marxism-Leninism to the contemporary
world by infusing it with Maoist and "nco-Maoist" substance.
By the mid-I970s, China's Maoists had succeeded in reducing the Marxist-
Leninist interpretation of fascism to a list of simplisms. "Fascism" signified any
attempt to defend capitalism in the industrialized democracies or any effort
made to restore capitalism in socialist systems. Such "anti-Marxist"
were still more emphatically fascist if they were enlisted in the service of
rialism." For Maoists, fascism, in its most fundamental form, was an ultimate
65
1 ,
I
AFTER TilE SECOND WOI:{LD WAI:{ 64
in a world irresistibly moving
toward socialism.
Given such notions, Maoists were prepared to affirm that the Soviet Union
had transformed itself into a fascist regime. The "bourgeois elements" that had
seized control of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union had pursued a fascist
policy of capitalist restoration, serving the "social imperialism" that was central
to the ultimate interests of their class. In so doing, whatever their protestations,
they were the "objective allies" of international imperialism. For Maoists,
rialism" was the taproot of fascism.
The and "neo-Maoists" who surfaced in the West during the
first years of the !l)lOS were to contribute to the articulation of that particular
aspect of the new interpretation. Like Maoists, what theoreticians like James
Cockcroft, Andre Gunder Frank, and Dale Johnson discovered was that
was, indeed, the product of the "reactionary bourgeoisie." It was the offspring of
the "class struggle" wherever that struggle was to be found, and it was the
defense of the capitalist system wherever that system survived or could
be restored.
What was distinctive about the New Left: interpretation was that the bour
base of fascism was to be found almost exclusivcly in the industrialized
"metropole," while the revolutionary proletariat-identified with the peasant
masses of the Third World-hunkered down on the periphery of the world
capitalist system. The class struggle that shaped the world was an international
class struggle against imperialism, in which the revolutionaries on the periphery
made war on the exploiting
SH
There was something of an echo of Lenin's rationale for the "Eastern
of the Third International in all this. But it had substance of its own as well. The
revolutions on the seen as "bourgeois national";
were genuine "anti-imperialist" movements. They were not har-
bingers of the forthcoming were the liberating revo-
lution itself.
In the global conflict envisioned the theoreticians of the New Left-the
"dependency theorists" of the 19705-the reactionaries of the metropole dis-
patched paid mercenaries to the peripheral countries to defend international
against attacks by indigenous "anti-imperialists." The United States
troops in Vietnam, in the Philippines, in Central or South America were
cenaries who, we were infc)rmed, were "fascists," performing the same "class
functions" as the original "quadriJti of Mussolini.
s9
Some perverse semblance of coherence had been restored to the original
Marxist-Leninist interpretation of fascism-but only at the cost of jettisoning
almost all the theoretical intel!ritv of classical Marxism. Under the influence of
defense of the mode of
-..,...
the neo-Marxists saw fascism as an immediate by-product of interna-
tional imperialism. It was not a domestic result of economic developments, but a
consequence ofintemational class struggle.
For neo-Marxism, the class struggle was no longer a domestic phenomenon,
but was conducted on a world stage. The oppressed class was not the
of the advanced industrial countries, in which Karl Marx had invested so much
confidence. The oppressed class was the revolutionary peasantry of economically
underdeveloped countries. If rural denizens were irremediably counterrevolu-
for classical Marxism, they were the real revolutionaries for nco-Marxists
of the 1970s.
who resisted the revolutionary efforts of the peasantry in econom-
retrograde and industrially backward environments was a
for the more enthusiastic neo-Marxists, the United States, as the hegemonic
imperialist power, was the progenitor of fascism everywhere in the world.
hO
The Maoist-inspired nco-Marxist interpretation of fascism constituted more
than an abandonment of some secondary claims to be found in the classical
some of the central tenets of Marx's
interpretation of world developments. For Marx and Engels "the bourgeois
mode of production" was the first productive system in history driven by its own
impetus to extend itself over all humankind. In doing this capitalism would
provide the material conditions f<lr its own transcendence. The worldwide ma-
turation of industrial capitalism would produce the economic abundance upon
which socialism would heerected.l,j
In d14H, the first Marxists maintained that modern industry would be com-
pelled by its intrinsic needs not only to establish a "world market," but to super-
vise an "immense development linl commerce ... navigation, landl communica-
" which would accompany the global "extension of industry." Driven bv the
necessities of the system itself, capitalist production would "nestle
settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere," drawing "even the most
barbarian nations into civilization." Industrial capitalism would "compel all
to adopt the bourgeois modes of production.... In
create a world after its own image."62
The expansion of industrial capitalism was for Marx and Engels the neces-
sary condition for the ultimate victory of socialism. I t was the "infinite" produc-
tive potential of machine industry that capitalism brought with it that held the
promise of socialism. Without universal industrialization, the entire tragic con-
flict of classes, the curse of poverty, and the exploitation of man by man, could
not be overcome.
The first Marxists understood "colonialism" and the attendant spread of the
capitalist mode of production as the necessary antecedent to world revolution.
67
"Colonialism" and/or "imperialism" would destroy the "mummitled" econo-
mies of the less developed portions of the world and create in their stead an in-
dustrial foundation that would constitute the "material basis of the new world"
anticipated by the founders of modern "scientitlc socialism."6i
Moved by Maoist insights, nco-Marxists were to denv all that. For neo-
Marxists, the advanced industrial countries. rather than
potential to less developed
in multilateral trade that assured their lack of
in order to ensure that the nonindustrial regions
and resource repositories for the devel-
to neo-Marxists of the 19705, the oppressive and exploitative bour-
of the advanced industrial nations employed "client fascist" instrumen-
talities to preclude the possihility that industrialization might take root on its
periphery. Rather than bringing development to the less developed portions of
the globe, the industrialized nations of the world at the end of the twentieth
century used deceit, corruption, oppression, and violence to make that industri-
alization impossible.
64
According to the analysis, only those less developed communities that break
out of any trade or capital investment relationship with the advanced industrial
nations could avoid becoming "client fascist" states. Only revolutionary commu-
nities like economically backward "proletarian Cuba" and industrially retro-
grade "socialist China" could resist f:1scism.
At the time of its articulation, nco-Marxism sought to give some kind of
theoretical expression to the foreign policy postures of Mao Zedong and his
"theory" of "Three Worlds," in which only the peasant Third World was
revolutionary./)'; It was an attempt to provide some theoretical coherence to Lin
Biao's quixotic conviction that only the marginally developed "colonial coun-
tries," engaged in a "people's war," could defeat "world ~ ~ ~ _ ~ I _ ~ "66
What had been
19705 was an effort to substance to the of "the thought of Mao" as
that thought f()llnd in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.
\Vhat they produced, as we shall see, was the theoretical analog of the Fascist
conviction that revolution in the modern world was rooted in the struggle of
the
of fascism that emerged in the 1960s
and 19705 was the captive product of the Sino-Soviet dispute. It arose with that
and left little behind at its conclusion. It proved to be neither cognitively
satisfying nor particularly helpful in understanding modern revolutions. As will
what it In its own was to recontlrm the relevance of
fascism for our time.
A review of the treatment of the conceptfascism employed by the protago-
nists in the course of the adversarial exchanges that embittered the relationship
between Communist China and the Soviet Union in the years following de-
Stalinization is instructive. Intellectuals, however much their efforts were com-
promised by service to one or other regime, generally sought to make their
accounts as coherent as possible, in possession of as much substance as their
primary obligations would allow. Because of the peripheral need on the part of
intellectuals to satisfy at least some of the independent measures of competence
that governed their enterprise, it will be argued that, in a curious and unintended
way, the variants of the Marxist-Leninist theories of fascism that emerged in the
course of the Sino-Soviet conflict succeeded in
be
a distorted into
the rationale of historic fascism.
FascismandMarxism- LeninisminPower
By the end of the 1960s, interaction between the People's Republic of China and
the Soviet Union had become increasingly hostile. Why the two major Marxist-
Leninist powers entered into the long period of contention that at one point saw
Chinese and Soviet troops in armed conllict along their borders is a question too
complex to attempt to adequately address here. What is of relevance here is that
as a consequence of the expanding conflict, theoreticians in and Moscow
each sought to justify respective national policy by appealllll! to fasuJ-m as an
explanatory concept.
! Marxist-Leninist thinkers believed that they had legitimate occasion to em
,
ploy the conceptjcHcism in corning to understand regime deviance in one or other
"proletarian" regime. Soviet Marxists discerned clements of fascism in the
cal system that took shape under the ministrations of Mao Zedong, and Chinese
Marxists saw fascism in the developments ofthe post-Stalinist Soviet Union.
For more than a decade after the end of the Second World War, academics
everywhere seemed to have been content to deal with fascism as a Droblem of
descriptive discrimination. Fascism was understood to be an
"right-
" nationalistic, anti-democratic, anti-Marxist, and
genocidal po-
litical system, characterized by the "leadership
an
appeal to violence as a legitimate tool of change, totalitarian
tial state control of the economy, the imposition ofan exclusivist formal ideology,
a pervasive anti-intellectualism and anti-individualism, emphatic
and the exploitation of a mystique of military heroism and personal self-sacrifice
in the service of a "revolutionary community."l
For some considerable length of time, Western academics at least pretended
to be able to identify instances of a generic fascism by appealing to such a
constellation of descriptive traits.
2
While Western academics rarely accepted
68
FASCISM AND MARXISM-LENINISM IN POWER 69
much of the substance of Marxist theory per se, there was considerable overlap in
tbe conceptual vocabulary employed.
For both Marxists and non-Marxists, fascism was characterized as an "open
terroristic dictatorship" that was "reactionary" and "opportunistic" in essence.
Everyone seemed content, except f()r the troubling fact that Marxists began to
. a Elscism on the Left. Most Western thinkers simply chose to overlook
such anomalies. Whether of tbe Left or the Right, fascism continued to mean
dictatorship, reaction, irr;nionality, terror, and mass murder.
\Vhat all this suggests is that theoreticians of whatever persuasion had very
little purchase on a credible theory of bscism. That was true in general, and it
was particularly true with respect to Marxist theory. By the mid-1960s, it had
become evident that the entire issue of how fascism was to be understood cried
out fl)r elucidation. By then, the issue had become more than just a matter of
intellectual interest. In the years since Nikita Khrushchev's denunciation of
Stalin at the Twentieth Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union, rclations between the Soviet Union and Communist China had become
increasingly strained. Khrushchev's revelations Stalin served as a
catalyst f(lr what was to become a dramatically
two Marxist- Leninist powers.
Between the end of the 1 960s and the early 19805, theoreticians in the Soviet
Union supported their nation's policies with a revised interpretation of fascism.
Throughout the decade, as we have seen, more and more of the interwar Soviet
of fascism was jettisoned. The entire elaborate theoretical infra-
structure---with its "labor theory of value," the increasing "organic
of capital, the declining rate of profit, the "inevitable" growing misery of the
proletariat, together with notions regarding a "final crisis" of industrial capital-
ism-was unceremoniously abandoned.
According to the revised version, nonsocialist industrial systems could, in
fact, grow but only under the auspices of "state monopoly capitalism." Under
such a regime, political power was discretely separated from ownership of the
means of production, and under fascism, a singular form of "state
capitalism," political power determined the distribution of system benefits.
Such an exploitive system could foster increments in Droduction. to serve
essentially military needs. Such a system was chauvinistic,
and irredentist, animated by a disposition to solve domestic and prob-
lems throu!!h the deployment of organized violence. Political typified
the system, and the "leader" was accorded the status of sage, prophet, and
inerrant guide to behavior.
These kinds of assessments shaped Soviet responses to Chinese Commu-
nist criticisms of Soviet domestic and international policies. A chain of events
71
PASCISM AND MARXISM-LENINISM IN POWER 70
promptedtheChinesetoconsiderKhrushchev'sde-Stalinizationinitiativesatthe
TwentiethCommunistPartyconferencein the SovietUniontohavebeenmore
thanill considered.UnrestinPolandand rebellionin Hungaryfollowed shortly
after Khrushchev's denunciation ofStalin. A suspicion was afoot that Khru-
shchev's policies had reawakened and fostered a substantial anti-communist
reaction within the bloc ofMarxist-Leninist and Marxist-Leninist-friendly
I; states.
I
Differences ofinterpretation concerning the Leninist notion ofthe "inev-
I
itability" ofwar between the socialist and capitalist states further inflamed ex-
changes between Moscowand Beijing. Dramaticdamage was done to relations
"I
between the USSR and the People's Republic by Moscow's withdrawal ofsup-
: I
I
port for Mao's drive to industrialize. The violation ofcontractual agreements
undertakenin good faithand projectsabandonedfor lackoftechnicalassistance
all contributed to the increasing bilateral hostility. The subsequent rancor and
I
I'
bitterness drove the two communist countries further and further apart.
l
The
rift betweenthetwoMarxist-Leniniststates becamesodeepthatanalystsspoke
ofthe possibilityofwar.
4
TheSoviet Unionand the People's RepublicofChinawereoperatingin an
international environment in which perceptions had become as important as
reality. Both Moscow and Beijing were compelled by prudence and consider-
ationsofprestigeand powertoattempttofullyexplaintheirrespective positions
to an anxious international audience. Their explanations were expected to be
delivered in terms oftheir presumablycommon ideological commitments. The
leadership ofboth countries believed that command ofthe "forces ofinterna-
tional revolution"hungin thebalance.
Such considerations had become urgent by the mid-I96os. It became in-
creasinglynecessary for theoreticians in eachcountry to explain thedivergences
betweenthetwo"proletarian"powers.TheMarxist-Leninistleadershipin both
countriespretendedtobasetheirindividualpolicydecisionsonasingleinfallible
"theoryofsocial development."
Attempting to explain, in Marxist terms, what had transpired proved a
dauntingtask. Each party in the dispute sought to explain whathad happened
without threatening the integrity ofMarxist theory as an impeccable guide to
"world revolution."s Itwas during those years, as we have seen, that Soviet
theoreticians undertook a review and reassessment oftheir standard theory of
fascism. Soviet intellectuals were charged with the responsibility ofexplaining
whyoneMarxist-Leninistpowerfounditself soprofoundlyopposedbyanother.
Morethanthat,itwasexpected thattheforthcomingexplanationwouldemploy
thetraditional Marxist-Leninist"classanalysis."Thatwasnomeantask.
PASCISM AND MARXISM-LENINISM IN POWER
In general, what the Soviet theoreticians concluded was that politics in the
People's Republic ofChina had succumbed to "petty bourgeois revolutionary
adventurism," and that its source was Mao Zedong, whose very origins were
"petty bourgeois."6 More than that, in a nation in which "true proletarians"
numbered no more than 0.05 percent of the work force at the time of the
revolution, one could hardly expect anythingother than petty bourgeois influ-
ences todominate'!
For the Marxist-Leninist thinkers ofthe Soviet Union, all this intimated
that one mightexpect, sooner rather than later, distinctive reactionary traits to
emerge. Capitalists, merchants, and "bourgeois" elements ofall sorts would be
cultivated, and workers oppressed, by a petty bourgeois political party that
pretendedtoleftist revolution.
H
Intimations ofa "Chinese fascism" began to surface in Soviet literature.
By the end ofthe 1960s, Soviet theoreticians were prepared to argue that the
"Chineseleadership" had transformed itselfintoan"anti-Marxist,anti-socialist,
chauvinisticand anti-Soviet...bourgeois-nationalistic" movementofreaction.
Maoism was a movement of"obscurantism and barbarism," committed to a
"personalitycult"thatexploited "thebasestinstincts"ofhumankind.')
In their account,Sovietthinkers had recourse to the samelistofdescriptive
traits thatWesternacademicshademployedfor someconsiderabletimetoiden-
tify fascist political and social systems.III The descriptive properties that had
become commonplace in the literature were sufficiently vague and general to
allow any numberofpolitical systems to be identified as "fascist" in somesense.
The"class analysis" that was supposed to distinguish the Marxist-Leninistac-
countfrom theaccountofnon-Marxists proved tobeofverylittlecognitiveuse.
WhateverSovietMarxist-LeninistsobjectedtoinMaoistpolicieswasimme-
diately identified as "pettybourgeois."Thus,ifMaoists were"Great-Hanhege-
monists"and"racists,"itwasbecausetheChinesepopulationconsistedof"petty
artisans,tradersand non-proletarianclements."Thehegemonism, nationalism,
chauvinism,and racismofMaoism were"ultimatelyduetothefact that mostof
the membersoftheCommunistPartyofChinawereofpeasantorigin."11 How
the"classorigins"ofpoliticalleadersor"popularmasses" mightdeterminetheir
policies was never explicated. ThatLenin and Stalin were bothof"pettybour-
geois origin" did not determine their politics, it seems. That Mao Zedong was
pettybourgeoisapparentlydidYThattheBolshevik revolutionwasundertaken
by nonproletarianmassesdid notdetermineitsoutcome,apparently.ThatMao's
revolutionwassimilarlynonproletariandid,itseems.
None of this seemed to deter Soviet thinkers. However the term "fas-
cism" was defined, and whatever the analysis employed, the term was always
72 FASC[SM A:'>I[) MARX[SMLE:'>I[N[SM [1" PO\VER
associated with opprobrium. That seemed to he a more important consideration
than generating a coherent, intellectually satisfying analysis of the political strug-
between the communist powers.
and after the Second World the term served as an
invective. This fact could recommend its use to Soviet intellectuals in their
struggle with Maoism. academics and those resDonsible for
public argument, however, there had to he at least the pretense of a serious
assessment in accounting for the behaviors of an entire
cal, and social system.
The fact that generic Llscism had been charactcrizc(l as a class of political
movements or regimes in which members were held to be committed to a formal
set of exclusive ideological beliefs, n;ltiollalist in inspiration, etatist, elitist, anti-
voluntaristic, anti-ll1tellectual, and dis-
of violence and tcrror, afforded Sovict theorcticians an
Maoist China as an exemplar of the class. Thc traits
that constituted the admission criteria for the category had been so f()rl1lulated
that it was not difficult for Soviet theoreticians to find evidence of a
fascist presence in Mao's "leftist" China.
Marxist theorists argued that Maoists had used the entire notion of "class
struggle" to suppress their political opponents-opponents who were often ()f
proletarian provenance. "Class struggle" was a "trick" t() "intimidate and terrify
the Chinese people ... used to justify the Maoists' political reprisals and to
discredit their opponents."ll The entire Maoist system W;IS predicated on anti-
of a philosophy of force, an exaltation of
to sacrifice the
lives of millions."I> Maoism was a form of generic fascism.
As such, Maoism was an exacerbated form of dedicated to the
recreation of the millenial "grandeur" of China-the of a century of
humiliation at the hands of the imperialists. As such, Maoism was neither Marx-
ist nor internationalist. It was in theory and "anti-Soviet" in
practice. I!,
But there was more to the theoreticians' responsibilities than identifying
Maoist chauvinism, reactive
had inherited the interwar account
communism with industrial development
and anti-Marxism. Soviet scholars
that conceived of it as anti-
of the bourgeoisie to limit
"nrn,nt to the level of
identified Chinese
be identified with fascism, the association of fascism with
FASCISM AND POWER
would have to he ahandoned or As we have seen, the
revision of what had been the standard Soviet interpretation of fasnsm
out the interwar years began about the time of the Sino Soviet At that
juncture, Marxist theoreticians were prepared to recognize the modernizing and
developmental character of fascism in general and Italian Fascism in particular.
the 196os, there was enough independent evidence to warrant the revi-
hm it seems evident that Soviet theoreticians needed the appropriate, time-
conditioned incentives to undertake the task. Bv the time Soviet intellectuals
were prepared to associate Maoism with the standard Soviet interpreta.
tion of the interwar years had heen revised to accommodate the
notion that bscist systems in part and in some sense,
progressive and developmental.
By the mid 196os, Soviet theoreticians were to argue that f;]scists
had supervised the economic growth and industrial development of their sys-
tems and that the interwar interpretation had been Hawed. Like Mao, Mussolini
had been in one sense or another, while always in the service of the "hourgeoisie,"
a shepherding his system from one economic level to a "higher" one.
Like Mussolini had introduced "productivism," developmentalism, and
"state into what had heen a retrograde economic system.
both Italian Fascism and Maoism had undertaken to
accelerate industrial and of their econo-
mil'S. In both instances, the cnterpnse was undertaken in order to ensure the
availability of weapons in a program of irredentism-the restoration of "lost"
national territories-and the militarization of the nation in the pursuit of
monism."IH In that specific sense, Soviet Marxists were prepared to argue that
Mao's approach to fi)reign policy "smacked of the hare-brained aspirations of
Mussol ini." I ')
Like Maoism conceived of the international community as divided
" with the impoverished "Third developed COin
the advanced industrial democracies-an ap-
to Soviet Marxists, "in no way differs from fascism.
By the end of the and the first years of the 19705, the revisions in the
standard Soviet interpretation of fascism allowed the Marxist Leninists of the
Soviet Union to suggest that Maoism was a variant of fascism without intellec-
tual discomfort. What was more difficult for Soviet Marxist theoreticians was to
formulate an argument to the effect that the domestic and international
of Mao Zedong, like those of Mussolini and Hitler, somehow served the ultimate
interests of finance capitalism and
If Mao were to be considered a fascist, it would not be enough simply to
rehearse his "petty bourgeois" orillins. allude to the state of the Chinese
75

I! I'
74 FASCISM AND MARXISM-LENINISM IN POWER
economy, or catalog the traits that his system shared with the fascism of the
interwar years. The nationalism, the elitism, the statism, the disposition to em-
and the anti-intellectualism of the regime were not sufficient to
render the characterization Mao would have to be shown to be the
"tool" of the international financial bourgeoisie. That, after all, had always been
an essential aspect of the Marxist-Leninist characterization of fascism.
During the long years between the two world wars, Marxist
justifying the Eastern policies of the Comintern, were to see China's
"national bourgeois" and Kuomintang revolutionaries as "objectively anti-
imperialist" members of the rising tide of anti-capitalist world revolution. As
long as the early followers of Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek, during the
I(POS through much ofthe 1945, were real or fancied allies of the Soviet Uninn,
Stalin and his Immediate entourage resisted any temptation to identify them as
"f:lscists." However petty they may have heen, they were apparently
not
China was no longer led by the "national
Marxist Leninists ruled a "proletarian" China. For
all that, China had begun to loom large as a potential threat to the Soviet Union.
In those circumstances, the interests of the leadership in the Kremlin recom-
mended a very different assessment of revolutionary China. Soviet theoreticians
were called upon to explain how China, hitherto an "objective ally" of the inter-
national proletarian revolution, could be reasonably characterized as "bscist."
The first response among Soviet commentators to what they perceived as
China's toward the Soviet Union was to argue that Mao's policies were
the result of Mao's ignorance or his petty bounrenis conceit.
The Great Proletarian Cultural which the SovIet Union was
excoriated as a "revisionist" power, was understood to be the result of
induced mass hysteria-a great wave of stupidity and destructiveness
up by the leaders of China in the course of a protracted,
struggle for power. By the end of the 19605, however, this seemed
sufficient to explain what was transpiring. Soviet theoreticians began to speak of
Maoism as an anti-Marxist, militaristic, chauvinistic "petty bourgeois national-
ism," animated by voluntarism and an appeal to violence.
2
;
To Soviet analvsts. Maoism was a personalist and hierarchical dictatorship,
"infantilism" and an action-
oriented "primitivism" born of the anti-intellectualism of Mao's petty bourgeois
background.
24
In the effort to delude the masses, Mao had created a "cult of
personality" with few parallels in the history of modern political systems. He was
given to autocratic rule, animated by the conviction that will and "heroic" vio-
lence could resolve problems of whatever magnitude. He infused the primitive
AND MARXISM-LENINISM IN POWER
masses of China not only with the conviction that his "thought" was the "acme of
containing "truths that conform to the laws of
ment of ... society ... land] nature," but further, that his thought was a kind of
moral talisman that assured China's prevalence against any enemy, as welJ.2> In
order to prevail against any opponent, China need only impose iron discipline
and insist on ideological conformity from its population.
26
All this could easily be identified with fascism. Even the Maoist insistence on
"class warfare," which was supposed to distinguish Marxist from "bourgeois" al-
was understood by Soviet Marxists as a pretext for repression and im-
posed political conformity that worked most hardship on the working classes.
he entertained few class-based distinctions. Peo-
ple were revolutionary, not because of their class identification, but because
of their adherence to the "thought of Mao Zedong." It was obedience to the
"thought of Mao" that made people "proletarian." In principle, Mao considered
the Chinese people a "blank sbte" upon which he was to work his artistry.2H
Soviet Marxism considered Maoism to be an expression of "aggressive great
Han chauvinism," intent upon provoking a third world war from which China
would emerge as world hegemon.
2
" Most damning of all, however, was the
conviction that the "Chinese leadership ... Iwasl making advances to
circles of the West" in order to oppose the Soviet U ninn.lO Maoist Chinese
policy was not only weakening the "united front" <ll!ainst imnerialism. the Marx-
ists in Moscow argued; Maoists hoped to
conflict to fulfill their "dream of world domination."iI Soviet-friendly Marxists
in India could thus condemn Maoists for "playing the shameful role of accom-
plice of the rabid warmongering circles of imperialism.";!
By the early I 970S, even the anti-Soviet Trotskyists identified China's rela-
with the United States as "China's Alliance with U.S. Irnperialism."H
to Soviet and Soviet-friendly lvlarxists, Mao's China had become a
tool of international finance capitalism. The clinching element had been added
to the picture of Maoist China as nothing other than a variant of
fascism.
14
By the mid-1970s, Soviet theoreticians pretended to have discovered in Mao-
ism all the overt species traits of fascism as fascism was understood
Western academics and leftist theoreticians. The catalog of descriptive traits that
Western thinkers had employed to identify fascism as "right-wing extremism"
was mapped over the final years of Maoism in China. In the confusion that
resulted, it has never been made quite clear whether Maoism was a form of
extremism" or a "left-wing adventure," which suggests that the
distinction was never very clear nor convincing.
At the same time as this kind of analvsis was being generated by Marxists in
77
never bdc)fe.
domestic
for "reeducation."<!: The
sweep-
incarcerated dissidents
was thus institutionalized
provided a defense f(lr a form of "state that shared all the
central and economic of traditional
exaggcmted f(xm:
13
For Chinese Marxists, the extreme t(lrm of state
m
T
FASCISM AND IN POW!-',R 76
Moscow, Maoist theoreticians were using the Marxist theory of fascism for their
own purposes. If nothing else, Marxist theory has shown itself to be remarkably
fungible. rfSoviet propagandists had little difficulty tailoring theory to the needs
of their time, theoreticians in Communist China were no less adept. By the early
1970s, theoreticians in the People's Republic of China were unequivocally char-
the Soviet Union as a "fascist type dictatorship" that had grown out of
necessities of the "state monopoly capitalism" created by the anti-
Marxist "revisionism" of Nikita Khrushchev. Chinese Marxists argued that the
of the Soviet Union had commenced with Khrushchev's
attempts at "de-Stalinization."
that grew out of Soviet revision-
ism found itself inevitably and in the service of "world
ism.";'> Chinese Marxists understood all this to have been the perfectly pre-
dictable result of the "objective laws of social dcveloDment."l(, If anvthing:. the
Chinese ;lccount of emergent Soviet fascism was somewhat more and
sophisticlted than the Soviet theoreticians' of the rise of Maoist
I;;
fascism.
Loath to abandon the elaborate arguments put together in the I<gos out of
the speculations of classical M,uxism, Chinese theoreticians attempted to
what was salvageable. Chinese Marxists argued that after the death of Stall!1, a
"renegade clique" in the Soviet Union had undertaken the restoration of capital-
ism. '7 Why they did so was unclear, except th;lt, in Chinese eyes, "bourgeois
elements" seemed to enjoy the capacity to reproduce themselves any and
where under any and all conditions. 'H But whatever the case, the putative
ration of capitalism in the Soviet Union allowed Chinese theoreticians to
voke some of the f:Hniliar arguments employed by Marxists in the interwar
years, in their new effiJrt to explain the rise of fascism in a socialist environment,
Whatever their origin, the "renegades" in the USSR had undertaken to
reintroduce incentives into the socialist command economy and were
to Il1sinuate market determinants into the socialist system of resource
management and dIstribution. Differential wages were introduced
to act as a stimulus to increased
tial extent, would be on what Maoists called ;1
basis." The net
compromise of the command economy of socialism and the
malleable consciousness of the masses. For Maoists and
this constituted a "restoration of in the USSR-the conse-
I!: quence of a by Nikita Khrushchev.
i,""1
ii i
Maoists maintained that those who dominated the system in the Soviet
'II!
Union, in the course of time, had been transformed or had transformed them-
",1 ::1
FASCISM AND MARXISM-LENINISM IN POWER
selves into a "new "To assure themselves of the real and
profits associated with the restoration of capitalism, these
authority were compelled to impose dictatorial rule on the masses.
Although private property no longer existed as ;111 institution in the Soviet
Union, an exiguous minority of Communist Party offlcials controlled the means
of production. There were "persons in authority" who were leading the Soviet
Union down the "capitalist path."
The "new bourgeoisie" did not own the means of production, but they could
profit from their control over them. Even though the ownership of the means of
production h,ld bcen socialized, control remained in the hands of a bureaucracy
that, after the passing of Stalin, chose to exploit the circumstances to its own
When the nationallcadership of the Soviet Union opted for a "cap-
italist " with its commodity production and market exchange, its
motive and differential income, the bureaucracy emerged as the functional
ofa new pursuing personal profit and class advantage, A
"functional stratum" had become a "class,"
The "new dements in charge of the system served. as the cquiv--
and "finance capitalists." This, in turn,
cre;lted the economic base for the emergence of a "Llscist dictatorship.""'
As an inevitable consequence, the neople of the USSR were to be exnloited as
capitalism was a "fascist dictatorship."
Revisionism in the Soviet Union had produced <I
stratum" that was compelled by the "objective laws of social
exploit its own domestic working class in order to pursue policies of
adventure.
i4
For Maoist theoreticians, revisionism had thus produced the
analog of Italian Fascism in the Soviet Union.
Since capitalism had been restored to the Soviet Union, according to M,loist
theorists, its system was subject to the same "objective laws" that Marx h:ld
discovered to be operative in the advanced industrial democracies of the nine-
teenth century. As capitalism ages, the argument proceeded, its profit rate must
decline. Marx had taught no less. According to Maoist theoreticians,
the Soviet state monopoly capitalists faced the same "objective" inevitabilities.
The traditional Marxist argument of an inevitable declining rate of profit for
79
T
FASCISM AND MARXISM-LENINISM 1:-.1 POWER 78
mature capitalist industry made its appearance in the anti-Soviet literature of
Maoist theoreticians, who were more conservative than their Soviet counter-
parts. However discredited the notion of the declining rate of profit for modern
industrial systems might Chinese Marxists found it serviceable. They main-
tained that as the domestic wealth of the Soviet "revisionist clique" diminished
because of the declining rate of profit, the clique would be "ineluctably" driven
to scramble for international sources of raw materials, market outlets, and in-
The leaders of the Soviet Union, under the banner of
that would threaten the
Maoists made recourse to the Leninist notion that mo-
to maintain a suitable rate of return on their
investments, seek not only to control territories rich in resources, hut also to
maintain (lVorable conditions of international trade.
Maoists argued that, on the pretext of extending
I;
all im perialists before it, imposed exorbitant rates of mterest on its
III
Like any other imperialism, an imperialist Soviet Union dictated
terms of trade to its trading partners.
4
')
Like any other imperialist, the Soviet imperialists attempted to suppress
competition from other industrialized or industrializing communities. They
sought to exploit the resources of the nations on their periphery and in the Third
World, and, in order to fully secure their dominance, they must ultimately
embark upon "wars of redivision." This was the Maoist explanation of the Soviet
U lion's policies toward China.
The argument was that there was not "much difference between the state
in the Soviet Union and that in capital-imperialist coun-
tries. The only difference Iwasl that the former, transformed from socialist state
is the more intensified in the degree of concentration and monopoli-
is the base of the dictatorship of the Soviet
class :md the economic root cause of the external
corollary of its economic regressIOn to
ism in the Soviet Union, the bureaucratic
and hegemo-
the Soviet driven the
in its final stages, had taken the
the fuel its
base for a fascist "predatory imperialism."47
::'1'
!I I,
The very logic of such a system, according to Maoist theorists, the
'I

, I,
FASCISM AND MARXISM LENINISM IN POWER
conquest of contigllolls territories. Neighbors of the Soviet Union had
enced Moscow's f;lscist and the violation of their sovereignty. "The
Soviet revisionist renegade clique ... bullied all its neighboring countries ...
land I flagrantly sent troops to occupy Czechoslovakia." As part of its irrepress-
ible imperialist imperative, the Soviet Union was "stretching its sinister claws of
aggression to socialist China."4s
Maoist theoreticians had reproduced, in caricature, almost the entire ra-
tionale employed by Marxists in the late I y20S and I Y30S to characterize fascism.
The implications were transparent. Chinese Marxists identified the Soviet Union
as a variant of "f:lscist dictatorship" under the "signboard of socialism."4<) For
Maoist theoreticians, one of the major implications of the restoration of capital.
ism in the Soviet Union was the effort by those in authority to pretend that the
had constructed really represented a "state of the whole people"
in which classes and class conBict no longer occupied a significant place.'iO Mao
ists maintained that the Soviet notion of a "state of the whole people" sought to
introduce the "class harmonv" that underlay the Elscist rationale for a state that
served the nation above class conflict and class interest. Any effort,
Maoists of the class strul.zle" effectively abandons the
theoretical core of Marxism-Leninism and surrenders itself to the international
forces of im penalism, the hei rs of prewar /;lscism. ')1
In all of this, what the Maoists imagined themselves as (loIl1g was a
scientific class of developments in the Soviet Union and what those
developments implied for the "world revolution of the
singular in the Maoist account was the argument that
classes persisted under socialism, a system that had abolished the private owner-
ship of property. "Class" was defined as any body of individuals who enjoyed any
advantage in any system. In there could be
system, and since fascism was identified with a system of exnloitation. one could
expect to find fascism anywhere.
Civen these kinds of assessments, "bourgeois" classes were to be found in
both the Soviet Union and Maoist China, where private property had 10n2: been
eliminated and the means of production socialized.'H As long as any
existed anywhere, class distinctions existed by entailment. Where there were
classes, there one would find fascism. Given the nature of the argument, Maoists
could argue that even after the establishment of the dictatorship of the pro-
classes and "fierce" conflict of classes could be expected to persist "for a
very long time," perhaps f()r as long as" 100 million years."')4 Such a notion could
have very sobering implications for fascist studies, as well as for traditional
Marxist
In Maoists had "creatively developed" Marxism-Leninism in their
81
T
R() FASCISM AND MARXISM- LENINISM IN POWER
ownunique fashion. Under the new of
the proletariat" harbored within itselfa threatofself-destruction. Accordlllgto
Maoisttheoreticians,a "lifl'-and-deathstruggle"wouldcontinuethroughoutthe
epoch ofthedictatorshipofthe proletariat "betweenthetwomajorantagonistic
the proletariat and the bourgeoisie." Even decades after the domestic
victory ofMarxism-Leninism,the bourgeoisie might usurp power, as they did
underKhrushchev. Anytimeduringthereignof thedictatorshipoftheproletar..
be restored,andsocialism mightdisintegrate intoa variant
offascism. All thosethreatswould persist intotheindeterminate(utmt'.
All those tortured conjectures were not the ofunknown Chinese
Maoists. Twoofthe
offascism were Yao
members ofthe now infamous "Cang ofFour." They were the theoreticians
ofthe Creat Proletarian Cultur;d Rev(Jllltion that held Maoist China in thrall
for about a decade. Not onIv did the Cultural Revolution leave more than
million victimsin its train.it reduced"MarXist toacollectionof
stupidities.
Whatthe"creativedevelopments"ofthetheoreticiansoftheClIltural Revo-
lution gave rise to was a major threat to the integrity ofallY socialist system
predicated on the collective ownershipofthe means ofproduction. Themajor
theoreticiansof China'sCultural Revolutionargued thatwhile theownershipof
the mcans ofproduction marked a major development in the transition from
to socialism, it was the and political line" entertained by
the Communist Party that determined "whichclass owns those [means ofpro-
ductionIin actual faeL"')('
afterabout fourdecadesofcollective ipofthe
in the had chosen to
"restorecapitalism." InMaoistChina,nolessa threathungoversocialism. Ifthe
leadershipoftheChineseCommunist Partychoseto restorecapitalism,all
would have to do is "change the line and ofthe Pany." They would
"hoist the flag ofthedictatorshipofthe proletariat"over the masses, but in Llct
wouldimposea "fascistdictatorship."'i7
ThetheoreticiansoftheGangofFourargued thatsincesocialistsociety had
only recently been bornofcapitalism, it would be, accordingto Marx, himself,
"ineveryrespect,economically,morally,andintellectually,stillstampedwiththe
birth marks ofthe old society from whose womb it emerges."5H As a conse-
quence,any failure toenergeticallydefend socialismideologically would inevita-
lead tothe restorationof eapitalismand theinevitableadventoffascism.
59
For the Maoist theoreticians ofthe Cultural Revolution, it was the "cor-
rectness or incorrectness ofthe ideolollical and political line" that determined
the Marxist
FASCISM A]\;D IN P()WER
whethersocialism or fascism would prevail in any Marxist-Lcl1Inist It
was not theeconomicsofany but its intellectual
ture" that determined outcomes.
w
For Maoist theoreticians, "politics" was "the
concentrated ofeconomics" and was in command.('1 Marxism had
been transf()rmed from a system in whicheconomics was the ultimatedetermi-
nantof eventstooneinwhich"politics"andtheentireideolo2iGllsuperstructure
ofsociety assumed "comrnand.""l For late It W;IS a an
ideological disposition,thatdetermined economic,and histoncoutcomes.
It was the "politics," the ideological orientation ofsome members ofthe
ChineseCommunistParty,thatmackthem"capitalistroaders." f;lilnJ to
understand theessentialsofsocialist revolution,they sought the restoratioll ofa
marketeconomy,withitsinsistenceonefficiencymeasuredintermsofprofitand
calculated in teflllS of ofwhich would "lIndermine the
economy."H This would contribute !lotonly to the restoratioIl
the"cateringto the needsofimperialism," but,of
tothecreatiollof"t;ascistdictatorship."M
The entire collectioll of propositions that make up the substance of this
was attributed to the "genius"ofMao Zedong. "Chairman Mao," the
world was
Marxism-
Leninism.Basinghimselfonthefundamental thesesof
ChairmanMaohasSlimmed uptheexperienceof the of theChinese
revolutionandtheworld revolution,andthepainfullesson ofthe
of theleadershipofthePartyandthestateof theSovietUnion
revisionist clique, systematically put f()rward the
class contradIctions and cbss struggle that exist in socialist society,
enriched and developed the theory on the
the__.. 1"... _: ...
Theaccollntconcluded withtheinsistencethat"everysentenceby Chairman
Maois thetruth,andcarriesmoreweightthantenthousandordinarysentences."
There was no doubt that the Marxist theorists ofMao's China took this entire
"dialecticaldevelooment"very
Armedwiththe of theincarnate red sun,"ZhouEnlai
warnedthat"thecriminalaimof counterrevolutionaryrevisionists"wasnotonly
to restorecapitalism; it was to"turnthe Marxist-LeninistChineseCommunist
Party intoa revisionist, fascist Party.""/' By implication,Mao Zedong's develop-
mentofMarxism-Leninism wasa "new";lI1d "creativelvdevelooed" theorvof
fascism.
Howevermethodologically impairedand intellectually impoverished Mao's
newinterpretationoffascism mayhavebeen,itwasinstructive.It demonstrated
!I
IIIi
II
II
iii
'I
Ii
'I
d
.:1
that as long as the international academic community was prepared to be content
with a loosely framed catalog of descriptive traits as an adequate characterization
of fascism, that characterization might be made to fit almost any political sys-
tem. Fascism might make its appearance in capitalist or socialist environments
equally well.
The interwar version of the Marxist-Leninist interpretation of fascism had
held that the modern world had a choice between only fascism and socialism.
The Maoist variant of the standard version held that even socialism could not
fully protect humankind from fascism. Long after the abolition of private prop-
erty and the suppression of all market activity, fascism might very well appear.
Quite aside from the fact that this could only be depressing to Marxists every-
where, the reality was that the theoreticians of Maoism could provide very little
help to Marxist-Leninists trying to decide whether or not a socialist community
was taking the "sinister" road to state monopoly capitalism, collusion with impe-
rialism, and the creation of a f:tscist dictatorship. Since private ownership of the
means of production no longer existed in socialist society, it was impossible to
identify the bourgeoisie, whether petty or grand, by virtue of their assets.
An alternative criterion for identifying "renegade cliques," of course, might
be the degree of control over the means of production enjoyed by any segment of
the population. As has been suggested, control over the means of production
might serve as the functional equivalent of ownership. But even this could
hardly serve, because Maoists insisted that not all "persons in authority" or those
in control of the means of production were "renegades," "revisionists," "ghosts,"
"monsters", or potential fascists.!,7 Only a "handful" among them constituted a
threat to socialism. The problem was identifying that pernicious handful.
Even the genius of Mao Zedong failed to warn him that Liu Shaoqi and Lin
Biao, his self-selected heirs, were revisionist monsters and members of a "rene-
gade clique" threatening China with fascism. Mao, at different times, had chosen
one or the other ranking party member as his immediate political heir only to
belatedly discover that he or they were "capitalist roaders," "rightists," and
potential fascists.
If even Mao had that kind of difficulty in identifying the renegades of
revisionism, it is hard to imagine how the average Chinese Communist could be
expected to do much better. Maoism's interpretation of fascism was expected to
serve as a theoretical guide in all this apparent confusion. If the revisionists who
threatened to restore capitalism in Maoist China were few in number and were
not distinguished by their positions in authority or their possession or control of
the means of production, then the great masses of the people might have prob-
lems in identifying them-even equipped with Mao's new theory of fascism.
In the effort to resolve this problem, Maoist theoreticians immediately pro-
FASCISM AND MARXISM-LENINISM IN POWER 83
T
posed a supplementary "monster detector," or a "magic mirror" that would
instantly reveal the presence of "capitalist roaders."6R Mao Zedong's thought was
proposed as the infallible guide in distinguishing the threatening "bourgeois
line" from that of the "proletariat." We were informed that when the worker,
peasant, and soldier masses "grasp Mao Zedong Thought ... Ithey1have the
highest criterion to distinguish right from wrong, they have the vantage ground
from which to see far ahead, and they can discern the essence through the
appearance.... No anti-Party, anti-socialist element can escape their notice."!>')
All this would seem to be reasonably simple if there were any way to determine
the specific content of Mao Zedong's thought with any assurance.
One of the major admonitions broadcast by Maoist theoreticians was that the
"handful of Party persons in authority who were taking the capitalist road" were
incredibly deceptive. They raised the red flag and the banner of revolution to
combat the red flag and the revolution-and they simulated adherence to Mao
Thought in order to oppose Mao's thought.
70
For years, capitalist roaders like
Liu Shaoqi apparently succeeded in deceiving Mao Zedong himself.
In order to resolve all these issues, Mao's theoreticians recommended simple
obedience to the masses of China. A list of exemplary "heroes" and "models" was
supplied. These heroes expressed sentiments that were remarkably uniform. In
one manner or another, they all affirmed, "I will do as Chairman Mao says." In
one manner or another, they all insisted, "I am determined to act in accordance
with Chairman Mao's instructions."71 Maoists, in fact, had a standard response to
the question of how one might recognize revisionist monsters and ghosts when
they conceal themselves in Mao's thought and wave the red flag to oppose the red
flag. The answer was "to read Chairman Mao's works, follow his teachings and
act on his instructions."72 It was all terribly simple. To be a true Maoist revolu-
tionary, to thwart fascists, all one had to do was to obey the Chairman in an orgy
of submission that many academicians, East and West, insisted was a defining
trait of right-wing extremism.
For Maoists, the injunction was: "We must fulfill the instructions of Com-
rade Mao Zedong regardless of whether we have or have not yet understood
them."7l For Mao, the preoccupation with "understanding" and "knowing" was
debilitating. He insisted that "in history it is always those with little learning who
overthrow those with more learning"-and while he did not propose to close the
schools of China, he did insist that "it is not absolutely necessary to attend
school," for those who attend school may acquire learning, but lose the "Truth."
For Mao, it was "experience" that delivered real learning. As a consequence,
he insisted that there was entirely "too much studying going on" in China. He
deemed this "exceedingly harmful." It was evident to him that "to read too many
books is harmful"-for "if you read too many books, they petrify your mind."74
II
i
85

'I
FASClS,\1 AND MARXISM-LENINISM IN POWER 84
One consequence of these notions was Mao's injunction: "Wl' must drive actors,
pocts, dramatists and writcrs out of thc cities, and pack them all ofT to the
countrysidc," where thl'y might abandon reading and writing and "expcril'nce
reality."7';
Maoism scorned intellectuals and intellectualism. It sought ;1 kind of tran-
scendent "wisdom" in youth and direct experience. It advocated the
of the battlefIeld and the violence of revolution. For Maoists, obedience,
enee, and "struggle" were advanced as essential to the creation of a "new world"
and "new men." Displaying some of the major characteristics of "right-wing
extremism," "left-wing" Maoism cont(lUndcd some of the distinctions that have
beeIl classificatory f(llk wisdom in social sciencc for almost the entire twentieth
ceIltury.
Perhaps more significant than this is that f()r Maoism "struggle" meant many
things, that violence. and war contributed to the rcalization of political
goals. violence and war were advanced as solutions to problems both
and fierce struggles can the new
grow in strength and rise to and onIv thus can the old be
weakened and {()rced to Cliled to understand
that the "dialectic of history" struggle" if socialist mOlllen-
tum were not to be surrendered to fascism.
Mao was prepared to argue that international war was Simply a necessary
form of "struggle," and any suggestion "that capitalism may peacefully grow
ovcr to socialism ... is a serious distortion of Marxism. "77 To "overthrow the
enemy," domestic or f()reign, "revolutionary violence" is not only a it
"is a rule."7k Socialism can be built only through civil or international war. "'[I)
sec the ills of war but not its benefits is a one-sided view. I t is of no use to the
revolution to speak one-sidedly of the destructiveness of war."7',
For Mao, violence was it was an inescapable constitllent of the
revolutionary process. To deny its role in the process was to deny the revolution
and the future of socialist society. The "philosophy of violence," traditionally
conceived of as the "pathology" of right-wing extremism, seems to have had a
In the conjectures of the Left.
According to Maoist theoreticians, the revisionists failed to understand that it
was fierce class conflict and all the violence that attended the Great Proletarian
Cultural Revolution that provided the energy without which not only would
socialism filii, but historical development would cease. Maoists anticipated many,
many cultural revolutions that would be undertaken with all the conviction and
attendant struggle of the first. Eternal "struggle" against the threat of revision-
ism and fascism was the price to be paid for socialism by the: people of China.
Drawing on all these notions, Maoists worked for about a decade to put
T
FASCISM MARXISM LENINISM IN POWER
together a theory that would lift Marxism-Leninism "to a completely new
stage."HIl What they delivered was clearly different from anything to be found in
either classical Marxism ororthodox Leninism. Ofall the curiosities they pro-
the Maoist interpretation of fascism was perhaps the strangest.
It was most curious becausc, even before the close of the Maoist period, the
Maoist theory ofbscism had turned on itself. This theory represented little more
than a distorted mirror image of the system created by the Chinesc Communist
Party. So obvious was the fact that, three months before Mao's death in 1(176, a
Red Guard, Chen Erjin, produced a singularly doleful assessment
of socialism in China. Chen, an avowed Marxist, concluded that Maoism itself
was a variant of European fascism.
When Chen submitted his work for publication, he was Immediately ar-
rested by the authorities as politically SlIbversive. That he was arrested is hardly
surprising. What is interesting is his analysis, which Chen considered Marxist in
both spirit and letter.
Chen sought to understand the socialism of his country using the
machinery of Marxism. His conclusions were quasi-deductive extensions of the
Maoist theory ofbscism itself. He began his account by identifying the economic
base of the "predatory new system of exploitation" that clearly threatened to
overwhelm the socialism of Maoist China. Since socialism is predicated on the
abolition of private property, the state system that emerges in the wake of
revolution is one into whose hands all property is collected. All
propcrty becomes state property.
Those who administer state property become a "new class." This newly
emergent class-"the hureaucrat-monopoly privileged c1ass"-arrogates to itself
"the twin powers of political leadership and economic control." Chen
that the new privileged elite of the first postrevolutionary stage of socialism tends
to construct a "bureaucratic-military machine" that resonates with the sound of
"the gongs and drums of narrow-minded patriotism and nationalism." The
masses arc distracted by war and preparation for war. Confused by "deceitful
propaganda," seduced hy the rhctoric of revolutionary eschatology, labor is do-
mesticated to the system. What had emerged out of the socialist revolution in
China, according to this youthful critic, was unmistakenly a "fascist dictator-
ship."H2 Chen had turned the Maoist theory of bscism on itself:
Chcn argued, with perhaps more coherence than the Marxists who preceded
that the "root cause" of the emergence of fascism in a socialist state is to be
located in the contradiction that rests at the very foundation of the
tionary mode of production. That a small minority concentrates all coercive
power in its hands, while controlling the highly organized means of social
results in the creation of a hierarchical system potentially more
87 FASCISM AND MARXISM-LENINISM 1;\/ POWER 86
than the state monopoly of which it is an analog. The con-
centration of political power in the hands of the "new class" allows totalitarian
"monopoly to be exerted over all spheres" of society.s, The major overt features
of the system are (I) nonelective appointments to positions of power at the
discretion and pleasure of the party and its leader; (2) the hierarchical arrange-
prostrate themselves in adulation before the
leader who is canonized and idolized, and then eventually every level and each
individual member of the Party organization." No opposition could
against such a "charismatic" system. "Proletarian dictatorship" is transformed
into "social-fascist dictatorship by the bureaucr;ltmonopoly privileged c1ass."H'
the complete of state organs from any re,pon-
the "sanctification of the Party."s,
Chen circumstances "to
By the end of 1980, wheo the People's Republic had entered into its long
of economic rdorm under Mao's successor,
language they had
Deng many of
Communist China's dissidents no lon{!er spoke the
earlier employed to conceal their true intent. There was no longer talk of a
foreign "revisionist system" or the proposed "right-wing" system of the oppo
nents of Mao Zedong-that of "capitalist roaders." Mao Zedong was identified
with the "socialist-fascist system" that had grown out of what had been spoken of
as the "dictatorship of the proletariat." It was Mao who had captained thc
passage from one to the other. Mao had created the system that shared featurcs
with that crafted by Benito Mussolini half a ccntury before. One Chinese dissi-
dent reminded us that Mussolini himself had been a leader of the "left-wing"
Italian Socialist Party before he became t h ~ "right-wing" Duce of Fascism.
Hh
In fact, Wang Xizhe, that samc critic, suggested that M;lOism shared
traits with Stalinism, Italian Fascism, and Hitler's National Socialism.
H7
What he
alluded to were the familiar properties shared by all these systems. What distin-
"Marxist" systems from those traditionally called "fascist" was the aboli-
tion and monopolization of private property by the state and their insistence on
the significance and perpetuity of class warfare.
Rg
"Stalinism," Wang argued, was
an appropriate designation for "Marxist" socialist-fascism, while "fascism" cov-
ered all similar non-Marxist systems. All these, he argued, were sDecies variants
of the same genus.
According to Wang, Maoism was a perverse form of Stalinism. Where Sta-
linism had been content to bureaucratize the system, Maoism sought direct and
immediate control of the masses through interminable "campaigns" and "srrug-
" Mao was even prepared to attack his own party in order to impose his will
on everyone. Out of the ruins of the Chinese Communist Party, largely
FASCISM A;\/D MARXISM-LENINISM IN POWER
in the long struggle of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, Mao
created what Wang chose to call "a Mao Zedong Fascist Party."K')
By the end of the decade of the 1970S and the commencement of the I9
805
,
the Marxist-Leninist theory offascism had concluded its trajectory in China. By
the time of Mao's death in September 1976, the Marxist-Leninist theory of
fascism had devolved into a loosely jointed collection of propositions that identi-
fied the bureaucratic strata of socialist communities as the functional
of the various subclasses of the bourgeoisie in capitalist society. Without funda-
mental political reform, such stratified socialist systems would forever generate
new bourgeois elements that would be the operational equivalents of the
capit;llists" and "finance capitalists" who were understood to have dominated
Mussolini's Fascism. Like Mussolini's Fascism, "socialist-filscism" put"
not property, in command. Like Fascism, "socialistfascism" was animated by a
not controlled by property.
As a function of those insights, during the final years of Mao's rule, the
Marxist-Leninist theory of fascism had transf()[!TIed itself into a searching cri-
tique of socialist rule itself. In the course of that transf()rmation, many things
became evident. [t was clear that the categories that afforded apparent suhstance
to the schemata were, at best, ill defined.
[n the course of the original analysis of fascism, for example, the Marxist
concept class was made to refer to many difkrent social aggregates-all ill de
fined. Ultimately, "classes" were understood to function in systems in which no
private property existed. "Classes" were defined, not in terms of the property
relations of persons to the means of production, but in terms of the potential
by any group in terms of exploitation. "Class" was defined in terms of
real or fancied exploitation, by virtue of coercive state control,
property did not exist.
that, in the course of the analysis of Elscism, many Marxists came to
that forced industrial development and economic growth, together
with the exigencies of time and circumstance, made an interim period of author-
itarian rule a necessity. If a less developed community sought to survive and
prevail in the modern world, it required a broad, deep industrial base. To
transform the essentially labor-intensive agrarian systems of the past into the
developmental enterprises of the present might require an inde-
terminate period of minority control:/{)
That period was variously identified. In circumstances in which
property has been abolished and the productive system is governed by command,
this period was called by some the "dictatorship of the most advanced vanglwrd
of the proletariat." It was a party dictatorship. In a system in which
property is tolerated and the economy is governed by market signals, the
was identified by others as generic fascism.
What Marxist theory, in one or other of its forms, managed to produce
the years between the Sino-Soviet dispute and the death of Mao Zedong
in 1976 was a reformulation of inherited notions about fascism. Fascism was no
longer conceived of as simply the pathological product of the final crisis of
industrial capitalism. It was a form of developmental dictatorship that could
arise anywhere if an exiguous minority assumed the responsibilities of control
and administration of the property of a community. In sllch a system, "class,"
defined in terms of the ownership of property, was no longer a significant
or economic determinant. Jn fact, class was an artifact of monopoly po-
litical control. It was politics that determined the major features of the system-
whether "socialist" or "fascist." Such a system characteristically comes into being
in retrograde economic circumstances-in communities suffering retarded in-
dustrial development. The "socialism" of such a system is not a reflection of its
economic base, but the product of political decision.
All these assessments were going on at the close of the Maoist era and at the
commencement of the transition to the rule of Deng Xiaoping. Marxist efforts to
understand fascism had produced a body of thought out of which a number of
very critical questions would emerge. These questions would be
during the entire period of refimn entrained by Deng Xiaoping's accession to
power as "Paramount Leader" of China. Madame Mao, the redoubtable
provided what is perhaps the most appropriate epitaph to the long history
of the Marxist theory of in China by identifying Deng, Mao's successor,
as a fascist and the system he inherited as one exquisitely fascist.'11
The subsequent history of the Marxist - Leninist theory of fascism in the So-
the story of Marxism's relationship with fascism still fur-
ther. Throughout the decade of the 19805, until the disintegration of Marxism-
Leninism as a political system, fascism was to haunt the intellectuals of the Soviet
Union. In the end, fascism survived as Marxism-Leninism passed, unceremoni-
ously, into
FascismandtheDevolutionof
Marxisminthe SovietUnion
As distinct from the history of the Marxist-Leninist theory of fascism in Maoist
the history of the Marxist-Leninist theory of fascism in the Soviet Union
is singular in a number of ways. An account of the history of the Marxist
of fascism in the Soviet Union is not restricted to theory-it
becomes directly concerned with fascist practice. In the course of
as will be argued, Soviet intellectuals themselves became advocates of a
discernible form of generic bscism.
Correlative with those developments. the Marxist-Leninists of the So-
viet Union became increasingly concerned with the devolution of Marxism-
Leninism itself. This devolution began with the death of Josef Stalin in 1953.
the interwar years, Soviet ideology had continued in its seeming
imperturbability. With its defeat in the Second World War, fascism was thor-
oughly discredited. In the Soviet Union, in the years immediately following the
war, the term fascism was employed as a simple term of derogation to identify
Adolf Hitler's genocidal regime, and there was literally no one who pretended to
find any merit whatsoever in such a system. Stalin's Marxism-Leninism was
secure from any criticism from the "extreme
In the years that followed the Second World War, revolutionary China
emerged as a revolutionary power on the Asian continent and took on all the ma-
jor features of Stalinism. In both Communist China and the Soviet Union, the
cult of the leader was the unifying center of all political life. It is understood now,
in retrospect, that while the talk was of "Marxism" and "Marxism-Leninism,"
the reality was something vastly different.
With Stalin's death in March I953. the Soviet Union went into almost imme-
diate political and ideological decompression. Almost immediately, Marxism-
Leninism was no longer a living faith for most of the leadership of the Commu-
S9
91
90 FASCISM AND THE DEVOLUTION OF MARXISM
nist Party of the Soviet Union. There was the suggestion that something had
always been very wrong with the Marxism-Leninism ofJosefStalin, the "Father
of Peoples." Stalin had created a political, social, and economic system that bore
little resemblance to anything suggested in the theoretical works of Marx and
Engels. There was, of course, something infinitely more objectionable in Stalin-
ism than its intellectual failures, but those disabilities suggested the system's
overall morbidity.
After his death, substantial parts of the creed made offIcial by Stalin during
his rule became suspect. This awareness probahly affected the confidence with
which the Soviet Union faced the increased resistance to communist rule that
!
to mount throughout its empire. Almost everywhere that the Soviet
Union had exercised its influence, overt political resistance began to emerge.
Almost immediately after Stalin's death, there were uprisings in Berlin
the Soviet occupation and the MarXIst-Leninist government.
1
The
ings in East Germany and the subsequent unrest in Poland signaled the opening
Ii
of a critical period in the history of the Soviet Union. In his struggle for the
I
succession, Khrushchev intimated that the Sovicr Union a maJor re-
view and rciorm of its most fundamental institutions. It was tacitly acknowl-
edged that the integrity of the inherited doctrine had suffered grievously at the
II
hands of the Soviet Union's recently deceased Vozhd/
II'
,I
After the death of Stalin in March 1953 and the revelations of Khrushchev in
February 1956, Marxist theoreticians in Moscow were confronted by a clutch of
ii'
serious problems. While everyone seemed to feel the need to abandon Stalinism
as the system's rationale, it was not evident how the political and moral legit-
imacy of the Soviet Union could be preserved in its absence.
Stalinism was to be forsaken, but an effort was made to preserve Marxism-
Leninism as a constructive, meaningful creed for Soviet citizens. Stalin's heirs
had inherited an arabesque political system, characterized by properties all but
indistinguishable from generic fascism, yet legitimated by an ideology to which
it bore no resemblance.
There was talk of a "return to Leninism" in the effort to reestablish regime
but it soon became clear that Stalinism could not be so easily distin-
guished from Leninism. In retrospect, it is evident that Soviet ideology entered
into crisis with Stalin's death and followed him in death only with the disintegra-
tion of the Soviet system itself. The crisis resolved itselfin the 19805 only with the
emergence of two opposed ideologies-one a va riant of Western democracy, the
other an unmistakable variant of fascism. Such a denouement, totally unex-
pected by Western scholars, tells us something alxlUt fascism and a great deal
about Marxism-Leninism.
In retrospect, it is possible to trace the course of the decay of Marxist theory in
FASCISM AND THE DEVOLUTION OF MARXISM
the Soviet Union with reasonable accuracy. It began with the death of Stalin and
the eff()rts at "de-Stalinization" that followed. There is considerable evidence
suggesting that Khrushchev, in the years following the death of Stalin, attempted
to recapture and implement some of the humanitarian and liberating tenets of
the declaratory creed of the original Marxists that Stalin had pretended served as
the legitimating rationale for the Soviet system. In a real sense, Khrushchev
seems to have sought to have Marxism-Leninism, purged of Stalinism, conform
to the romantic eschatology of the early Bolsheviks, who were caught up in the
vision of a world revolution of workers that would bring peace, harmony, and
material abundance in its wake.
In the immediate post-Stalinist years, legislation was passed, f()r
that sought to preclude the further possibility of mass terror. Regulations were
promulgated designed to curb police powers by reducing the secret police to a
state committee under party control.
l
There seems to have been an intention to
do something about the concentration camps that dotted the landscape.
However Marxist theoreticians chose to interpret the end of the Stalin era,
there was little doubt that had revealed itself to be anything
but an inerrant guide to politicallcadership. The sense of malaise that followed
was exacerbated by Khrushchev's penchant f()r calling up, once again, all the
Marxist slogans that the first Bolsheviks had carried in their rucksacks. There
was talk of the imminence of communism, of improved living standards, and of
"classless democracy."4 Khrushchev sought to reaffirm the romantic and En
lightenment values presumably harbored by the original makers of the Russian
Revolution. In that sense, he anticipated much of the subsequent ideological
by Mikhail Gorbachev, who, twenty years later, was to resolve
the Crisis begun with the death of Stalin by bringing down the Soviet system.
In the years between Khrushchev and Corbachev, the Soviet Union went
into a long somnolence-years of economic stagnation and gradual political
decay. It was during those years that the entire issue of "fascism" reemerged both
as theory and reality. It was an issue that was to shape the end of the Soviet Union
and inAucnce the future of the new, post-Soviet RU3sia.
By the mid-196os, as we have seen, Chinese Marxists had condemned
"de-Stalinization" as an abandonment of socialism and an embrace of "social-
fascism." In some sense, that was true. I t was Stalinism that had provided the
ideological rationale for "socialism in one country." It was Stalinism that had
identified "fascism" as a bourgeois excrescence of late capitalism. And it was
Stalinism that gave institutional form and ideological legitimation to Mao's
People's Republic of China. The abandonment of Stalinism signified, for the
Marxists of China, a counterrevolutionary blow against socialism and the first
step in the full restoration of state monopoly capitalism in the USSR.s
92 93 FASC1SM AND THE DEVOLUTION OF MARXISM
The extent of the ideological decay that took place under Stalin's ministra-
tions was revealed only years later, in the intense introspection of Mikhail Gor-
bachev's glasnost. Only then could Soviet thinkers fully expand upon Stalin's
"irrationality"-his "mental illness"-in an effort not only to explain the enor-
mities committed in his name, but to account for the disintegration of Marxism-
Leninism as an ideology.6 By the end of his life, Stalin had so tortured Marxist
theory that it no longer possessed credibility. The sense of
whelmed Soviet intellectuals was immensely to regime legitimacy. If
Stalin and those around him who professed to be Marxist theoreticians could be
led so far astray for so many years, it was difficult to see the merits of Marxism as
a orophylactic against error, still less as a legitimating rationale for the system.
Whatever effort was made to keep Khrushchev's revelations at the Twen-
tieth Congress secret, they were almost immediately broadcast worldwide.
The most dedicated Marxists could not fail to recogni7;e the Implications of
Khrushchev's indictment of Stalin. For an entire epoch, Marxism-Leninism in
the Soviet Union had "degenerated."7
The consequences of this "crisis of conscience" in the Soviet Union unleashed
turmoil in Eastern Europe. A series of crises in Poland were followed by anti-
communist revolution in Hungary, begun by Imre Nagy's attempt the rehabili-
tate his system's legitimating ideology. In I9')6, Nagy, who had originally been
brought to power on the bayonets of the Soviet army, insisted that if his nation
were to it would be necessary to abandon Marxist and exe--
Talmuclisms" for some more viable alternative. He
the "old, sometimes scholastic theories" that
on the satellites of Stalin's Soviet Union. He sought an alter-
native socialism. rlis efforts were suppressed only with the force of Soviet arms.
The unravelinrr of what had been the rationale of the Marxist world system
tensions between the Soviet U lllon and the
of China. Major ideological and policy differ-
ences very soon created an abyss between the Kremlin and the Maoists of Bei-
'! The Sino-Soviet conAict that emerged during the tenure of Khrushchev
further bankrupted the notion of the universal inerrancy of Marxism-Leninism.
The consequence was a predictable diminution of ideological legitimacy for both
Moscow and Beijing. It became increasingly apparent that both Moscow and
Beijing were responding, and appealing, to their
rather than to any internationalist Marxist ideologica
As many had long argued, the revolution in Russia and the system Stalin had
created gave every appearance of not interna-
in form and in No less could be said of the revolution in
China. In the face of such there was ideological fer-
the fi rst
shoots of anti-regime dissidence made their appearance.
In a forlorn effort to revivifv Marxism-Leninism in a liberal (on-
test of
ment among Russian and Soviet intellectuals. Within that
Khrushchev allowed the nrp"'n of modest protest. T!:l that
apparent end, he authorized the publication of some works critical of the Soviet
system -among them a novella entitled One Day in the ~ f e ofIvan Dem:wvich by
a then little-known Alexander Solzhenitsyn. It was a depressing depic-
tion of the grim realities of Soviet life under Marxism-Leninism. It was to be
followed by works by Solzhenitsyn and others that were increasingly critical not
only of life, but also of thought, under the dominion of Marxism-Leninism.
At about the same time, the first significant religious protests against the
persecution of the Orthodox Church by the Soviet authorities took place.
Along with all this, the first revolutionary anti-Marxist, Russian nationalist
dissidents began to gather in clandestine organizations. In an
"underground liberation army" made its presence known in
All-Russian Social-Christian Union for the Liberation of the as it identi-
fied itself, continued to recruit members and generate anti-re!!ime literature
until its discovery and dissolution by the KGB in I
Not only was the All-Russian Union anti-Marxist, it was clearly nationalist
in the most traditional sense of the word. It characterized its own ideology as
"Social-Christian" and rejected Marxism as not only "deeply anti-moral," but
"anri-national" as well. The "People's Revolutionary Charter" of the All-Russian
Union affirmed that Communist rule had become possible in Russia only be-
cause Marxists had "uprooted" the "living soul of a people-its national tradi-
tion."12 it thus picked up a theme that had been central to the convictions of anti-
Bolshevism since the time of the revolution in 1917.
In the turmoil that attended the decomposition of Marxism as a legitimating
rationale:, some of the elements of traditional nationalism began to reappear.
What was becoming increasingly apparent was that "Soviet Ilatriotism." without
roots in the history of would no serve as an effective
surrogate for Russian nationalism.
During the 1920S and I930S, Fascist theoreticians had identified "Soviet
as a functional substitute for Russian nationalism. It was clear that
the substitution satisfied their anticipation of an inevitable: abandonment of
Marxist internationalism by Marxists themselves. For the Fascist thinkers of the
interwar years, Soviet patriotism, with Great Russians at its heart, satisfied their
theoretical expectations.
13
By the mid-196os in the Soviet Union, the issue of "Soviet patriotism," as
distinct from "Russian nationalism," became increasingly acrimonious. Many
Soviet intellectuals simply spoke of "patriotism" and the "Motherland," leaving
95
unclear whether the referent was Russia or the Soviet Union. Regardless of the
confusion, dissident intellectuals made increasing reference to "national tradi-
tions" and the "spirit of the nation," with "Russia" as a specific referent. At
there was a conscious rejection of what was seen as an artificial Soviet
in order to embrace a genuine Russian nationalism.
H
The All-Russian Union
was among the first and better known of those dissident nationalist groups that
opted for Russian nationalism as distinct from Soviet patriotism.
Below the level of ideological reflection, student groups of the 1960s orga-
nized themselves in a spontaneous effort to protect Russia's artistic and cultural
heritage-evidence of the nation's past glories, sometimes neglected and almost
always deplored by the Soviet regime. There were voluntary societies for the
collection and disDlav of traditional artifacts. Tourin2" groups were formed to
with the
of with its accomplishments, sacrifices, and
meaning in the world.
Of greater interest for the present discussion is the occurrence among the
diverse elements that provided the substance of the ideology of the new/old
Russian nationalism that a ppeared at that time of unmistakable fascist compo-
nents. The All-Russian Social-Christian Union, for example, anticipated an anti-
Marxist "corporative order"-the functional organization ofall productive com-
ponents-that would operate under the overarchin!!:. interventionist ausDices ofa
"theocratic" state.
While the clear intention of the All-Russian Union was politically liberal, in
the classic sense of "liberal," the intellectual leadership was under the doctrinal
influence of, among others, Nikolai Berdiaev, who had some evident, if relatively
fascist sympathies. 1(, The similarities and sympathies were rdatively in-
substantial, but the emerging nationalism was tendentially anti-Western, ill dis-
posed toward "inorganic" political democracy, vaguely anti-capitalist, hut sup-
portive of private property and relatively free market economics-sentiments
clearly reminiscent of the first Fascism.
17
Marxism in the Soviet Union ofNikita
Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev was being hollowed out by the first
efforts of an nationalism that saw in a substantial sense, as a
"third way" between Western capitalism and Bolshevism.
By the middle of the 1960s, Marxism in the Soviet Union had entered into a
protracted ideological crisis from which it was not destined to emerge. Together
with the rise of an Orthodox Christian Russian nationalism, a popular, concilia-
tory nationalism made its first clear appearance among the establishment intelli-
gentsia.
18
Specialists have simply noted that "a patriotic revival was
expected in view of the decline of Marxist-Leninist ideologv," but
more was
Khrushchev was overwhelmed by his opponents in the
who weakened the Soviet Union with his pro-
grams of reform and liheralization. Leonid Brezhnev, who succeeded him,
sought to offset the corrosive influence of political liberalism on the Soviet
dictatorship. Some effort was made to control the underground samizdat, and
dissidents like Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov were increasingly
to obstruction and censure. Nonetheless, during the late 19605, non-orthodox
themes surfaced more and more frequently in the estahlishment literature of the
Soviet Union.
A great many tributaries flowed into an emerging "establishment national-
ism." There was the Slavophile tradition of the nineteenth century, which car-
ried with it the influence of all its notables, ranging from Nikolai Danilev-
sky to Fyodor Dostoyevsky. And there were the authors of the early National
Bolshevik tradition who had combined nco-Slavophilism and Stalinism in such a
way that it was difficult to disentangle the two.
The nationalist revival among estahlishment intellectuals took many forms
and fielded many arguments. Spokesmen for the revival articulated their argu-
ments in iournals like Vovro.iV literaturi and Dolitical ma2"<lzines like
fl.,fnlndn.'111 and Nash (f}1}Yf>mn1111iP Not only did such works contain a
of the thinkers of the nim;teeth century; there was the
occasional call for an entire reassessment of Russia's long history from an inde-
pendent-that is to say, a non-Marxist-perspeetive.
In 1!)68, for example, Viktor Chalmaev published a IOllg article entitled
"I nevitability," in which he argued that the history of Russia was to be under-
stood in terms of the onrrwnt and maturation of its "national " rather
than of social revolution and class warfare.
tally more and nationalist than Marxist and internationalist, Chalmaev
conceived of Bolshevism simply as one of many manifestations of the Russian
national spirit. Chalmaev conjured up one of the Elvorite images of those Rus-
sian nationalists of the 1920S who attempted to find some redeeming nationalist
message in the apparent internationalism of Bolshevism.
Chalmaev argued that Russia, at the heart of the Soviet Union, required
renewal. The Soviet Union had allowed itself to become bereft of soul and
It had become materialistic, devoid of purpose, and uninspired. Its POPUldliUl
had become corrupt and careerist, selfish and grasping. The argument had
manifest relevance. It offered some sort of explanation of the measurable con-
traction of the Soviet Union's output, the declining productivity of labor, the
of the stagnation in technological innovation, and the
waste of resources.
21
The enthusiasts of reemergent Russian nationalism sought to restore enter-
96 97 FASCISM AND THE DEVOLUTION OF MARXISM
and vitalitv to what have since been identified as years of stagnation un-
to reawaken dedication and a willingness for self-
sacrifice among all sectors of society. 1() do that, they conjured up the familiar
images of external threat. The Soviet Union was involved in a for its
very existence. The new/old nationalists contrasted the materialistic
West and a confused, but still vital Russia, making a distinction and
an invocation bmiliar to anyone at all knowledgeable about the concerns of
Slavophiles in the nineteenth century and National Bolsheviks in the twentieth.
The revived nationalism was energized by a pervasive sense of impending
catastrophe. There was allusion to an imminent apocalyptic clash of cultures in
which the Soviet, or Russian, state and society might succumb to the threats,
and violence of the sniritually bankrupt West.
number of nationalists and patriots, there
was a growlt1g rehabilitation of Orthodox Christianity and a heralding of a
romantic return to the "Motherland." At the center of the historic vision was
neither confession, class, nor race. It was the nation that was it was the
commitment to the survival and prevalence of the nation, however
that animated the entire enterprise.
Marxism had begun unraveling even before the rise of Russian nationalism
and non-Marxist patriotism. By the beginning of the 1980s, there were f"Cw
intellectuals in the Soviet Union who were prepared to undertake the unquali-
fied defense of Marxism in any of its variants. More and more found political
in the new/old Russian nationalism that had assumed increasingly
concrete form in the 197()s. By the end of the '9805, the political and economic
situation in the Soviet Union had deteriorated the to where even the
intellectuals of the Communist Party itself were to formulate alter-
natives to the Marxism Leninism that nominally still had
witnessed the Polish proletariat rise up against their oppressors-the Marxist-
Leninist oligarchy of Poland. They fully understood that the Polish uprising of
August '980 had been a working-class revolution against a new class of bureau-
cratic oppressors who pretended to be "proletarians," animated by what pre-
tended to be the "proletarian" ideology of Marx, Lenin, and Stalin. It had been a
of the Berlin uprisings of '953, the Hungarian
rebellion of lOr.:6. and the "Prague Spring" of 1968.
of Mikhail Gorbachev did very little to redeem the old
doctr1l1e5.
23
In '970 Alexander Solzhenitsyn had counselled the leaders of the
Soviet Union to persist in their authoritarianism if they must, but urged them to
abandon the ideology that gave lie to the system. Gorbachev succeeded in
just the opposite. He insisted on Marxist-Leninist inspiration for his reforms
and proceeded to attempt the dismantling of the authoritarian state.
The consequences were not long in coming. After some initial hesitation,
'986 and 1987 the most distinguished members of the Kremlin elite were sav-
agely criticizing the administrative command system that had been the core of
the Soviet economy f()r more than half a That inevitably led to the
merciless criticism of Stalin and Stalinism, divesting the inherited ideology of
still have retained. The people of the Soviet Union no
in ideological truths or the political imperatives of a
mission. Without doctrinal levitimation and
tion, there was no assurance that the system could maintain its under
stress.
By the end of the decade, the Soviet Union was left with a hegemOnic party
no longer convinced of its own mission, a hobbled security apparatus no
capable of controlling events, a population that had long since lost patience with
food and commodity shortages, a military that was demoralized, and more and
more intellectuals who sought to separate the future of their nation from the file
of Marxism-Leninism. By the end of the '9805, many intellectuals were con--
themselves with the survival of a Greater Russia, independent of Marx-
ism in any form.
that time, there were despairing intellectuals who were prepared to argue
that only an emergency regime Marxist, non-Marxist, or anti-Marxist-could
the situation. Only a strong state could save Russia and protect the
integrity of the Soviet Union. Dissociating itself from the discredited inherited
ideology, such a state could establish a new legitimacy by invoking the emer-
gency powers necessary to meet prevailing exigencies.
1
' One of the most interest-
ing and important of the intellectuals initially putting forward those arguments
was Kurginian.
26
the end of the 19805, Kurginian, an informed Marxist and a member of
the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, was seeking "national salvation" in a
program dictated not by the inherited ideology, but by what he considered the
tary in
and economic reality then in the Soviet UnionY Fragmen-
that program had an imnlicit and
explicit logic that found expression in familiar themes.
What Kurginian and those who sympathized with him recommended to the
leadership of the Soviet Union was abandonment of most of the fictions that had
collected around the Marxist-Leninist state. Most of those fictions had become,
at best, transparently ineffectual--at worst, they contributed to the of the
entire system.
Kurginian's arguments addressed an issue on which the Soviet Union was to
founder. At the time of Stalin's death, Khrushchev had sought to divest the
Soviet Union of all the pretenses that had been used to justify terror, political
99 98 FASCISM AND THE DEVOLUTION OF MARXISM
violence, and mass murder. Khrushchev sought a half-hearted return to the
Enlightenment and democratic values of the classical Marxism of the nineteenth
century. There was even talk of political diversity and improved living condi-
tions, and the promised abundance of communism.
Kurginian's recommendation, like Solzhenitsyn's, was that the leadership of
the Soviet Union would be wiser to abandon the "values of the Enlightenment,"
with all their associated passivity and political pluralities, and reinforce the more
traditional "Eastern" values of commitment, dedication, and sacrifice. For a
nation in crisis, democratic and consumerist values detracted from collective
survival potential.
candidly admitted that no one in the Soviet Union believed in the
supposed "democracy" of the Soviet system. It would be hard to conceive of how
the prevailing system could "democratize" itself without self-destruction. Cer-
no one believed that the essentially nonmarket economy of the Soviet
Union could provide the quality and quantity of consumer goods made available
in the West.
2H
To indiscriminately "marketize" the Soviet economy would be to
court disaster.
urged the abandonment of any appeal to such "Enlightenment"
values in the eff(Jrt to preserve the Soviet Union in the face of cataclysmic threats
to its survival. What he advocated W;lS an unambiguous appeal to those
nous" values that had lifted the people of Russia and the Soviet Union from
to industrial modernity, from defeat and humiliation in the First
World War to victory in the Second.
Ii
,I
However Kurginian and those who shared his convictions were identified by
III or whatever they called themselves, it was clear that he and those around
Ii
him were prepared to dismiss all the arabesque reasoning of inherited doctrine
in the search for They all prided themselves on being recognized as
activists and pragmatists, more concerned with the salvation of their nation than
with ideological orthodoxy.
Given this disposition, Kurginian made eminently clear that he was con-
vinced that only a strong state, informed by a strong leadership, could solve the
problems that had overwhelmed the Soviet U nion.
lO
He dismissed those thi nkers
who pretended that the state was not really essential to the maintenance, protec-
tion, and enhancement of the nation, and which, in some communist future,
would no longer be necessary. Kurginian was an unabashed statist and was
convinced that a strong state is necessary in any II
Kurginian wrote clearly conveyed his conviction that the state
was at the core of his program. Equally clear was his general assessment of
Stalin. Stalin had created a powerful state, a state necessary to the extensive
industrial growth that provided the Soviet Union with the strengths that assured
its place in the world .. not because of Marxist doctrine, but in spite of it.
Stalin ruled a hierarchically structured, authoritarian state, inflexibly con-
trolled by a declassed, self-selected, bureaucratic elite committed to an arduous
program of industrialization that required the relentless enterprise of the Soviet
people. Kurginian recognized that while the cost in human lives had been
devastating, and was to be deplored, Stalin had created an industrial base that
could withstand the shock of the German invasion, absorb the tremendous losses
this entailed, and still provide the wherewithal to supply the Soviet forces with
the weapons that ultimately brought victory.'2 For Kurginian, whatever fictions
surrounded the Stalin Constitution of Hn6, the truth was that Stalin admin-
istered an inflexibly authoritarian and centralized state. And the Soviet
Union had prospered and
Implicit in Kurginian's account is the recognition that Stalin was tUlly pre-
to exploit ideological fictions to elicit the compliant submission of the
people of the Soviet Union and to win the passive and active support of a sub-
stantial portion of the world's academics. Domestic and f()reign audiences were
told that in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the Vozhd, the "Leader,"
ruled by public acclamation-and that the directors ofenterprise and stewards of
labor organizations were all democratically chosen by thcir constituencies and
served at their pleasure. And, of course, there was the insistence that the Soviet
Union was an ee:alitarian "classless society" in which a "proletarian leadership"
governed a "workers' state."
Kurginian clearly recognized all that as unselfconscious fiction. He main-
tained that the original Soviet system had been constructed by Stalin not as an
egalitarian democracy devoted to consumer satisfaction, but as an authoritarian
enterprise to specifically service the demanding requirements ofextensive indus-
trialization, economic expansion, and the enhancement of the nation-state. Com-
mand and control were aggressive, determined, and centralized in a powerful
state machine. Whatever legitimating fictions Stalin invoked, for whatever rea-
son, he never deluded himself that they had any implications for conduct.
Stalin had constructed an authoritarian, hiera rchical state to defend the
to assure its survival and continuity, to combat foreign "imperialism,"
and to make the Soviet Union a world hegemon. Stalin designed the system for
war, for combat, and for victory. He intended to forge the Soviet people into a
weapon in the service of a world mission. Neither Stalin nor anyone around him
was deluded by the democratic, liberal fictions with which the system was
For Kurginian, whatever disabilities began to afflict Stalinism in the last
II'
FASCISM AND THE DEVOLUTION OF MARXISM 100
years of the Vozhd, the contaminants that were ultimately to threaten the survival
of that vigorous system were introduced with the anti-Stalinist reforms at-
to insinuate into an unaccommodating
system the elements of a "consumer " Under Khrushchev, there was talk
of political and economic liberalization in a search for system "responsiveness."
There was even the that the then living generation of Soviet citizens
would enjoy all the material abundance of the utopian communist society antici-
Khrushchev. It was Khrushchev who spoke of economic decentral-
Marx. Khrushchev had apparently begun to believe the myths that had
been employed by Stalin to his dictatorship.
Following Khrushchev, the system continued its gradual, slowly accelerating
decline. Those who attempted to "re-Stalinize" the Soviet Union largely failed in
their attempts to arrest the descent. By the mid-198os, so much confusion had
collected around the ideological rationale for governance that Soviet intellectuals
divided themselves, whatever the qualifications, into two camps: those who
sought to satisfy the expectations that the myths of the system had aroused and
those who advocated both an abandonment of the myths and major reforms of
the system, under the authoritarian control of a strengthened state. Kurginian
was clearly in the latter camp.lI
Among those who sought to satisfy the expectations generated by the
of democracy and material abundance were Mikhail Gorbachev's "radical re-
formers." They tried tomake the USSR more responsive to the civil and human
, of its citizens. seriously of "democratic elections"
and of a market economy that would the material desires of consum-
ers. Thev sought to fulfill the democratic and welfare outcomes that Marxism
seemed forever to have
reform was both
but never delivered. As a consequence, radical
committed to an uncer-
response was tundamentally different. For Kurginian, what was
clear. Gorbachev and his radical reformers had allowed
themselves to become captive to a whole series of insubstantial myths and stul-
fictions. Unable to understand their own history and confused by their
the "radical refc)fm" leadership of the Soviet Union was attempting
to satisfy mythic expectations. What that leadership failed to appreciate, in
Kurginian's judgment, was that the effort would fatally compromise not only the
economic system, but the state as well.
Confused by their own liberal and pseudo-humanitarian notions, Gorbachev
and his reformers had allowed the power of the Soviet state to dissipate in a
welter of slogans. Unlike Stalin and his entourage, they had begun to believe the
fictions that had collected around the Soviet system from its inception.
FASCISM AND THE DEVOLUTIUN OF MARXISM 101
T
that real reform required not an attempt to satisfy the
demands of the myths, but a candid recognition of the realities facing the Soviet
Union behind the fi:Jg of ftctions. He advocated abandoning the "Marxism" the
radical reformers sought to implement. I n general, he spoke of their Marxism as
"irreparably anachronistic and stultifying."i'; What he meant by that was not
difficult to discern.
Kurginian wanted to sweep away all the comfortable ftctions with which
several generations of Marxists in the Soviet Union had deluded themselves and
disappointed others. He objected to the prevailing disposition of Gorbachev's
liberal reformers to continue to mislead the suffering people of the Soviet Union
with talk of "equality," "representative pluralism," and an
sumer abundance."l" In doing so, "humane Marxism-Leninism" was
the most fundamental interests of the Soviet Union and its
Kurginian that the world was a very
desire for power. Power
suaSIOn, appeal, command, and domination, was central to
For him, it was the drive t(Jr power that created the distinctions between the
ruled and the rulers to be observed in all and any organized aggregate of human
all this was as true for the as for any local,
It was in this context that saw the modern world system arrang-
of states. Possessed of all the qualitative and quantitative
sophisticated science, advanced technology, and
the control of information, the most mature capitalist economies enjoy almost
absolute control over the life circumstances of those less advantaged. Science and
provide some states and some configurations of states with the mate-
rial power to rule others. Dependent states are exploited, overtly or by indirec-
tion, reducing them to no more than repositories of raw materials and cheap
labor for their technologically advanced oppressors.
In Kurginian's view, the privileged of the modern world have created an
international system that has become increasingly "ossified," one that denies the
less developed countries any opportunity to escape their predicament, condemn-
ing them, in effect, to perpetual subordination.
'H
Fortunately, Kurginian
until the advent of Gorbachev and his reformers, the Soviet Union remained
outside the fabricated hierarchy of contemporary international privilege. The
Soviet Union had refused to submit to the requirements of the international
system, and it possessed sufftcient conventional and unconventional
capabilities to preclude the system imposed upon it. As a consequence,
only the Soviet Union remained in a position to save the world communitv from
perpetual servitude to the "technocratic"
103
What Gorbachev and his "humanitarian liberals" threatened to do, by pursu-
ing their "democratic" reforms, was to render the Soviet Union vulnerable
to that prevailing exploitative international arrangement. N In their passion to
"democratically" reform the Soviet Union, they were prepared to conform to the
inrernational rules of the game dictated by the advanced imperialist powers.
They had, in effect, accepted "human rights," "democracy," and material well-
being as measures of national legitimacy. Gorbachev was prepared to allow the
Soviet Union to be measured against criteria that favored Western imperialists.
Instead of holdin2: firm to the independence of the Soviet Union, Gor-
to compete with the West in terms of crass material-
a p r o f ~ m with personal pleasure,
and a diminished concern for others.") The leaders of the Soviet Union had
abandoned and concern for the
more liberal than their opponents. The consequence, in
very well be the collapse of the Soviet Union and its reduction to a servile nation,
forever inferior to the industrialized democracies of the West.
In its effort to conform to the norms of the imperialist powers, the Soviet
Union's "humanitarian intelligentsia" had opened the gates of the Soviet Union
to a flood of Western influences the mass culture of nihilism and
corruption. The "humane Marxists" of Mikhail Gorbachev were prepared to
"democratize" the state and "marketize" the economy, thereby weakening both
and sacrificing the nation's most fundamental interests in the effort to purchase
the temporary approval of foreigners.
4
!
For Kurginian, all this signified a "spiritual weakness" that carried ominous
consequences in its train. The strong state that had in the past protected the
Soviet people from foreign exploitation was being undermined. The genius of
Soviet science and the competence of its technicians were being lost by the failure
of the state to provide succor and protection. Stalin, Kurginian reminded his
had left the Soviet Union one of the world's great powers. Gorbachev
What
the
agent assunng of the national
community in an international contest more
In order to restore the Soviet Union to its former
that patriotism must, once again, serve to seamlessly unite all Soviet citizens in a
renovative program of national development implemented by a strong state and
supervised by an intelligent, heroic, spiritual elite. Under such guidance, the
people of the Soviet Union would root out the dements of a "criminal bour-
geoisie" that had collected around the profits to be made by the liberalization of
the nation's economy. A patriotic people would rekindle the dedication of a
party and a that had become unresponsive and corrupt.4-I Once
again, Soviet with its engineers, managers, inventors, and techni-
cians, would be without peer in the modern world.
Kurginian anticipated that Soviet military and industrial
effectively compete with the dominant \Vestern democracies only through the
creation of state-sponsored "megastructures," combinations of talent and enter-
prise that could discharge functions that clearly exceeded the capacity of the
Soviet Union's existing institutions. Within an economy in which the
structure would be significantly influenced by market signals, Kurginian urged
that Soviet workers, managers, and representatives of the state be collected in
productive organizations sustained, influenced, and supervised by corporative
bodies that would assure political control, unanimity of response, and integration
of effort.
44
salvation of the Soviet "Motherland" would proceed in an
moral tension-assured by the inculcation of an evocative
that would enjoin patriotism, "communalism," application in
and heroism.
4
'i The leaders and the led would unite
in a sense of dedication to the national
The "white communism" advocated
national socialism that had discovered the roots" of the Russian
state. It was a non-Marxist communism that would encourage its citizens to
"strive for a life that is rewarding and enriching in the spiritual, rather than the
material, sense."4(, It was a communism that saw Bolshevism not as a
revolution," but as a stage in the evolution of Greater Russia.
It is difficult not to recognize the thought and sentiment of other times and
other places in Kurginian's notions. In his thought one finds a suggestion of
Friedrich Nietzsche's "will to power," Vilfredo Pareto's conceptions of the elite
and the subordinate non-elite, as well as Roberto Michels and Gaetano Mosca's
distinctions between the rulers and the ruled. There is something of Georges
Sorel in the political moralizing, and in Kurginian's passion, there is an echo of
the nationalism of Enrico Corradini and Alfredo Rocco -intellectuals who gave
the light of their doctrines ro Mussolini's Fascism.
For Kurginian, the will ro power was an inexpungeable and unalterable
human disposition. It found expression in the creation of elites and in their
rotation. For Kurginian, the evidence of history confirmed that all known sys-
tems have been characterized by expressions of power in the hierarchical ar-
rangement of a minority of rulers and a ruled
From Kurginian's account, it is clear that he was convinced that, in the effort
to perpetuate their dominance, elites employ "derivations," conscious or uncon-
scious fictions, that serve as ideological legitimations for their rule.
47
When an
elite fails, its ideology fails as well. Pareto, Michels, and Mosca said nothing less.
There is in Kurginian's conception the image of cultures in conflict, of
nations rising to meet moral challenge, and of other nations falling into decay.
Moreover, there is a sense of urgency in Kurganian's program for the renewal of
the Motherland-the restoration of its moral strength in the face of decadence.
Corradini, and Rocco said nothing less.
More than proto-fascist thought, there is the unmistakable conceptual lan-
guage of Fascism in Kurginian's exposition. Not only is the union of "organiza.
tions of producers" in a statedominant corporative structure a reflection of
Fascist thought and institutions; even those aspects of Kurginian's thought that
appear innovative have clear Fascist precedents.
4H
Kurginian speaks of technical
committees and state-sponsored corporations that would marshal and
the nation's talents ill its uneven competition with those foreign systems that
have the advantage of being intensively developed and extraordinarily
tive. The affinities with Fascism arc transparent.
From its very commencement, Fascist developmentalism anticipated a role
for "committees of competence" that would ensure rapid technological develop.
ment t(lf a comparatively retrograde Italian economy.4') As Fascism matured, the
system that had initiallv been
nated Fascism
very large para-state organizations, putatively to serve the nation's critical needs
in its competition with the advanced "plutocratic" economics of the industrial
democracies."iO
In prose, all the trappings of classical Marxism fall away. Kur-
advocates a consuming nationalism, an abiding elitism that provides the
form and structure of an authoritarian state, in a mixed economy influenced and
fueled by a market.
oJ
I Ie is, in a deep and philosophical sense, anti-egalitarian, as
well as fundamentally and unalterably anti-democratic, and has so conceived the
Soviet system since its foundation.
It is very clear that, f()r Kurginian, the Bolshevik revolution was a manifesta-
tion of vital energy on the part of a people who sought to not only survive, but
prevail. Kurginian saw the Bolshevik revolution as a combination of tradition
and progress that offered the promise of securing a place in the sun for a people
whose history is as old as civilization. For Kurginian, the Marxist myths that
attended the revolution were of little consequence. They were simply its
imating "derivations."52
What was real fl)r Kurginian was the strong nationalist state, the burgeoning
industry, the military might, and the victory in war that gave to the
FASCISM AND THE DEVOLUTION OF MARXISM !O5
sacrifice, the heroism, and the labor of the Soviet people. Whatever else it was,
Bolshevism gave rise to the state that sought the renewal and restoration of the
Motherland. What Kurginian found of merit in Bolshevism was the protection it
aff()rded the people and the culture of the Eastern nation, united in a common
and mission, in its conflict with the decadent West.
51
Kurginian recog-
nizes the nation in the state, and sees merit in Bolshevism only insofar as its state
served the ultimate interests of the nation.
In Kurginian, there is talk of the rising threat of the "materialist West" and
the vulnerability to that threat of the "traditional East." He alludes to the in-
stinctive response of a healthy community to the threat of extinction. He refers to
the humili;ltion suffered by the people of Russia and the Soviet Union at the
hands of overbearing f()reigners. And he condemns those who would betray the
Motherland for the pottage of personal
There are many things to be found in Kurginian, including the best tradi-
tions of Russian nationalism and the antiMarxism of the Russian emigres of the
I 920S. What one finds too is an expression of a doctrine that contains the shadow
of some of the most coherent cOllvictions of Mussolini's Fascism.'4 There is
generic fascism in the appeal to a strong state led by elites composed of "heroes"
and "saints." There is fascism in the express rejection of pluralist democ-
racy and Western liberalism. There is fascism in the conception of the n,Jtion as
the ullion of all those sharing a common destiny and pursuing a common mis
sion. There is fascism in the conviction that "the only possible type of state is a
corporatist one."'" There is fascism in the appeal to a religion of patriotism as the
solvent that reduces class and category differences to one vital unity. And there is
fascism in the rhetoric of power, war, and the healing of the pain of national
humiliation through prevalence in deadly
The fact that Marxist theoreticians were unable to forestall the appearance of
a variant of f;lscism among their own members, providing its protagonists in-
stead with status and privilege, is a commentary not only on their incompetence,
but on the quality of their "theory" and the commonplace distinctions between
"left" and "right" political persuasionsY' More important still, perhaps, Marxist-
Leninists had not understood their own political, social, and economic arrange-
ments sufficiently well to preclude their ultimate collapse. Thcv were to be
overwhelmed events. The final certifIcation of Marxism's intellec
tual destitution and the transparent inadequacy of its understanding of fascism
was the failure of its theoreticians to recognize the signs of ideological alienation
and the rise of the fascist impulse that accompanied the end of their system.'7
Kurginian is important in all this. In the immediately before
the final collapse, he had already articulated the t1rst outlines of a new ideology
for the salvation of Russia. It was an sharing critical features with
106 FASCISl\j AND THE DEVOLUTION OF MARXISM
Fascism. With that ideology, Kurginian was to influence Alexander Prokhanov,
and through Prokhanov the leader of the Communist Party of the Russian
Federation. There is a direct line of descent from the proto-fascism of Sergei
Kurginian to the present convictions of one of the Soviet Union's foremost
Marxist-Leninists, Gennadi
There is no little irony in the fact that some kind of fascism should grow out
of the decay of Marxism Lcninisrn and that its orincinal advocate should be the
leader of the Communist of the Russian Federation. the time of the
disappearance of the Soviet Union in December 1991, it had become evident to
many Russian intellectuals, and no fewer foreigners, that Marxism-Leninism
had never reallv understood either itself or Fascism.
FascismandPost-SovietRussia
That a form of fascism made its appearance in the Soviet Union with the first
signs of systemic deterioration has been difficult for most academicians to under-
stand. More than half a century ago, the Soviet Union had been one of the major
protagonists in the "war against More than twenty million Russians
died in its course. Given this fact alone, there were very few in the West who
the emergence of any ideology approximating fascism on Soviet soil.
l
What seems to have transpired is instructive. [n the first instance, the fascism
that as a consequence of the collapse of the old system was not mimetic.
Intellectuals in the Soviet Union did not read fascist literature and decide that
the doctrine expressed fitted their evolving circumstances. The appearance of
fascist elements in Soviet thought was not the result of intellectuals discover-
the fascist literature of the 19205 and 19305. The Soviet proto-fascism that
emerged in the Gorbachev era was the spontaneous and reactive response on the
part of Soviet intellectuals to a developing ideological crisis. [t was a reaction to
domestic circumstances and perceived external
As has been suggested, this was all but totally unanticipated by Marxist-
Leninist theoreticians themselves. In fact, the disintegration of the Soviet Union
and the ideological collapse of Marxism-Leninism in Eastern Europe were all
but totally unexpected by Western scholars as welf.2 With the perspective of
hindsight, of course, everyone should have realized that by the mid-I98os the
Soviet Union had entered a critical, penultimate phase of its history. Since the
mid-1970s, there had been a gradually accelerating decline in the levels of Soviet
production.
l
By the end of 1986, it was clear that the Soviet economy would
require an enormous improvement in total factor productivity if it were to
survive until the end of the century. There was widespread consensus among the
107
108
FASCISM AND POST,SOVIET RUSSIA
of the Soviet U nioll N,,".,-r-rn the for if not
in the economic system.
as a consequence of that coupled with multiple system
the legitimating ideological rationale of Marxist--Leninist rule became
irrelevant. At first, the irrelevance was concealed by making ritual
to inherited doctrines. The Twenty-Seventh Party Congress Program of
the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1986 still insisted that as a conse-
quence of the "worsening of the general crisis of capitalism.... the advanre of
humanity towards socialism and communism ... is inevitable." It was affirmed,
with perfen orthodoxy and apparent conviction, that "history.... has entrusted
the working class with the mission of the revolutionary transformation of the old
society and the creation of the new one."1
Even Mikhail Gorbachev, responsible for the "new thinking" that increas-
ingly challenged the "old," still insisted that the "class-motivated approach to all
phenomena of social life is the ABC of Marxism," and that Marxists were
expected to employ that approach in the assessment of contemporary social and
political issues.> References to "class analysis" and "proletarian revolution," as
well as appeals to Leninism and the heritage of "Bolshevism," were iterated and
reiterated in the political rhetoric of a system in evident ideological disarray.('
For all that, some of the principal "Marxist" spokesmen for the Gorbachev
reforms began to make increasingly frequent references to universal
values and decrelsing to Marxist class ones. Gorbachev
ically renounced the "usc of force and the threat of force" as instruments of class
warbre or international policy. International relations were no to be
interpreted as "class struggle" on a world scale. Gorbachev seemed to want to
make "international peace" something of a primary, value.
At the Twenty-Seventh Party Congress, Gorbachev had alreadv umed that
"shed once and for all, resolutely and
about the "acceptability and oermissibilitv of wars and armed conflict."H In his
maJor Gorbachev to separate the notions of "socialist revolu-
" Marxist values, and mass violence.
prose had
Few Marxist theoreticians had ever before been
war, armed conflict, or broad-based
universal peace. Neither Marx nor Lenin were
wars and
armed conflict were understood to be class
violence. Marxist-Leninist
alive with
an insistence on class
and allusions to "just wars."
What appears clear in retrospect is that the lililure ofthe Soviet economy had
undermined the confidence of the leadershio in the Soviet U IlioIl. More and more
FASCISM AND POST-SOVIET RUSSIA \09
members of the military and political elites no longer believed that Marxist-
Leninists could emerge victorious from any armed conflict with the advanced
industrial democracies.
1II
Gorbachev himself was frank in inextricably relating
the "country's defense" to its economic performance.
ll
As its economy failed, it
became manifestly evident that the Soviet Union would be increasingly at risk in
the event of armed confliCl.
'2
The overall decline in the Soviet Union's productivity not
domestic problems of almost unmanageable oroportions, it also made it
ble to keep pace with the United States in the arms race.
Everything pointed to the inability of the Soviet Union to survive in a protractl
technological. economic, or military contest with the industrial democracies.
At the more immediate level of foreign affairs, it seemed evident that
Marxist-Leninist revolution in less to en-
hance the future prospects of the Soviet Union. Armed revolution on the
cry of the industrially advanced economics apparently did to
their survivability. Such revolutions resulted only in the creation of Soviet
dencies at a time when Moscow could ill afford the required to
sustain them. There was even talk about the satellite nations of Eastern Europe
having become more burdens than assets to the Soviet Union.
Given the prevailing circumstances, the appeal to the universal values of
peace and compromise takes on the appearance of a response to inescap-
able realitv. Manv students of Soviet have such an
Mikhail Gorbachev seems to have been a person of conviction,
and his appeal to leftist universalistic values genuine. The nations of the world,
Gorbachev argued, had become increasingly one and interdependent. I I Beset by
the threat of nuclear destruction, resource depletion, ecological catastrophe, '1nd
it was necessary for nations to come together in the spirit of
cooperation, and good will to protect the future of humankind.
However one chooses to interpret Gorhachev's "new thinking," by the end of
the 198m, Soviet spokesmen insisted that the foreign policy of the USSR pro-
ceeded from "a vision of the world as a supreme value."H Instrumental to this
supreme value were the Western liheral values of "freedom, justice. tolerance,
and pluralism in the defense of the principles of democracy."!> Some of the major
intellectuals of the Soviet Union even went so far as to trace all those
acknowledged "Marxist-Leninist" values to "Voltaire and Rousseau, Montes-
and Hugo Grotius, IThomas] Jefferson and IToml Paine. In
Gorbachev had committed the Soviet Union to all the political and moral values
of the industrialized West. As the Soviet Union gradually
catastrophe, the Gorbachev reforms provided an entirely new intemretation of
the the traditional ideology of the Soviet U nionY
11 110 FASCISM A"lD POST-SOVIET RUSSIA
Even bef()re the adventofGorbachev, regime intellectuals were
an abandonment ofsome ofthe critical directives of Marxism-Leninism. As
earlyas 1985, B. P. Kurashvili proposed a "newanddesirable system" in which
the socialist economy would be "guided by the regulating power ofthe mar-
ket."18 Therewasincreasingtalk ofintroducing"commodity-money relations"
intothe economy, in an eHelrt togeneratea rational price structure that would
contribute to a reduction ofintersectoral imbalances and wastage. Only a few
years suchideashad beendenouncedas "incompatiblewith the produc-
tion relationsof socialism."!"
socialisteconomistswere makingfrank allusion to
the L 1 1 d l l ~ C In resource withintheSovietecon-
omy. State
struction to the effective
stateproperty,intermsof
hadcometobeseenas anob-
that
itbelongedtonoone.Sincepropertybelongedtothestate,individuals
neglected,andemployed it withoutregard tocostor
vateowners hip, it wasargued,would provideprotectionfor propertyin
andsupplythenecessaryincentivesto controlcosts,assure rational use,and ulti-
mately supplycompetitiveproductsf'(Jr end users. Moreand moreSovietecono-
mists became convinced that it was only the threat ofpersonal loss that could
assureindividualandcollectivecompliancewithsoundeconomicpractice.
iO
Inthemidstofall this ideologicaland policy soul searching,Mikhail Gorba-
chev made moreand morefrequent appeal to humankind's "universallyshared
values."2! In an interdependent world, he maintained, capitalist and socialist
systems could cooperate because ofthe prevalence ofjust such shared values.
Gorbachev insisted, were prepared to combine "e1ass and universal
human principles in real world development" in order to work with systems
thathad hithertobeenconsideredirremediablvexploitative,warmongering,and
ofsuch
coexistence was entirely pragmatic, invoked at a time when the Soviet Union
requiredaninterval for recuperationand rehabilitation. Itis clearthatLenin,in
hisrevolutionaryfervor,anticipatedthattheSovietUnion'seconomicdisabilities
would be rapidly offset. "Peaceful coexistence" was to be the brief interlude
beforethefinal worldvictoryofrevolutionaryMarxism.Leninneverenvisioned
thatthe economic shortcomingsofthe Soviet Union wouldcompel Moscow to
theend ofthe
power,"socialist"or
tory policy went far
attested to the irrelevanceof
nrPDared toworkwithany
of universalpeace. Hisdeclara-
FASCISM AND POSTSOVIET RUSSIA
revolution"inorder
tosurvive.
contrast, gaveevery indicationofa readiness to do
that.Headvocateda policybasedontheconvictionthattheSovietUnion
and its "imperialist" opponents could unite in the pursuit of"global values."
Whatevertalk therewas ofMarxist theory, there was very little,ifany,concern
with the future of"c1ass struggle" or "world revolution." For Gorbachev, the
Soviet Union had cleansed itself of "StaIinism and all other filth" and was
prepared to collaborate with the "imperialist powers" on the basis ofshared
human values.21 In some senseorother,Gorbachev had become convinced that
"imperialism" and Marxism-Leninism could cooperate, because all human
beings, capitalist or socialist, were animated by "progressive general human
values." ForGorbachev, those "progressivegeneral human values" wereclearly
not "class-based." They included "truth and conscience, justice and freedom,
andhumanism:'24
the ofthe 19905, theSoviet Union f(JUnd itselfafflicted with
a devastated economy,
forever thefutureof theuniversal
confusion. In terms
ofdomestic economic polIcy
and
there was talk ot pnvate property, cost account-
market adiuncts. and economic incentives. There was talk of"freedom of
selection" ofthe ofthe Soviet Union.
toembracethevaluesofa
thelcadershiDof
Gorbachevand thosearound him
consumer-oriented
theCommunist
form ofwhatboth Marxand Leninidentifiedas "bourgeois"universalism.
The opposition to Gorbachev coalesced around Marxist- Leninist intellec-
tuals and party spokesmen. There were those in the highest ranks ofthe party
who resisted marketeconomics, consumerism, classless humanism, and
universalism. Together with the significant party opposition, a surly military
complained that Gorbachev's "new thinking" made the armed f()rces ofthe
SovietUnionsomethingof a "socialevil."21,
Intellectuals like Sergei Kurginian served as spokesmen for the mounting
oppositiontoGorbachev.The"myths"and"fictions"thatKurginianso emphat-
constituted the ideological foundation of Mikhail Gorbachev's
reforms. Thereis every indicationthatthe workofintellectuals like Kurginian
wassupported byeleHlents within thehighestleadershipranksoftheCommu-
nist oftheSovietUnion.27 Kurginian was the favorite ofhigh partyoffi-
andhisintellectualcenterinMoscowwasfinancially underwrittenbyparty
funds.2
8
Thefirst intimationsof anuncertainRussian containedinthe
113 112 FASCISM AND POST-SOVIET RUSSIA
incoherent programmatic suggestions of the All-Russian Social-Christian Union
for the Liberation of the People during the 19605, gradually came together with
the half-articulated nationalism of student groups and the Orthodox Church to
lend inspiration to a growing anti-Gorbachev opposition within the Communist
Party By the beginning of the 19905, proto-Elscism had been marshaled to
the defense of a Marxist-Leninist system in its final stages of morbidity.
Suddenly, out of all this, with the increasing irrelevance of Marxism and
Marxism-Leninism, "Eurasianism," "Russophilism," statism, elitism, irreden
tism, empire, and authoritarianism all became ideologically relevant again in the
Soviet Union.
ill
Once again, as in the time before the Bolshevik revolution,
intellectual iournals were filled with discussions of authoritarianism, national-
and of human will and human heroism.
to the "traditional Russian constants" of narod
nost, dukhovnost, and derzhavnost-conjuring up visions of the historic
communion, undergoing transfiguration through contlict
under the governance of a trans/imnative "magnificant State."
Just as "de-Stalinization" afforded the first occasion f<lr the emergence of
dissidence, so the collapse of the Soviet empire opened space for a
proliferation of Russian nationalist sentiment. Russian nationalism, in all its
distinctiveness, reappeared. Statism, elitism, "organic collectivism,
and a special sense of national mission, hecame the intellectual stock-in-trade ofa
veritable multitude of "social
Even as Gorbachev's reforms wound for exam pIc, there were at lelst
ten m:lJor Pamiat organizations operating in the Soviet Union, each with its own
distinctive nationalist and statist program.
lI
Each was the product of disillusion-
ment and a sense of national betrayaL Each gave expression
feelings of humiliation that Russians suffered as their empire
frontation with the Western world.
The ideologues of Pamiat sought to account for the of Russia,
the Bolshevik revolution as well as the collapse of the Soviet state, in terms of
Jewish-Masonic conspiracies. All the Pamiat organizations were comfortabk
with their identification as heirs to the mantle of the anti-Semitic "Black Hun-
dred" of pre-revolutionary Imperial RussiaY
They were not alone. Anti-Semitism has long been a feature of Russian
political thought. In the crisis of the 19805 and the early 19905 its reappearance
was not unexpected. Thus, it is not surprising that groups like that of Victor
Yakushev's National-Social Union grew up alongside Pamiat. Equally convinced
that "Zionists" were pursuing a plot to establish world hegemony, Yakushev
advocated arraying a strong state, committed to the establishment and further-
anee of values," against them.
FASCISM AND POST-SOVIET RUSS[A
Alexander Barkashov's Russian National Union gave expression to a more
sophisticated para-fascist political program, which was statist in
authoritarian in principle, elitist by conviction, and voluntaristic by disposition.
Given to the organization of paramilitary groups and a disciplined, hierarchi-
structured party, Barkashov was anti-Marxist-Leninist as well as anti-
democratie,l; He was also racist.
l4
Less grotesque, perhaps, was the reactive nationalism of Nikolai
During the final days of the Soviet Union, Lysenko organized the Republican
People's Party of Russia almost immediately to become the National Republi-
can of Russia. Lysenko was to be part of the coalition that sought to unite
"all patriotic forces," whether left or in a National Salvation Front in-
tended to halt the disintegration of the Motherland. He was to insist that the
salvation of the Motherland overrode the partisanship of the Left and Right.
While essentially anti-Bolshevik, Lysenko
the mobilization of whatever their political in the service
of t he im perial state.
In the thou2:ht of Nikolai the state is the of
Russian salvation. For Lysenko, it is the state that a nation out of people, It
is the state that imparts will and resolve to what would otherwise be a mere
aggregate of persons. It is the state that articulates the mission that defines the
responsibilities of the ruling elite, inspires the administration, tempers the cour-
age of the armed forces, and animates the thinking patriotic citIzen.
argued that inspired nations-like the Rome of
that bring civilization and culture to their peripheries. For Lysenko, a
Russia freed from the trammels of Marxism was uniquely suited to the
mance of such a world-historical function.
While ready to marshal the filrces of both Left: and Right, Lysenko remains
explicitly Militantly anti-socialist and anti-liberal, Ly-
senko has no tolerance f()r what he takes to be Marxist and liberal Jewish
machinations the integrity of Russi:] and its empire. In filct, racism forms
a major theme in Lysenko's doctrines. Besides references to the Jews, there are
allusions to a Slavic "gene pool" that requires protection and an anneal to "Slavic
unity" as instrumental to that purpose.
Lysenko's objections to Gorbachev, and to the liberal system that followed
the collapse of the Soviet Union, turn on their
sal altruism-myths employed by transnational capitalism to undermine the
uniqueness and survivability of Russia. Lysenko conceives of Russia as locked in
an apocalyptic conflict with Western imperialism. He perceives the world as an
arena in which an eternal struggle for survival takes place, with defeat meaning
either extinction or enslavement. Those nations that fail to respond effectively to
115 114 FASCISM AND POST-SOVIET RUSSIA
the clarion call to battle are defeated, to become the exploited, less developed
communitiesdominatedby thosemoretechnologicallyadvanced.
For Lysenko, FranciscoFrancoand Charlesde Gaulle represented variants
ofa "third way" between thedevastation ofMarxism-Leninism and the deca-
dence of advanced industrial capitalism. In his judgment, Hitler's National
Socialismwasa pathologicalexpressionofthatalternative.
What all this indicates is that in the immediate aftermath ofthe disinte-
ofthe Soviet Union. there was an explosion ofRussian nationalisms,
eachwithitsown"statist"and programintended to securethesalva-
post-Soviet centrists, anti-
national communists, anti-
were, and to
),t-Snvlt't Russia.
Some political groups were a little bit of
momentofvastpopularityand
LiberalDemocraticParty,asacase in point,enjoyedtheirpassingpopularityand
seeminginHuence duringthe first years ofpost-Soviet Russia. However unim-
pressive Zhirinovskyand his party have been, they have the interestof
the West in a singular fashion. In the West, Zhirinovsky was spoken ofas a
possible "Rising Czar" and was thought ofas a potential dictator ofa future
"Russianfascism."Q
In whatsense Zhirinovskyis a fascist is difficult to say with any intellectual
conviction. He has successfully fought that characterization in Russian courts,
and his ideas, while sharing many ofthe features ofthe anti-democratic, na-
tionalist groups that have flourished in the chaos of post-Soviet Russia, are
inconsistenttoleaveoneconfusedabouttheiractual character.
lH
of"lifti!1!I Russia from her knees." Hespeaksofrestor-
its humiliation.
i
" His passion is that Russia
shouldnotbeamendicantamong states. Russiashouldnotbegatthe
tableoftheindustrial democracies.For Russia'sgreatpowerstatus
mustbe reaffirmed andreestablished. Morethan that,in itsowndefenseandin
defenseofworld civilization, Zhirinovskyargues thatRussia mustexpand, not
to establish adefense perimeteraround the Motherland,buttoprotect the
international communityfrom theWest's "newworldorder," whichcould
bringincreasingdecadenceand ultimatechaosin itstrain.
Zhirinovskyhasargued in favorofanemergencyregimethatnotonlywould
restore stability and order to the Russian federation, butwould providea stim-
ulus for the economy, reconstruct the nation's infrastructure, and provide for
militarycapabilitiesthatwouldsec Russian fc)rces "abuttheArcticOceanonthe
North,thePacificontheEast,theAtlanticvia the BlackSea,theMediterranean
FASCISM AND POST-SOVIET RUSSIA
Seaand theBaltic andfinally,intheSouth,[the Russian military] will wash
upagainsttheshoreoftheIndianOcean."40
Zhirinovsky expressionto thekindofreactive,authoritarian national-
ismthat,throughoutthehistoryofthetwentiethcentury,has
tooneoranothervariantoffascism. Anti-Marxistand
Zhirinovsky charges Marxism with having failed Russia in at least two ways:
(1)by imposingadysfunctionalcommandeconomyonacreativeandproductive
people who otherwise would have established, fostered, and sustained an eco-
nomic base sufficent to support a great nation; and (2) by insisting upon a
"revolutionaryinternationalism"thatneverfullyengagedthenationalism latent
in the Russian people. Hechargesliberals with failing to understand thehistory
andmissionofthatpeople.
InDecember1993,a poll by NezaviJimaya Gazeta putZhirinovsky's national
rating at about 25 percent. In the elections ofthat year, his Liberal
Democratic Party polled 22.8 percentofthe votes cast. Zhirinovsky was riding
thecrestofthe Russian nationalism that he considered critical to the mobiliza-
tionof supportt(lr his renovativeprogram.
Like fascists and proto-fascists everywhere, Zhirinovsky advocates an eco-
nomicsystem guided by marketsignals, butsubject, in principle, to substantial
intervention bv the state. While market forces would influence the
and Dresumed eHiciencv ofthe economy. the nolitical system
cratically, and there is every reason to believe that PUlllIL<l1
central tohis political convictions.
41
Zhirinovskymaintainsthathis partywill restore national
the employment ofaction "squads," equipped with emergency powers, which
wouldruthlesslysuppressall criminalactivityanddeportall non-Russians
illegally withintheconfinesoftheRussian federation. Headvocatesthecreation
ofa politicallycentralized and authoritarian regimethat would serveas a mag-
netaround which all the non-Russian republics and ethnicenclaves ofthe for-
merSoviet Unionwouldoncemorecollectthemselves.Those regions would be
intoa GreaterRussiansphereofinHuencenotas politicalequals,
but as protectorates.
42
Zhirinovsky has made clear that he anticipates the irre-
re-creationof
argues that there is an urgency to his program because he is
convinced that mortal threats emanate from the East and the South-from a
whosepopulationalreadyexceeds
and fromfanatical Muslimfundamentalistswho
in the Russian federation to rebellion. He
anardentnationalismcansaveRussiafromsllch
1
r
16 FASCISM AND POST-SOVIET RUSSIA
There is some evidence that Zhirinovsky's program has attracted the support
of a substantial minority of workers and soldiers. I n fact, Zhirinovsky has made
his appeal directly to the military. and it seems that there has been some reso-
nance. More than that, Zhirinovsky recommends assigning state funds to the
military, and for military science and and aggressively supporting the
exporr of arms to those nations not to the restoration of a Greater
Russia. Zhirinovsky expects such policies, In the ncar and the long term, to
contrihute to the stabilization of the Russian domestic economy. Deficit
ing, in the f(}rm of Kevnesian oumo orimin>!. t(mether with oolitical stabiliza-
arc
tomembers of the and workers in the civilian sector.
the years between the disintegration of the former Soviet Union and
the elections of 1996, Zhirinovsky seems to have attracted substantial popular
support. It is also reasonably certain that during that period his appeal peaked. In
the Duma elections of 1995, Zhirinovsky's Liberal Democratic Party garnered
about 12 percent of the popubr vote, down more than ten full percentage
from the elections in 1993. By the time of the presidential elections oOune 1t)96.
that support had diminished still lurther.
Like most of the proto-fascist political movements in the Russian Federation,
Zhirinovsky's Liberal Democratic Party seems to have little prospect of sustained
growth, durability, or ultimate political success. The party ;lppears to have tran-
sient membership, volatile support, and uncertain institutional integrity. Zhiri-
own bizarre antics, dubious and eccentricities seem to have
condemned him and his party to ultimate extinction.
All this suggests that the prospects of a domestic Eiscism in the former Soviet
Union really turn on the political convictions and mobilizational efficacy of the
"social p;:Jtriots" who have collected around the political vision of ideologues like
Kurginian and Alexander Prokhanov. It is they who have generated the
sociopolitical ideas that seem to have survival potential in the strained ideological
environment of Russia at the end of the twentieth century.
By the end of the 19805, Kurginian had attracted the support of Alexander
Prokhanov to his it was Prokhanov who was to transfer much of
their ideological substance to Gennadi Ziuganov, leader of the Communist Party
of the Russian Federation. As the Soviet Union entered into its final stages of
disintegration in July 1991, Ziuganov, with eleven others, issued a
manifesto entitled "A Word to the People," in which the citizens of the Soviet
Union were told that a catastrophe of unparalleled had overwhelmed
their "beloved Morherland" and its "majestic state."43 The Soviet Union, victor
of the war allainsr fascism, a leader in world and cultural accomplish-
a consoiracv of suborned who, in the trea-
sonous search for personal wealth and had the na-
tional beliefs, hopes, and aspirations of the
The signatories of the "Word to the as the
defenders" of the stllte, not to allow the "destruction of the Father-
land." There was an appeal to the Russian Orthodox Church and to the Com-
munist Partv to defend the Motherland. "Russia, the most uniaue and the most
h"lnvl'rl " was to be defended those to make a selfless commitment
toan "all-national ideal."
The "Word to the People" was largely the work of Prokhanov, who by that
time had become a major adviser to Ziuganov. Both these men were to exercise
special influence in the Jlost-Soviet Russian Federation.
44
The "Word to the
People" was immediately seen as a direct attack on Gorbachev, leader of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
4
' It was an attack on all the universal and
liberal values Gorbachev espoused. It was an attack on the notion of a
international system which accommodated nations and cultures without cost. It
was an explicit rejection of the conviction that all human bein>!s shared com-
patible and mutually supportive values that would sustain an
of nations. The "Word to the PeDnle" cantured the full sense of
the national humiliation that the anti .. Gorbachev elements within the
Communist and the as well as the p'eneral citizenrv of the Soviet
all of whom had witnessed the decline and of their native
land.
Like Kurginian bcf()re him, Prokhanov was prepared to jettison the notion
that the world was composed of peoples each longing to be united in either
proletarian harmony or humane, politically liberal, and ecologically sensitive
enterprise. Like Kurginian, Prokhanov saw the world as an arena for com-
petitive confrontation, with the industrialized democracies seeking the subor-
dination of the Soviet Union to impose upon it an "American future."46 For
Prokhanov, the disintegration of the Soviet Union into the Confederation of
I ndependent States was the final outcome of the "new thinkin>!" of Mikhail
Gorbachev.
like was up in the trauma of the of the
Soviet Union. For him, the Soviet Union was threatened with extinction because
it had devolved into a shabby collection of ineffectual central structures that no
the interests of the community. More than that, Gorbachev
had committed the empire to a collection of "alien" values that gave every
to the privileged industrial democracies.
Like Kurginian, Prokhanov called upon the citizens of the Soviet Union to
accept the moral and material responsibility for saving the "crumbling, dy-
community that had once been Great Russia. Like Kurginian, Prokhanov
119
118 FASCISM AND POSTSOVIET RUSSIA
invoked the image of strong men of principle and conviction calling on the
masses to resist the importunings and stratagems of that "powerful, well-fed
stratum," within both the party and Soviet society, that had betrayed the Soviet
UnionY He sought to unite all the vital elements of the community in its
defense. Ik sought to marshal the veterans, who had "gained real combat expe-
rience and demonstrated an ability to and shed blood for the state, this last
contingent of 'statists' who died in the name of its idea in the canyons and
wastelands of
Like that those whose interests were
linked with state industries in would
unite with the veterans of wars in the service of Imperial Russia-how-
itseiL The combat veterans and selected
elements could provide the elite constituents for a renovative
response to the imminent collapse of the system. Prokhanov was convinced that
the general population could not possibly be secure in the vagaries of a proposed
universalistic, market-governed system and would have recourse to the leader-
ship of a determined elite. '[(lgerher, the war veterans, the aggressive entrepre
neurs, and the mobilized people, would fuel the rebirth ofempire.
Among the signatories of Prokhanov's "Word to the People" of July 1()91
were ranking leaders of the Soviet military and the Communist Party. Some
(Vasili Starodubtsev and Alexander Tizyakov) were to become directly involved
in the attempted coup against Mikhail Gorbachev. When the coup attempt was
mounted in August 1991, its rationale shared substantial aflinities with the
concerns of the "Word to the Peonle."4'! In their "Messalre to the
" the leaders of the coup attempt made no recourse to Marxist appealS or
class analysis. They spoke not of class or world revolution, but only of threats to
the historic Motherland and its state. The ultimate defenders of the Marxist-
Leninist system had abandoned all the tortured "dialectic" of Marxism and
the language of national, etatist resurgence.
With the final disintegration of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991, Pro-
khanov proceeded to identify Boris Yeltsin, president of its successor state, with
the liberal, cosmopolitan, and "bourgeois" convictions of rv1ikhail Gorbachev
and the domestic "left." For Prokhanov, both Gorbachev and Yeltsin had com-
mitted themselves to the values of Western liberalism, to a generic "democracy,"
and to a catalog of universalistic "human rights" that surrendered Russian dis-
tinctiveness to a kind of "mondialist" uniformity. In his view. both Gorbachev
and Yeltsin had betrayed the future of Russia and its
For Prokhanov, honor demanded that the survivors of the debacle that had
settled on the nation commit themselves to the restoration of a Russian empire
the mission assi2:ned to it bv history and by destiny,50 More
FASCISM AND POSTSOVIET RUSSIA
than that, the restoration of empire would constitute a defense of vital
and "heroic" tc)rces in a world threatened by an apocalyptic descent into absolute
decadence.
Both and Prokhanov are statists. Both advocate the re-creation of
a strong, central state, staffed by an elite with competence, military spirit, and
traditional disposition. Both are developmentalist, committed to a program of
enhancement and economic growth as the necessary f()undation
for the power projection capabilities required for victory in a world of intense
geostrategic competition. Both anticipate the re-creation ofempire, the irreden-
tist expansion of Russia to its historically established boundaries.
Prokhanov, like Kurginian, conceives of the world as the arena of "unending
struggle, of a huge, gigantic conHict incorporating thousands of other conHicts."
He sees Russia, at the moment, "toppled, vanquished and captive ... in a noose
fashioned by an alien civilization; hunter's whistles have led nation I into a
punji trap."OI
What makes Prokhanov unique, perhaps, is his candor. He has
himself an "anti-communist" at the same time that he has identified himself as a
Stalinist. He has affirmed that he would support any political strategy,
.. if it contributes to the restoration of the Russian empire.
Prokhanov appears to have an admiration for Stalinism felr the
same reasons that he finds "Mussolini's historic
The "stranl!e attraction" which the of Mussolini" holds for Pro-
khanov seems shared by Kurginian.
ol
When Kurginian speaks of the reconstruc-
tion of the Russian state in a manner fundamentally different from that or the
"Anglo-Saxons," he alludes to its erection on the foundation of a "corporative-
syndicalist society" in which the interventionist state "carefully balances" all the
clements of an "estate-based" economy.S4 This seems to be the substance of
Prokhanov's "corporate imperial nationalism" which commentators have f()llnd
so reminiscent ofItalian Fascism.';"
The intellectual relationship between Kurginian and Prokhanov during the
first few years of the post-Soviet republic was intense. Kurginian, more the
many of the hasic ideas of Prokhanov's
nationalism." It was the period of substantial intd-
collaboration that Prokhanov wrote the "Word to the People."
It was this document that sealed the union of "all forces," mem-
bers of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation and a host of statists,
and nationalists, in an enterprise intended to defend the "national
" restore Russia's "spiritual integrity," resist the "dismemberment" of its
"body," and hurnish the "majesty" of its state. The entire thrust of Prokhanov's
"Word to the People" was nationalist, statist, voluntarist, developmental, and
T
FASCISM AND POST-SOVIET RUSSIA 121
collection of ideas. In the intellectual chaos of the post-Soviet present, Prokhanov
redemptionist. There was an appeal to tradition, to "cherished values," to the
Orthodox Church, to the soldiers who had served their Motherland, to heroism,
to courage, to labor, and to the "minstrels of the national idea." There was no
talk of the truths of Marxism, of "class struggle," of "international proletarian
revolution," of "capitalist exploitation," or of the "dictatorship of the proletar-
iat." The "Word to the People" was written in the language of fascism, familiar
to anyone at all knowledgeable about the political thought of the twentieth
century.>!'
By the first years of the 1990S, it had become obvious that some form of
fascism was maturing in post-Soviet Russia. To some among the national-statist
leadership, this recognition generated increasing distress. In '993, Kurginian
raised the issue as a matter of conscience. In that year, Kurginian and Prokhanov
tried to settle the issue of what role "fascist ideas" would play in the ideological
rationale of Russia's "national-patriotic forces." Finding themselves caught be-
tween the discredited convictions of Marxism-Leninism ancl those of a form of
Western capitalism they found repugnant, the leaders of the anti-Y cltsin opposi-
tion attempted to define their ideological position. On that occasion, Kurginian
insisted that, whatever his interest in the political ideas of Mussolini, he had
"never considered," and did not then consider, that the Russian "popular move-
ment lorl the national idea ... correlated in any way with anything that might
fully claim to belong to fascist ideology."" What appears evident from his discus-
sion at the time, as well as in earlier writings, was his conviction that "fascism"
referred exclusivel y to the genocidal ideology of Adolf Hi tler.
Thus Kurginian went on to lament the appearance of the symbols of the
National Socialist SS in the pages of some of the major nationalist publications.
He was scandalized by the imposition of Barkashov's swastika over the banner of
the former Soviet Union and the "detached" and "objective" treatment meted
out to the monsters of National Socialism in the pages of nationalist journals. He
complained that many in the ranks of the national patriotic forces showed
evidence of contamination by the "virus" of fascism.
He went on to warn that fascism was a "pathological response" to national
humiliation against which patriots were advised to inoculate themselves. Patriots
were warned that the anti-communism and unfettered greed of the free market
enthusiasts of the Yeltsin administration had opened the "floodgates" to the
baleful influence of "fascist ideology."
Prokhanov's response to Kurginian's concerns was carefully crafted and is
instructive. He responded that, for more than seventy years, the censorship of the
Marxist-Leninist government had denied Russians the right to explore non-
Marxist, much less anti-Marxist, ideas. Russian intellectuals had been denied the
opportunity to make their own informed judgment about any "unorthodox"
went on, Russians had not only the right, but the obligation, to consider all
political and social ideas, however much any of those ideas were deplored by
those who considered themselves "proper.">8
He went on to remind his audience that while it was true that fascism was
associated with mass violence and brutality, no less could be said of Marxism-
Leninism, which in the 1920S alone destroyed "four flourishing classes" of Rus-
sian society and in the 1930S consumed millions of Russians in the Great Purge.>'!
Prokhanov went on to suggest that if Kurginian's objection to fascism arose
from the fact that it was a "pathological response" to national humiliation, it
would be hard to imagine what a "nonpathological response" might be to the
destruction of everything a nation held sacred. How, he asked, could one re-
spond non pathologically to the "eradication of national pride" and to the treach-
ery that abandoned Russian women and children to starvation and exposed the
nation to foreign pillage?
Later, in a published interview, Prokhanov acknowledged that he himself
had been regularly identified as a "fascist." He went on to say that he had never
taken umbrage at the use of the term to describe him or his work, since he had no
clear idea as to what the termfascism meant to his critics. He understood full well
that it was meant to demonize him, but other than that, the term was generally
given no specific reference.
w
He spoke without difficulty of the emigre version of
Russian fascism that enjoyed some prominence in the 1 (l3os, as well as the
"Italian version," suggesting that neither seemed to be an unmitigated evil and
clearly distinguishing both from the overwhelmingly negative properties at-
tributable to Hitler's National Socialism.(,J
Prokhanov has publicly recognized that the termfascism has been applied to
a variety of political ideologies, movements, and regimes. He is prepared to
admit that the national patriotic movement in post-Soviet Russia shares many
affinities with the Fascism of Benito Mussolini, the authoritarianism of Fran-
cisco Franco, the mass-mobilizing anti-liberal developmentalism of Juan Peron,
and the military conservatism of Augusto Pinochet-as well as the authoritarian
national developmental ism of Josef Stalin.
Most politically aware Russians knew that the emigre fascists of Harbin
associated Stalinism with an evolving "communo-fascism," and that ultimately
they had decided that "Stalinism is exactly what we mistakenly called 'Russian
Fascism.' "62 None of this was lost on Prokhanov. He appears little concerned
about how one characterizes the national patriotic movement in post-Soviet
Russia. He is committed only to its success.
In that specific regard Prokhanov is among the most politically and intellec-
tually interesting figures in the anti-liberal, anti-democratic opposition to the
FASCISM AND POST-SOVIET RUSSIA 122
post-Soviet Yeltsin administration. He is particularlysignificant because he has
the intellectual substance for Gennadi Ziuganov's drive for leadership
oftheRussian Federation.
o
;
As earlyas the publication ofthe"Word to the People," Ziuganovappealed
to Prokhanov to formulate a program for the anti-Y cltsin opposition. It was a
programtowhichhewouldcommittheCommunistPartyof theRussianf'eder-
ation. Sincethattime,employin!?: that program,Ziuganovhasdistinguished his
oftheSoviet Union.
M
emerged
asoneof themost Russia. Hispartyhas
notonly retained its very substantial It hasattractt'denoughvoters
to make the Communist Party ofthe Russian Federation a very serious con-
tenderfor power.
Ziuganov is a self-avowed communist who, while he
ingMarxism-Leninism," rarely employs the theoretical
Marxism or the language oftraditional Leninism.','i Whereas
one ofthe leaders ofthe Communist Party ofthe Soviet continues to
invoketheconceptual languageand imageryofMarxism-thenecessitiesofthe
"dictatorship ofthe proletariat" and continued "class warfare"-Ziuganov has
led his Communist Partyofthe Russian Federationaway from all that."" There
arefundamental distinctionsbetweentheCommunistPartyoffheSovietUnion
!II and thatofthe Russian FederationunderZiuganov.
Ziuganov rarely, ifever, appeals to the Marxist-Leninist ideological ortho-
doxyof thepast. Rather,heoftenspeaksofthe"dogmaticteachings"ofthattime
that were"patently outofdate" and that contributed to the "national disgrace
andthehumiliationof theRussianstatc."(,7Heappearsremarkablyunconcerned
with Marxist-Leninist orthodoxy. His unequivocal purpose is clearly the re
habilitation ofthe Russian empire, at the core ofwhich is "thatethno-political
that is known to theworld as the 'Russian
Both the Ilorizon and I Believe in Russia
nationalism....NeitherRed norPink,MrZiuganovis
White-thelatestincarnationofa centuries-longtradition ofRussian national-
istswhocelebrateOrthodoxChristianity,Slavicunityandimperialexpansion."""
"Marxist"ideolo!?:y is farlessMarxistthanit is nationalist,statist,and
in theformer Soviet Unionof
the "immenseand fundamentally important innersphereof _
andreligious moral nationalexistence"thatconstitutestheessenceofthe"ideal-
ist ...dreamer ...and ascetic people" ofRussia. Hespeaks not ofthe
FASCISM AND POSTSOVIET RUSSIA In
letariat," butofRussians. Hetalksof onits underitsown
under the protection ofa powerful state, all Russian all who
consider RussiatheirMotherland."
Thereismorethan irredentismin his enjoinments.Thereis acallto
Ziug;lnov insists that "Moscow does not have the right to abandon tradi-
tional role of'gatherer ofthe lands.''' Russia and its core of"idealistic" and
"ascetic"creatorsaredestined toattractlesser powersandless developed peoples
to its civili7.ing enterprise. Russia cannotescape its role as an imperial powerJo
Russia, Ziuganov warns the rest ofthe world, cannot and "will not accept the
humiliatingrolebeingimposedonitand will restoreits natural positionof great
world power."71 History demands that Russia be accorded its rightful place in
thesun.
The for for Kurginian, Prokhanov, and most ofthe
statistsandnationalistsproducedinsuchgreatabundancein post-SovietRussia-
isaworldofconflictinwhichmajorpowerspursue"messianic,eschatological...
projects."Themissionofthe United Statesand its allies is toestablish a "global
" This dictatorship would occupy "the Atlantic Great Space," the
main "territoflal suooort" for a "world colonial eITmire," in which the former
Soviet Union would be a subordinateand subservient role. Thedomi-
nant West, like an "insatiable octopus or " seeks to extract
mineralsandcheaplaborfrom the
tionthatwouldcondemnthe
world'spopulation to
the national to resist the
Russia, having reconstructed "its own state
political, economic,and military self-sufficiency," can
the West. Only Russia can assure a "balanced world" in the
libriumof...Great civilizations,andethno-religious'centersofforce.'"71
ForZiuganov,Russia is thevital centerof a"Slaviccore,"andthatcoreis the
strengthofa "Eurasianbloc" thatserves as ageostrategic "counterweighttothe
hegemonictendenciesofthe UnitedStatesand theAtlanticGreatSpace."Russia
is the "mononational" center ofthe resistance to Western decadence. It is the
"mainbearerofanancientspiritual tradition whosefundamental values are...
'celestial.'"73
Moresurprisingthanthe realization thatall this has little, ifanything,todo
with Marxism, is the fact that it is clearly "Eurasian" in inspiration. Ziuganov
speaks ofRussia as the "core and main foundation ofthe Eurasian bloc," des-
tined to occupy the "GreatSpace"betweenMurmanskandVladivostok.
74
That
"Eurasianbloc" willserveas thelineofdefenseagainstWestern hegemony.
These notions Come out ofthe work ofProkhanov. More than that, their
125
lie in the writings of the Eurasians of the 19205, a group of anti-Marxist
Russian who sought to put together a "new Russian ideology" that
would "supplant" Marxism-Leninism and "lead a new Russia to a glorious
future.',?,i
The Eurasians perceived the Bolshevik experiment as part of the historic
destiny of Russia. Like the Fascist theoreticians of the same period, the Eurasians
expected Marxism-Leninism to be transformed by the realities of the modern
world into a supremely nationalist ideology that would lead Russians to the
creation of a "Great Political Space" in which national "mlthenticity" would
resist the decadence of the modern world.
7
(.
More than that, the Eurasians were totalitarians and authoritarians by dis-
and anticinated the eventual transformation of Stalinism into a more
The Eurasians were, and remain, elitists, with
vehemence all universalistic notions of humankind as empty abstractions.
liberalism and "quantitative" democracy and perceived special
merit in "meaninrrful cultural units," among which Eurasia, with Russia at its
core, was most important.
Geopolitical Eurasianism today occupies a major place in Russian nationalist
thought, as does a peculiar kind of "biological" Eurasianism, represented bv the
work of Lev Gumilev.l
H
I n general, it is clear that, to a
Eurasianism has shaped the ideology of the man who today serves as leader of
Russia's Communists and chairman of the National Patriotic Union.
speaks candidly of Russia as "our Eurasian country" and has identified himself
with the filllndcrs of Eurasianism, who represented the "creative response of the
Russian national consciousness" to the Bolshevik revolution-and who gradually
came to realize that the "Soviet system, freed from an ideological doctrinaire
attitude Iwould be] the best state form" for a nationalist Russia struggling to
defend itself against the decadence of the West?)
Of the Eurasianist intellectuals, Ziuganov regularly refers to Peter Nikolae-
vich Savitsky and Nikolai S. Trubetskoi, both fundamentally anti-democratic
and anti-Western. HO Both conceived of some form of totalitarianism as best suited
to Russia. It was Trubetskoi who, in 1935, argued that "one of the fundamental
theses of Eurasians I is] that modern democracy must give way to ideocracy."81
For Trubetskoi, what that meant was that the ideal nation must be ruled bv a
political elite, selected "for its faithfulness to a single common
This elite must be "united in a single ideological state
must, in turn, "organize and control all aspects oflife." Such an organization and
control would inculcate in the citizens of the ideocratic state an ethic of
with such sacrifice "viewed by all citizens as a morally valuable act."Rc
It is difficult not to see fascism in these enioinments. Whatever qualifications
Eurasianists typically appended to their judgments, it seems eVident that
entertained a broad-gauged sympathy for Italian Fascism. As much could be
said for many of the other thinkers
speeches. Ivan Alexandrovich Ilin, cited on many
of Fascism after the Second World War as a irresistible and inevitable
that emerges to protect the state when the state is threatened.
HI
In
the "hour of national danger," the people will themselves over to "dictator-
in order to assure the survival of the nation and its embodiment in the
state. HI
Ilin that fascism would reappear again when circumstances de-
manded "high patriotic pride and national self-esteem." He advised, however,
that for "future SOCial and political movements of that kind another term rather
than 'Ltscist' be selected" to identify themselves, since "f;lscism's enemies" had
rendered the name odiolls.
Ho
There can be little doubt as to what has and is to
transpire, in post-Soviet Russia. The leader of a Marxist-Leninist party has
assumed the leadership of the nation's forces. In the process
of assumin2' that leadershin. all the of Marxism- Leninism
have been abandoned. In their is found the belief system of reactive and
evclopmental nationalism.
there is, today, demonstrably more fascism than Marxism in the
PUl1LlLdl beliefs of Ziuganov.HI> His statism and his nationalism arc unmistakable
markers. When Ziuganov speaks of governing, he talks of an "emergency gov-
ernment of popular trust" that he will impose upon assuming power in Russia;
and the rights that this government will provide will be those that were standard
under the bmiliar "dictatorship of the proletariat."H7
But there is also talk of progressive provisions: free education and free
medical care, for example. There is reference to a popular "Constitutional As-
sembly" to craft a "new people's constitution." And there is an insistence that
"basic human rights and freedoms will be enunciated and .. But all this
will take place in a political system that is not impaired by any "hollow separa-
tion of powers" of the kind that deforms \Vestern Such an infirm
system would allow "traitors to the Fatherland" to carry out their obstructionist
a system of representation that would derail the national "col-
lective will."8H No less had ever been said by fascists of whatever stripe. All this
recommends a careful consideration of the political system that Ziuganov is
prepared to recommend. I t is in this context that his reflections on Stalinism are
instructive.
Ziuganov has consistently argued that Stalin, at the close of the Second World
War, was prepared to abandon traditional Marxism--Leninism and undertake a
127 126 FASCISM AND POST-SOVIET RUSSiA FASCISM AND POST-SOVIET RUSSIA
T
I
of the Soviet Union." Stalin
sought, according to Ziuganov, to "create an effective
a dependable philosophical basis for the ... enormous Soviet State." Love of
the Motherland would substitute itselffor "class " for all Russians would
be fused in the fire of Datriotism. Had Stalin succeeded in his entewrise. the
overcome the to
consequences of the revolutionary storms," the divisiveness,
and the stultifvinll materialism of the Bolshevik period.H'I
world power. Ithad "expanded to
the utmost the zones of inHuence in the sea and oceanic directions, blocking
henceforward any attempt at direct threats to the borders of the state." Had
the
"philosophical renewal" of the "official
restructuring" of Stalin been hrought to its completion, Russia
would have hecome the "most powerfi.!l alternative center of world inHuence," to
continue, once again, its "geopolitical tradition."'JO Unhappily, Ziuganov main-
tains, Stalin succumbed hefore the "restoration of the Russian spiritual-state
tradition" could be completed. Stalin was not yet cold before his successors
turned back to the sterile anti-nationalist orthodoxies of the past.
What emerges from Ziuganov's account is an image oLm ideal Stalinism-a
Stalinism that is nationalist, statist, spiritual, and expansionist. Nothing is said to
suggest that Ziuganov objects to the charismatic Stalin "cult of personality," the
hegemonic party, or the rage for conformity, and obedience. Nothing
serious is said of political democracy or pluralistic arrangements.
IIII
For Ziuganov, as ftl[many of the Stalinism shorn of its
Marxist-Leninist trappings, infused with nationalist and statist
homogeneous, developmental in intent, and
constitutes a political ided. Itis Stalinism stripped of all the
tions" carried over from its Marxist past. Itis the "white communism" described
by Sergei Kurginian. Itis, f()r all intents and purposes. ;t transparently fascist
has described a Stalinism transformed along the very lines
as we shall sec, by the Fascist theoreticians of the 1930S.
Gennadi Ziuganov, the most important representative of Soviet
Marxism-Leninism has, in substance, identified a Russian fascism as his political
ideal. He is the advocate of an expansionist, nationalist, interventionist, authori-
tarian state whose projected capabilities are supported by an exacting develop-
mental program that allows the marginal existence of both private property and
free market exchanges. He is dedicated to carving out a "Gr<lnd Space" for his
nation in a struggle against "the destructive might of rootless democracy."'iI
I,
The rise of a form of fascism in the f()rmer Soviet Union is an instructive
irony. The Marxist theory of fascism that has dominated Western thought for
more than half a century was largely the work of Soviet intellectuals. For de-
Ii
I'
cades it as the most comprehellsive analysis of international fascism. Over
the years it became increasingly devoid of specific cognitive content, and, finally,
Marxists inside and outside the Soviet Union saw in whatever remained only a
caricature of the century's first Fascism-and, as a consequence, failed to recog-
nize its second coming.
At the close of the twentieth century, it is that caricature of fascism that is the
bread and butter of many cornparativists. Fascism is seen in the obscenities of
skinheads and vandals. It is understood to be "necrophiliac," "pathological,"
"racist," and "reactionary," and as having nothing really instructive to say to
our time.
I low little understanding of fascism is purchased in these prevalltng canca-
HIres was evident years ago to anyone modestly apprized of the history of COIl-
temporary revolution. Even today most intellectuals on the Left fail to appreciate
the irony of a leader of a Marxist Leninist party
reduced to servility, at the hands of an "international financial
"cosmopolian elite of international
the
" turning to "national
and corruption of.
similarities to another MarXIst
years ago abandoned all the
state," to himself over to the mobilization of the "national patriotic" forces
of another humbled nation. in order to resist what he took to be the impostures
The fact is that what is now spoken of as "cornmunofascism" and "Sta-
linofascism" serves as testimony to aflinities long recognized by those who have
the revolutions of the twentieth century on a continuum from
Left to There have always been deep and abiding similarities between
Marxist-Leninist and fascist systems, albeit concealed by the fog of Marxist
"theory."
All of which takes us back to the appearance of the tirst Fascism on the
halian peninsula, which grew out of the frustrations of an earlier cohort of
revolutionary Marxists. At that time, it was one of the best-loved, most radical
leaders of the Italian Socialist Party who created Fascism out of Marxism and the
crisis of the First World War. An elliptical account of the story of that first
Fascism may remind us of some important features ofone of the most
political phenomena of the century. I t may also reveal
about Marxism as well.
T
Fascism and Bolshevism
That Marxist-Leninists and convinced socialists might find some variant of
t:Jscism attractive is not entirely incomprehensible. Between the two world wars,
there were many who made the transition from one or another variant of Marx-
ism to bscism-typified in the example of Henri De Man.
Henri De Man was a committed Belgian Marxist, judged to possess one of
the finest intellects within the ranks of European "scientific" socialism. A social-
ist since '902, De Man had become a fascist by the beginning of the Second
World War. Like Marcel Deat and many other European socialists, De Man
made the transition to fascism through an intrInsic critique of Marxism, as well
as a response to the "realities" of his time. I
The record indicates that the transfer ofallegiance from Left to Right among
those in the ranks of revolutionaries throughout the interwar years was not
unusual. In fact. that such transfers took place has never been thoullht unusual
those who have that the theoretical and practical between
Marxism- Leninism and Italian
for example, is curvilinear rather than
rectil i near.
2
That the affinities between Marxism-Leninism and Fascism are not regu-
acknowledged probably arises from the fact that, from its advent, Mussolini's
Fascism was characterized as intrinsicallv and inextricablv "anti-communist.
There have been those who have that, without the threat
there could be no fascism. In general, among both conservatives and leftists,
Fascism is conceived to have been the antithesis of communism and Marxism-
Leninism. Winston Churchill considered Fascism primarily a reactive and defen-
sive response to the "bestial appetites and the pathologies of Leninism.'"
The early literature Fascism tended to conceive of it as a movement
mobilized to defend Europe from "all the horrors" of Bolshevism-the "brutali-
FASCISM AND BOLSHEVISM 129
ties and murders" that would have had all the Continent's "streets and cities ...
run red with blood."'l Anti-Fascist literature, even when not Marxist in inspira-
deemed Fascism a paid tool of reaction, marshaled for the sole purpose of
defeating communism and suppressing the political activity of workers."
the relationship between Fascist and Marxist-Leninist revolution-
aries was far more interesting than that. If right-wing and left-wing as political
concepts have determinate meaning in local contexts, they seem to have rela-
tively little significance in terms of the major revolutions of the twentieth cen-
tury-a fact that has been grudgingly acknowledged by Marxist intellectuals in
the Soviet Union and was fully anticipated in the abundant literature devoted to
"totalita rianism."
Specialists in intellectual history, in a variety of places, have traced the com-
plex threads that hind Mussolini's Fascism to Marxism and Marxism-Leninism."
That a form of L1scism should resurface in post-Soviet Russia is not entirely
That some Marxists should find it doctrinally aDDealin2. is even less
surprIS1l1g.
Mussolini's own history as a socialist and a Marxist is now reasonably well
known. What is not as well known is the gradual transformation of a "subver-
sive" Marxist commitment into the doctrine of revolutionary Fascism. That
Fascism came to be identified as an unmollifiahle "extreme right-wing" oppo-
nent of Marxism, socialism, and Marxism-Leninism is largely a function of the
first "Marxist theory of Fascism," together with an early history of violent con-
Aict. During the first years of the 19205, Bolshevik theoreticians, still caught up in
the euphoria of their Sllccesses in Russia, suddenly found themselves confronted
a powerful and popular "anti-socialist" mass movement that overwhelmed
their confreres on the Italian
The best among them recognized that the defeat of Leninism in rtaly was
both political and ideological. However much communist revolutionaries at-
tempted to blame their defeat on the intervention of conspiratorial
forces, the reality was that Marxism-Leninism in Italy had been
vered, marginalized, and overrun by an autonomous Fascist movement.
When the intellectuals of the Left attempted to explain the rise and success of
Fascism, they had recourse to doctrines put together by Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels half a century before. There was recourse to the familiar account of class
struggle and bourgeois perfidy. However enterprising the Marxist intellectuals,
the story was never quite right. Stitched together out of the Marxism of the
nineteenth century, what resulted was a fabric of thin plausibilities. Today, there
are very few serious academics who invest much confidence in the
standard version of the Marxist-Leninist interpretation of Italian Fascism.
What we now know about the origins of Fascism as a oolitical movement
128
T
l31J FASCISM AND BOLSHEVISM FASCISM AND BOLSHEVISM 131
andan ideological persuasionsuggeststhatMussolini'senterprise resulted from
the confluence ofa number ofevolving intellectual and political currents-
Italian Nationalism,Futurism,and revolutionary National Syndical-
ism-together an impact on the millions of ferocious young men
returninghome from the worst military conflict in the history ofhumankind.
H
Tofail to understand this is to misunderstand thefirst Fascism.
As hasbeenargued,all theavailablehistoricalevidencediscountstheconten-
tion that the first Fascism was the simple creature ofindustri;ll capitalism or
agrarian capitalismorofthe "rulingclass" in its
devoidof plausibility.Mussolini'sFascism wasacomplex productof anintricate
sequenceofevents,shaped hy complicatedideasandinfluenced
andinterestssonumerousthatnoonecan pretend to themall:'
theclements that madeFascismattractive to many Italians,includ-
lIlg war veterans, industrial workers, and the uncertain middle class, was its
to developmental nationalism-with its promise ofclass collaboration,
economicgrowth,and political regeneration. LikeFascism'sappeal to national-
ism, the recourse to accelerated industrial development, "productivism," was
intrinsically attractive to those faced with the difficulties that arise in a
united nation an obscurefuture.10
Even before the turn ofthe century, Italian Nationalists had
necessity ofrapid economic expansion and industrial development. Thev had
spoken ofa strong state, a renovated politics, and the future
the "major powers" ofEurope. Italian
reactive nationalism. in [[enera!. born ofthe many humiliations that f()lIowed
economic backwardness in an industrialized Europe, never had a
thripotl"broad-based
revolutionaryforee beforethe
crisesofHJ Onlythen,tn combination with otherclements,was
ittoinfluencethe ofthe peninsula.
rt is eminently clear that the thoughtofMussolini, as a revolutionary, was
influenced by that ofthe major theoreticians ofItalian Nationalism: Enrico
Corradiniand AlfredoRocco. Butthere was more to the' and
program of Mussolini than the substance provided by Italian Nationalism.
[talian Nationalism lent Fascismelcmentsofits doctrine,as well as thc collab-
oration ofits principal but Fascism had already taken on most ofits
specific propertics bcfore its merger, after the march on Rome in 1922, with
Corradini's BlueShirts.Fascism's mostdirectideological inspirationcamefrom
the collateral influence ofItalv's most radical "subversives"-the Marxists of
thefirst ycars ofhis active political life, identificd himself
"12 As hc was a member ofan intellectually aggressive
socialist movement, led by Marxists well schooled in the traditions of their
masters. ArturoLabriola,SergioPanunzio,A.O.Olivetti,and RobertoMichels
were among the many luminaries identified with the most radical p'(nrt""
ofItalian Marxism.
li
Mussolini was not undistinguished among them. Italian
Marxists, during the years before the First World War, considered Mussolini
notable,and he wasa welcomeparticipantin socialist intellectual cirdes.
14

hewassowell consideredthatheservedasbothpoliticalandintellectual
leaderofItaly'sSocialist Party until thecrisisofthe FirstWorld War destroyed
theunityofItaliansocialism.
It wasduringthefirst years ofthecentury,and as leader ofItaly's socialists,
thatMussolinidevelopedtheviewsonsocietyand revolutionthatwereto inform
thedoctrinesofFascism. Amongthe mostimportantinfluences werethose that
originatcd with thesyndicalists.
Duringthefirst years ofthetwentieth century,many Marxistsin Italv were
uncertain abouthow thedoctrines inherited from the nineteenth century
beappliedin thetwentieth.Thiswasparticularlytrueamongthemostradicalof
the revolutionary syndicalists. As early as IQo6, Olivetti-an early syn-
a confidantof Fascist theoretician-
reminded Marxists that the of his time suffered from "a deficiencv of
"I') It wasunclear how revolutionaryMarxismmight
insuchcircumstances.Theargumentwasthatwithouta matureeconomic
the preconditions for socialist revolution could not be satisfied. Marxism,
Olivetti argued, had always maintained that primitive economic conditions
could produceonly equally primitive politics and equally primitive classes. An
"immaturebourgeoisie"andan equally ineffectual urban"proletariat"were the
necessary productsof an essentiallyagrarianeconomicsystemY)
Thelogicoftheargumentwasperfectlyclearto Marxists:socialistliberation
waspredicated on the material abundanceonly madeavailable bv an advanccd
advanced industrial systems
not only ofoverthrowingthe old orderofthings,
future socialist productive enterprise. Socialism
at theendofthe "bourgeoisepoch" ofindus-
trial
Years later, as Duce ofItaly, Mussolini reminded his followers ofthe argu-
ment."He told hisaudience,
whenI wentto theschool ofsocialism,my teachersanddoctrinal sages told
me thatonly determinateobjectivecircumstancesrenderedsocialism
ble at all. I was told that socialism was only possible after
achieved its full maturity ....II was told that socialism was
at the conclusion ofthe bounrcois transformation ofthe
133
T
132 FASCISM AND BOLSHEVISM FASCISM AND BOLSHEVISM
economy.... Socialism would be impossible without a fully devel-
I
economic base and a class conscious, politically astute proletariat.
l
?
Over the years, this very argument was to becomc ccntral to the rationale of
Fascism. Italy, before and after the First World War, was a marginally indus-
trialized nation, totally ill suited to serve as the stage for Marxist revolution.
Mussolini was rehearsing the arguments that had been made commonplace by
Italy's syndicalists in the years before the Great War.
those years, the young syndicalist Filippo Corridoni, who was to fall
the First World War, argued that in a community "still in its
clothes ... Iwithl three quarters of the nation ... at precapitalist levels, one
could hardly expect a Marxist revolution. [n a largely agrarian nation one could
expect to find a small entrepreneurial bourgeoisie inadequate to its
mental tasks, and an equally small collection of politically immature urban wage
i
"I workers uncertain in their loy;dties and irresolute in struggle. In such a nation,
Jili
the enjoinments of classical Marxism were all hut totally irrelevant, and any talk
of Marxist revolution was starkly unrealistic and heavv with theoretical and
historical anomalies.
IH
Marx and Engels had anticipated socialist revolution in the advanced indus-
trial societies---in England, Holland, Germany, and the United States. I') Only an
advanced industrial system could produce the material abundance capable of
supporting a classless society, in which "to each according to his needs and from
each according to his abilities" might serve as an operative principle. Revolution
in any other circumstances, Engels warned Marxists, would simply reproduce all
the "old filthy business" of inequitable distribution of limited goods, endemic
poverty, invidious class distinctions, and systematic oppression.
20
In an environ-
ment of anything less than full industrial development, there could be no talk of
the "vast majority" of the work force being composed of "class-conscious pro-
letarians."21 Under such circumstances, revolution would have to be undertaken
by declassed intellectuals leading petty bourgeois elements of the population-a
dismissed by both Marx and
By the first decade of the twentieth century some of the major Italian syn-
dicalists recognized that classical Marxism had very little to say to economically
retrograde communities facing the revolutionary challenges of the times. There
were those who argued that not only were the industrial preconditions for Marx-
ist revolution absent in Italy, but their absence meant that Italians, without the
general advantages of industrialization, were condemned to national inferiority,
foreign cultural domination, and international humiliation.
2l
Only rapid indus-
trialization and economic growth could mitigate the magnitude of the threats.
All these notions gradually matured into what was later to be identified as
the "revolutionary nationalism of the poor."21 It was a variant of revolutionary
Marxism designed to address the reality of less developed nations on the
ery of industrial capitalism. Its essentials included a mass-mobilizing strategy
and a state-sponsored program of extensive and intensive economic develop-
ment. Itwas a formula that was to appear and reappear among revolutionaries
everywhere in the industrially backward parts of the globe where people per-
ceived themselves as subject to the impostures of the "plutocracies."
All these convictions had made their appearance before the First World \Var.
Bef()fe his death in that war, as ;1 case in point, Filippo Corridoni argued that
syndicalist revolutionaries should promote the peninsula's industrial develop-
ment; they should assist the laggard bourgeoisie in their drive to industrialize;
and to that end they should be the advocates of a market-governed system and
liberal laws.
co
Blessed with abundant labor mobilized to good purpose,
would rapidly enter the machine age. Like the Italian Nationalists, Corridoni
identified revolution on the peninsula with reactive developmental nation-
alism-and dismissed orthodox Marxism, with its internationalism and class
warf:lre, as an irrelevance.
1
('
Thus, when Lenin to bring Marxist revolution to economically
Russia in [(P7, some of Italy's most aggressive Marxist theoreticians
dismissed the claim. IfMarxist revolution was impossible in Italy because of
its primitive economic circumstances, it was equally impossible in
RussiaY Russia was no more industrially mature than the Italian
In thc judgment of many of the revolutionary syndicalists, Lenin's
revolution in backward Russia could not possibly pass as "Marxist." None of
the minimum objective requirements for the advent of socialism existed there.
Whatever had transpired with the succession of the Bolsheviks to power in the
Russia of the tsars, it could not have heen a "proletarian" revolution.
As early as 1919, Olivetti rejected the suggestion that the Bolshevik revolu-
tion had even the remotest connection with classical Marxism. Not only did the
revolution violate every precondition established by classical Marxism as essen-
tial to proletarian revolution, but in the course of their coup, the Bolsheviks had
not only destroyed fixed capital, but alienated those with technological and
managerial skills as well. Lenin's revolutionaries had undermined the produc-
tive forces that were not only necessary for the ultimate attainment of socialism,
but essential to the very f()undation of collective life. Valuable plant,
and essential infrastructure were consumed in the tide of violence
by the Bolshevik coup, and there was no evidence that its leaders understood
how all this might he rectified or how any of it made sense in the effort to
establish socialism.
28
For Olivetti all this was evidence not only of revolutionary but of
135
agrossfailure tounderstandtheessentialsofMarxism.HearguedthatMarxism
identified the socialist revolution and the progress implicit in that revolution
withthemaximumdevelopmentofproductiveforces. Notonlyhad the Bolshe-
viks mounted a revolution before the forces ofproduction had matured to the
full measure required for the establishment ofsocialism; they had destroyed
the forces ofproduction in the process. For Olivetti, any organized violence
thatdoes notcontributetotheextensiveandintensivedevelopmentoftheforces
of production, whatever its pretended doctrinal rationale, was irretrievably
counterrevolutionary.29
By the early 1920S, these theses had become characteristicofthe syndicalist
critiqueofBolshevism. Taking their cue from traditional Marxism, syndicalist
thinkersidentifiedrevolutioninthetwentiethcenturywith"superiorproductiv-
ity." Withouttheability to sustain andenhance the productivityofthe commu-
nity, no meaningful social change would be possible. As a consequence ofthis
conviction, syndicalists maintained that whatever had taken place in Imperial
"II
Russia in 1917 had very little to do with meaningful revolution-and still less
'"
II with Marxistsocialism. Bolshevism had broughtalmostcompletedevastation to
the productive system ofthe community that it had captured. Having under-
III:
taken revolution in the wrongeconomic environment, the Bolsheviks had not
only compromised Marxism, they had participatedin whatwas theall buttotal
ii
:'1
!i'
destructionofthe productivecapacityofImperial Russia.
ill
IIII
Thelogicof theassessmentwasclear.Incountrieslackingextensiveindustri-
"
alization,revolutioncouldhardlybe "proletarian."Revolutionin less-developed
economies required"bourgeois"enterprise.Classical Marxism had madeir emi-
nently clear that only theentrepreneurial bourgeoisiecould industrialize retro-
gradeeconomicsystems. Itwas the bourgeoisie thatwould recreate themodern
world in its own image and provide the material foundation for the liberating
socialist revolution.
11
Sincethe bourgeoisiehad notcompleted their task in tsarist Russia, the Bol-
shevik revolution could not be "proletarian." The tasks before it were, in Elct,
"bourgeois."LiketheItalianNationalists,thesyndicalistsinsistedthatwhatever
the Bolsheviks had embarked upon in economically retrograde Russia, it could
hardlyhave been"Marxiansocialism."l2 Thetasks the Bolsheviksfaced in revo-
lutionary Russia were those which Marx had assigned to the bourgeoisie-the
economic development and industrialization ofan agrarian anachronism. The
Italiansyndicalistsinsistedthat,inthefinalanalysis,"history"wouldrequirethat
the Bolsheviks discharge "bourgeois" responsibilities by industrializing their
nation's economy. The syndicalists echoed the judgment ofEnrico Corradini:
thatthe"BolsheviksinRussia wereperformingthesamefunction as therevolu-
tionarybourgeoisieinpre-industrialEuropeduringtheFrenchRevolution."33
FASCISM AND BOLSHEVISM
Italian syndicalists, like the Nationalists of Enrico Corradini, simply re-
peated the admonitions ofEngels. In 1850, when Engels addressed the issue of
revolution ineconomicallyprimitiveenvironments,heaffirmedthatanyrevolu-
tionthatattemptedtoachievesocialresultsthatexceededtheproductivecapacity
oftheeconomywasdestined tofail. Underthecircumstances,any revolutionary
efforttoachievethestatedgoalsofMarxiansocialism ineconomicallybackward
environments would inevitably find itselfdriven back to exceedingly "narrow
limits." Whenrevolutionaries likethe religious visionary ThomasMuenzer,for
example, sought to "emancipate the oppressed" in conditions oflimited eco-
nomic development, the effort could only be abortive. In a primitive economic
environment, the leaders ofan "extreme party" could do little more than con-
struct "castles in air." Whatcould actually be accomplished was dependent not
upon the subjective will or intentions ofrevolutionaries, but "on the level of
developmentofthematerial meansof existence.""
Since the Bolshevikshad captureda primitiveeconomy,theirtask could not
be theeasy production ofequalityand abundance promised by the nineteenth-
century socialism ofKarl Marx. Their task could only be the arduous "right-
wing" rapid economic modernizationandindustrialdevelopmentcharacteristic
ofthe"bourgeoisepoch." Ifindustrial developmentwasnotthe inheritanceofa
preceeding period ofbourgeois enterprise, revolution in the twentieth century
required that the task be discharged by "classless" revolutionaries. Italian syn-
dicalists, Nationalists, and Futurists were to argue that those revolutionaries
would be Fascists, not Marxists.
1
' Fascism, they argued, was the socialism of
"proletariannations."
By Hp1, Fascist thinkers, who included in their number radical Marxists,
Nationalists, and philosophical Idealists, maintained that ifthe task that con-
fronted retrograde Russia was the rapid development ofits productive fiJrces,
nothingless could be said ofthe tasks thatconfronted the revolutionariesofthe
Italian peninsula. Several things followed, ifthe argumentwas accepted. Ifthe
taskofrevolutioninbackwardeconomicenvironmentswastherapidindustrial-
ization and material developmentofsociety, then manyofthe policies imposed
on a prostrate Russia by the Bolsheviks were "ahistorical."l(, Ifgrowth and
modernizationwerethetasksofrevolution,thenclasswarfareand theabolition
ofprivateproperty wereclearlycounterproductive.Disciplinedcollaborationof
all productive elements in a stable system would be a condition ofrapid and
sustainedeconomicgrowthY
If a retarded economic and industrial system was to be extensively and
intensivelydeveloped,thecontinuedexistenceofprivatepropertyand theincen-
tives that ownership afforded served a clear purpose in what remained essen-
tially a "bourgeois epoch." The ownership ofproperty provided performance
incentives, and the existence of a market provided a rational pricing system,
essential to any program of economic development. If rapid industrialization
and economic maturation were revolutionary responsibilities, private property
recommended itself. The continued existence of private property contributed to
conditions critical to the overall process of accelerated and technologically so-
phisticated growth.
is
Fascist critics argued that once the purpose of revolution had been made
transparent, hierarchical direction and control recommended themselves.l'i De-
velopment was understood to be a complex enterprise. It required political
stability, collective commitment, and the provision of incentives in political ar-
rangements that were structured and controlled. Developmental nationalism
required the existence of a tutelary state-something the Bolshevik revoilltion-
aries pretended not to understancl.
4o
Beyond that, it was clear to Fascists, as developmental nationalists, that
revolution in primitive socioeconomic systems would require not only an exem-
plary state presence, but individual and collective discipline and self-sacrifice as
well. With only limited welfare benefits available, moral incentives would have
to supplement them if collective effort were to be mobilized.
41
There would be
material incentives, but the primitive state of the national economy precluded
the possibility that material incentives alone would be sufficient to generate the
energy required.
42
It would be necessary to elicit from the masses both self-
sacrifice and an abiding commitment to the survival and enhancement of the
community.41 Nationalism would have to be an inextricable component of the
revol utiona ry ente rprise. 44
Fascism inherited the bulk of those arguments from the radical Marxists
who, by 19'9, joined its ranks as organized National Syndicalists.
4
) The National
Syndicalists had argued that Italy, a "proletarian" nation, with a population that
exceeded the support capacity of its soil, lacking raw materials, and capital-poor,
would never escape the trap of collective poverty and powerlessness in the
modern world unless political and social revolution united all its people in a
disciplined national enterprise of systematic, expanding, increasingly sophisti-
cated production. Such a program would necessitate a state-sponsored sacrificial
program of frugality, intensive labor, and collective enterprise in the effort to
create a "Greater Italy."46 Material incentives were useful, but the ultimate en-
ergy had to be forthcoming from the enthusiasm of masses, mobilized to the
national purpose in "heroic" commitmentY
Fascists were convinced that economic development constituted a reality
that imposed itself on revolutionaries in backward economies. "Its iron laws"
ii:i
I'i;!
were considered "infrangible." Among the "infrangible laws" was that which
1,,1 Ii,:
"
;i required that "those who abolish property rights during the early phases of
Ii
rapid industrial growth and economic modernization must necessarily restore
them ... and those who attempt to do without spiritual, intellectual and moral
hierarchies during the unfolding process are constrained to reestablish them."
Fascist intellectuals argued that the failures of the Bolsheviks in Russia were
object lessons confirming the necessities of a market economy predicated on
private property, the existence of a hierarchically structured state, and a program
for mass mobilization in an enterprise of national regeneration.
4H
Even before
Fascism came to power, the National Syndicalists argued that Lenin's Bolsheviks
had failed to understand the logic of their circumstances and, as a consequence,
had brought ruin to tsarist Russia and its associated territories. The Bolsheviks
had thrown Russia into turmoil in the pursuit of "proletarian internationalism,"
"class warfare," and egalitarian "socialism." The outcome was the destruction of
much of the productive potential of Imperial Russia. By 1921, the Bolshevik
revolution had brought the former Russian empire to the brink of total collapse,
and its population to destitution.
By 1920 or 1921, most of the Marxist critics of Bolshevism in the ranks of
Italian National Syndicalism had already marshaled themselves under the gui-
dons of Fascism. As a consequence, orthodox Marxists dismissed their criticisms
of Bolshevism as the flawed reasoning of Marxist apostates. Leninists chose to
dismiss their arguments and gave themselves over to an interpretation of Italian
Fascism devoid of substance and innocent of insight.
Not only did Marxist-Leninist theoreticians fail to understand Fascism, as a
consequence of their dismissal of the substantive analysis of the Italian National
Syndicalists, they were compelled, as a consequence, to attempt to put together
their own interpretation of the curious revolution they had imposed on economi-
cally primitive Eastern Europe. To that end, between November 1919 and May
1920, Nikolai Bukharin, one of Bolshevism's major ideologues, produced a man-
uscript that attempted a Marxist explanation of the events that had overwhelmed
Russia.
4
')
Bukharin sought to deliver a persuasive interpretation of how Marxist revo-
lution might take place in an environment not only devoid of an industrial base,
but lacking the proletarian masses necessary for armed rebellion.'{) What re-
sulted was a somewhat quaint manuscript that set the pattern for Marxist-
Leninist responses for the next quarter-century.
In his Preface, Bukharin counselled the proletariat, the "Prometheus class"
of world history, to prepare itself for the "inevitable pain of the period of transi-
tion" between capitalism and the liberation of communism." That pain and
privation were costs that would have to be borne by the Russian people was the
consequence of the peculiar circumstances that surrounded the death throes of
industrial capitalism. Nothing in the corpus of traditional Marxism suggested
III
139
nomic circumstances was not the consequence offailing to understand the re-
sponsibilities offomenting revolution in primitiveeconomic conditions: it was
thepricepaidbya vanguardforparticipationinwhatwould
torious tide of "proletarian revolution." The worldwide victory ofsocialism
wouldbringthemissingindustrialpotentialof capitalismwithit,asaprizeY'So-
cialism would have itsmaterialfoundation,and theintegrityof classical Marxist
ductrinewould be restored.
For Bukharin,theentire Bolshevikenterprise wasperceived asanelaborate
holdingaction,a preliminaryfor theflllal "ineluctable,andinevitable"universal
proletarian revolution'>?Withtheadherenceoftheworld proletariat,thesocial-
ist revolution wouldfinally deliveronthepromisesofMarxism.
Outofthisargument,whatwastobecometheorthodoxstandardinterpreta-
tionof wastobefabricated. Fascismwasconceivedofas anextensionof
thestrategiesemployedby moribundcapitalism tosecurea future. Justas inter-
driven the world to war in a frantic effort to halt the
overall rateofprofit,so It,lly's rulingbourgeoisiehadcreated,subvcn-
and directed Fascism to the same purpose. The defeat ofthe "pro-
letarian rt'vnllltion" in Italv meant thatthe peninsula wasdoomed to lapse into
the most
fomentthe
tive levels ofthe prewar
ofa
violence and terror, inflicted amidst
chauvinism,couldsustainsoretn"""
Aswe haveseen, this wasthe
theory. It was to mesmerize not only
conditions. WhereverMarxistsfailed to
of
irrationalities and ritual
Marxist
of
Westernacademicsas well. Itwasthe productof abstract
premlses.
Italian syndicalists had traversed muchofthe ground covered by Bukharin
beforetheFirstWorldWar. Thosesyndicalists whohad joined theFascist ranks
after the war, probably without having read Bukharin'saccount, implicitly re-
jected all theprincipal theses ofhisEconomy ofthe Period ofTransition. Firstand
foremost, Fascists rejected the notion that the revolutionaries of the twenti-
eth centurycould anywhereexpecta "saving international revolution" to solve
urgent national problems.'s Italian Syndicalists, Nationalists, and neo-Idealists
all that the internationalism in which the Bolsheviks had invested so
much was a fiction. Itwas a fiction because the reality ofthe world
was that limited associations ofpersons, identifying themselves through con-
orrealaffinities,sacrificedandstruggled toenhancetheirsurvival poten-
tial in contests with similarly disposed groups in similar circumstances.
59
At
lil
l
!Ii'l
I:!
IIII
us FASCISM AND BOLSHEVISM
thatthe revolution and the transition to a socialist society would involve priva-
tionofbiblical proportions.'2Lenin'sState and Revolution, writtenalmostimme-
diately befi)retheOctoberRevolution.seemed to suggest that while the revolu-
tionitselfwouldinvolvetheviolenceof smashingthe"bourgeoisstate"andall its
" the transition from capitalist to socialist society would be
Inhisaccount,Bukharin that revolution in Russia had been sodiffi-
cult because it had been the first ofwhat soon would bea universal
He maintained that the Great Warsignaled
"GeneralCrisis"of industrial Hemain-
tained that the Great War had been the final tremor ofa
the secular decline in the rate of
society had been driven by cupidity and intense competition into
armedconilict."Thewarthatf()lIowed hadexacteditsrevenge.Ithad
theeconomicfounclatiomof internationalcapitalism. Driven towarinanefTort
to restore theirprofits,capitalistshadcondemnedtheirsystem toextinction.
Thewarhad drawnotTmillionsoflaborcrstoserveas cannon fodder in the
trenches of Verdun and Flanders. The massacre ofyoung men had cost the
system hundredsofmillions ofman-hours oflabor, as well as a "massive anni-
hilation ofproductive forces."54 Thelosses in manpower and capabilitiesfatally
imp;lired a system already grievously wounded by the extraordinary burden
placed upon it by the need to supply the appurtenancesofwar. In Bukharin's
judgment,oncethewarwasover,capitalismwould notbeableto reconstructthe
internationalcapitalisteconomy. Capitalism had lapsed into thefinal crisis pre-
dicted by Marxist theory. As a consequence ofthat eventuality, the proletarian
revolutionhad becomeinevitableand inescapable.
Marxism-Leninism had no choice but to lead a "proletarian" revolution in
circumstances largely devoid ofproletarians. Revolutions are made where they
can be made. Like Lenin, Bukbarin was convinced that revolution in Europe
and in themostadvanced capitaliststates would follow closeon the heelsofthe
revolution in Imperial Russia. The postwar socialist revolution had become as
inevitable"as thefinalcrisisof
would condemnhumankindto
advent ofsocialism at
thatwould
very survival ofthe
desti tution.
'Ibf3il to mounta revolution in such 'umsl;mces_ whatever the seeming
ofclassical Marxist
a time when the
follow
.. __ )0
irresponsible. It
Itwould postponethe
contraction ofeconomic
final crisis would threaten the
Il1
For Bukharin, the fact that Bolshevik Russia found itselfin eco-
I
I
I"
140
FASCISM AND BOLSHf,VISM
various times and in various climes there would be different
different out-groups-but there would always be groups animated
tions that were group-sustaining.
on
In the world of the twentieth century, a
seamless internationalism that failed to recognize the intense nationalism that
arose in response to real and fancied humiliations was an implausible fiction that
flew in the face of overwhelming evidence.
Given the economic and strategic demands of the modern world, the nation
had become, for Fascist theorists, the most effective vehicle for group competi-
tion and survival. Fascist theoreticians always argued that Marx and the Marxists
never understood the contemporary force of nationalism, because they j ~ l i l e to
its sources in the evolutionary history of humankind and its function
in the modern world. As a result. Marxists alwavs underestimated the
roots of national sentiment and so f ~ l i l e to the effectiveness of
identification and the utilitv of national in the mobilization of
the masses in the service of a collective enterprise.
If nationalism was an expression of an affirmative identification with a com-
m unity sharing similar interests in an environment of intense competition, Fas-
cists argued, then internationalism was a doctrinal fiction that served only the
policy concerns of "sated" nations, those "plutocratic" commodity- and capital-
exporting communities, that sought to insure their unrestricted access to market
supplements and investment outlets in the less developed regions of the worlcl.'.i
Internationalism was the "moral" pretext for economic imperialism. Either that,
or it served as the last refuge of timid souls.
Fascists :lnrued that there was very little substance in the internationalism of
Marxism-Leninism. There was no evidence that Illasses"
identified themselves with any of internationalism. The Great WJr
had demonstrated that human beings identified with communities of limited
compass, and that internationalism was an empty dream. Fascists argued that
internationalism served conservative, rather than purposes in the
world of the twentieth century. The advanced industrial nations, cxoloitine: the
less developed economies on their were the conservative advocates of
international stability and peace.
"Proletarian nations," those beset by economic limitations and general pov-
erty, could only be ill served by internationalism. Internationalism was a product
oflate capitalism, serving the "free trade" interests of imperialism and designed
to disarm the resistance of the poor. The notion that nations suffering economic
retardation in the modern world might be salvaged by some kind of interna-
tional proletarian revolution was, at best, delusiona\.62 It was far more likely that
any commitment to internationalism would leave economically backward na-
tions the victims ofexploitation -in a state of perpetual dependency and inescap-
VCIUIJIIlt:IIl. Long before the "New Left" of the 19705 discovered
" the first Fascists had given it critical space in their inter-
of the modern world.
Fascist arguments were more critical of Bolshevik theoretical
than was by their dismissal of internationalism and their invocation of
a version of dependency theory. Very early in the period, f(}r Mussolini
argued against the claim that industrial capitalism had exhausted its potential
and that the Marxist apocalyptic "final crisis" was at hand. Mussolini held that
not only had industrial capitalism survived the Great War, but that it gave every
evidence of embarking on an expanded cycle of growth. He went on to maintain
that "capitalism has just commenced its trajectory of growth.... There are
immense continents such as Asia, Africa, Australia, and a large part of the
Western Hemisphere, that await development. Capitalism remains almost exclu-
while it is dear that it is destined to become global."6l
Given the reiection of some of the major premises of the Marxist interpreta-
tion of the political, and social circumstances of the early twentieth
century, Fascist intellectuals dismissed the entire argument extended by the early
Bolsheviks. The Bolshevik revolution was not "inevitable." It was an adventure
conducted by those who imagined themselves Marxists. but who had no clear
conception of what they were about.
By 1924, the theoreticians of Fascism had rejected all Bukharin's arguments.
Capitalism had not exhausted its potential, and the international
revolution would not save the Russian Revolution. The Bolsheviks would have
to make do with what they had. In doing with what they had, the Fascists
argued, the Bolsheviks would find that they would be driven to fall back on
nationalism, restore the preeminent and directive state hierarchy that sustains it,
and embark on a developmental program for the devastated national economy.64
For at least those reasons, Mussolini insisted not only that Marxism was
irrelevant to Russian circumstances, but that it was irrelevant to the history of
our time. Mussolini conceived of the world as divided into advanced, "pluto-
cratic" nations and those nations that were less developed. The industrially
advanced nations would continue to profit through the expansion of capitalism-
Marxism had very little relevance for them. Those nations that were Hl ate de-
velopers," on the other
nationalism," or "class
sustained economic growth and technological development.
6
'l
Mussolini argued that reality had thrust that truth on a reluctant Lenin.
1920, Lenin had attempted to restart the Soviet economy with the
of his New Economic Policy. He had allowed the reemergence of some
ownership and the restoration of free markets for the sale of some
142 FASCISM AND BOLSHEVISM
produce. He had allowed private enterprise on the of the system he had
created. And he was prepared to make generous concessions to foreign capitalists
if they would invest capital in, and help manage, the newborn "socialist" com-
munity. At some stage in that involutionary process, Lenin, the anti-capitalist
Marxist revolutionary and irrepressible anti-nationalist internationalist, lapsed
into extending concessions to capitalists and capitalism, as well as enjoining the
"proletarians" to serve their "socialist fatherland."('b
1924 or 192') it had become obvious that there would be no "saving
revolution" in the West that would rescue the "proletarian" revolution in
what had been the emDire of the tsars. the Bolsheviks. there was a
a Marxist rationale for the unanticipated sequence of events
and the implications it brought in its train. It was evident that Lenin had no clear
idea of what was transpiring, nor did he offer a clear program of resolution.
Even before his death in l<i24, it seemed obvious that Lenin had lost control of
his revolution.
In 1917, two months before the Bolsheviks seized state power, Lenin had
written that, fi)llowing the victory of the proletarian revolution, the abolition of
the state bureaucracy would be the most distinguishing feature of the "dictator-
ship of the proletariat." At that time, Lenin was convinced that the revolution
would inherit the institutional maturity of an advanced industrial economy.
to the notions of traditional Marxist theory, Lenin believed that by the
time of the capital would have so simplified production
and after the "proletarian" seizure of power, the
could be !!overned bv exceedingly simple opera-
In retrospect, it seems evident that either Lenin knew nothing about the
primitive state of the Russian economy, or he that the Bolshevik
revolution would be immed iately followed by world revolution. I f the latter was
the case, it soon became apparent that there would be no "saving revolution"
from the industrialized West that might deliver the vast resources, technolog
plant, and institutional and managerial sophistication to render social-
ism viable.i\9 As a consequence, once it became clear that the revolution would be
confined to the political boundaries of the former Russian empire, Lenin was
compelled to create a complex bureaucratic state apparatus to ensure the most
efficiency of the primitive economy under his
control.
In the years between the Bolshevik coup and his death, Lenin lamented the
conditions" of Dostrevolutionarv Russia. He complained of the "semi-
fASCISM AND BOLSHEVISM 143
Asiatic and "barbarism" ofthe Russian working class. He recog-
nized that what the Bolshevik economy required was "Prussian railroad effi-
and organization of trusts plus American
and so forth,'11 In effect. what the emer!!in!! Soviet
Union required was economic and industrial
would have to be purchased by the revolutionaries by desperately hard labor.
Italy's National Syndicalists had been right. The tasks faced by the revolution
were not those Marx had identified as "liberating"; they were t;lsks that could
only be discharged under the direction of an authoritarian state.
Before his death, Lenin recognized that his government would have to
clothe, and house an entire population. At the very least, the new government
was required to "keep going until the socialist revolution Iwasl victorious in the
more developed countries." The new regime could not endure unless "large-
scale machine industry" and all its adjuncts could be put together in marginally
industrialized Russia.?1 In order to satisfy its responsibilities, the Bolshevik lead-
undertook a "strategic retreat" to "re-create" a f()fm of capitalism that
would be "subordinate to the state and serve the state."72 The unabashed appeal
to the and hierarchical state confirmed all the anticipatory
advanced years before by the Italian National Syndicalists and the
heretical Marxists among the Fascists.
Once Lenin passed into history, those who followed were compelled to
pursue some variant ofthe course he had initiated. Bcf()re his death, Lenin made
Josef Stalin General Secretary of the Party, and it was Stalin who decided to
embark upon an intense program to "build socialism in one country." Bolshe-
vism had taken on all the major features of a developmental dictatorship. By the
time Stalin made that decision, anyone with independent judgment could recog-
nize what had happened. By then, even Bukharin recognized that the circum-
stances in which the "proletarian revolution" found itself required a develop-
mental strategy vastly different from anything to be found in the works of
traditional Marxism.
Bukharin advocated a developmental strategy involving the collaboration of
the the peasantry, and the bourgeoisie under the auspices of the
state." Over and above the conditional collaboration of classes, the
state would ensure the civil peace and order essential to rapid industrialization
and development. The nonregime Marxists in Europe, including those who
had into Fascist ranks, had been correct. "Socialism" in the Stalinist
Soviet Union had devolved into a state- and party-dominant system that would
have been totally
"Marxist Russia" had been transformed into a nationalism.
The state, with all its "bourgeois" attributes. was restored. It would ensure social
145
I"
ii'
'Ii
/
l
,I"
,I
,'
I
!"I
I
II,
1;;
I
1, I'll
'I
II
II
144 FASCISM AND BOLSHEVISM
tranquility, control labor, extract surplus, and mobilize resources to serve the
ends of the "socialist fatherland," all under the auspices of a hegemonic party
dominated by a "charismatic leader."74 Already at that stage in the process of
involution, there were many Marxists and non-Marxists who recognized the
emerging features. Bukharin, originally a major architect of the new political
system, began to be troubled.
Evgeni Preobrazhenski, certainly less troubled, provided a new "Marxist"
rationale for the emerging system. Because the post-Leninist system required not
only restarting a stalled economy, but its extensive and intensive growth, Pre-
obrazhenski recommended a program of "primitive socialist accumulation" of
capital that, by the late 1920S, would grow into massive "tribute" to be extracted
from the peasant and urban working classes. Incalculable sums were to be
invested by the state in a capital-intensive developmental program.
Once the decision had been made to industrialize a peasant economy, the
new Soviet state assumed more and more onerous extractive functions in order
to supply the capital necessary to fuel and sustain economic growth and develop-
ment. It also assumed more and more directive functions as those parts of the
economy allowed to operate through market exchanges contracted. More and
more of public life was governed by a complex hierarchy of bureaucratic state in-
stitutions responsible only to a small, self-selected committee of party stalwarts.
"Soviet patriotism" provided the focus for collective sacrifice and obedience-
and Josef Stalin loomed ever larger over the entire system as the Vozhd, the
"Leader" and "Father of Peoples."
In the course of all this, the entire system took on the further properties of an
epistemocracy. Rule in the Soviet Union was reserved exclusively to those who
knew and accepted the "Truth." In 1924, Trotsky had unselfconsciously insisted
that all Marxists commit themselves to the proposition that the Communist
Party (Bolshevik) was "always right."75 By the time Stalin assumed dictato-
rial control, "Marxism-Leninism"-the "only true social science"-Iegitimated
single-party rule and was accorded the role of inerrant guide to the conduct of all
Marxist revolutionaries. Just like Fascism, Stalinism had discovered that charis-
matic rule implied that leadership must be understood to be "always right."
Leadership, party, and state dominance of an entire complex system could ra-
tionally be justified only by a claim to inerrancy.
By the time of these developments, Bukharin's misgivings were irrepressible.
He began to allude to the "fascist" features of the emerging system.
7
1> By the early
1930S, the "convergence" of Fascism and Stalinism struck Marxists and non-
Marxists alike. In 1934, Drieu La Rochelle was "profoundly convinced that
Stalinism was a semi-fascism."77 By the mid-1930s, even Trotsky could insist that
"Stalinism and fascism, in spite of deep difference in social foundations, are
symmetrical phenomena."7H
During those years, a number of Fascist authors alluded to the doctrinal and
institutional features shared by Italian Fascism and Stalin's socialism. They did
so in part to affirm the "universality of the Fascist idea" and in part to confirm
the predictive competence of the earliest Fascist theorists, whose schooling in
traditional Marxism had led them to anticipate the kinds of social and political
instrumentalities that the accelerated economic development of a primitive econ-
omy would require in the modern world.
As early as 1934, Fascists had argued that "in the course of its development,
the Russian revolution has gradually given evidence of fully abandoning Marxist
postulates and of a gradual, if surreptitious, acceptance of certain fundamental
political principles identified with Fascism."7') Just as the National Syndicalists
had suggested, Bolshevism could be viable only if it abandoned the substance of
the Marxism it pretended was its inspiration.
More than that, toward the end of the 1930S, serious Fascist theorists sought
to emphasize the fact that Bolshevism, as a form of Marxism, had entirely
misconstrued the challenges of the contemporary world. Soviet doctrinal litera-
ture continued to feature internationalist, democratic, anti-statist, and socialist
themes-at a time when Stalinism was becoming increasingly more nationalist,
authoritarian, and statist, and manifestly less socialist.
HII
By the I 930s, Stalinism had transformed itself in its efforts to respond effec-
tively to challenges it had not anticipated and with which it was not prepared to
cope. In attempting to address the problems generated by the effort to industrial-
ize the Soviet Union, the Stalinist regime reinterpreted the central theses of clas-
sical Marxism and "dialectically" transformed the anarcho-syndicalist and anti-
statist ideas of Lenin into "political formulae calculated to galvanize the Russian
people to the service of industrial development and nationalist purpose."HI
With the redefinition of the goals of the revolution came a series of program-
matic revisions. There was no longer any pretense of "proletarian" or working-
class control of the means of production. Production, its organization, and its
management were all state-governed. Labor unions became agencies of the state,
"transmission belts" for directives from the Kremlin. By the mid- I 930S, Stalinism
had created the most complex, hierarchical, authoritarian state structure in his-
torv.
82
Together with the state, Stalin created one of the most impressive coercive
machines ever. For national security, vast quantities of scarce capital and technol-
ogy were invested in the Soviet armed forces. Never again was Russia to be de-
feated in battle because ofits "backwardness." The military was to become a dom-
inant Soviet institution, and its heroes were to serve as models for Soviet citizens.
146 FASCISM AND BOLSIU:V!SM
For domestic security, resources were lavished on to con-
demonstrative and
lactic terror. with state control of information and all these
management mechanisms the requisite compliant behav-
ior. Gone was thc frcnctic anti-nationalism, anti-statism, and anti-
militarism of the days of the revolution that had made socialism the mortal
enemy of "right-wing" Fascism."; There was a pervasive recognition that Stalin-
ism, as a system, had "dialectically thrown overboard the principles in whose
name" the Boishevisk revolution had been undertaken, and that "Marxist-
Leninist principles" had been transf()[/l1ed into their" 'contraries,' that is to say,
the ideas that provide body and substance to the Fascism of Mussolini."H4
Fascist theoreticians pointed out that the with
total-
itarian hierarchical stratification, all
under the dominance of the inerrant state, rnrrF''')"n in f()rm, to the require-
ments of Fascist doctrine.
The people of the Soviet Union were urged to work and sacrifice in the
collective eff()rt to assure their nation's greatness, to secure its historic hound-
aries, and ensure its sovereignty in a hostile world.
HI
' Soviet citizens had a mis-
sion, determined not by class consciousness or simple economic It
was a mission informed by Soviet patriotism. by a
community, and an irresistible sense of
inculcation through central control of
constituted a dear recO!:rnition that in whatever had bibl,
and that "the Kremlin was to tread the already undertaken by
Fascism."H7
Towards the end of the I930S, few Fascist intellectuals denied that the social
and political system put together in the Soviet Union
that hy Fascism.
HH
Whatever distinctions were drawn, and however
emphatically those distinctions were insisted upon, no Fascist intellectual failed
to note the significant institutional and behavioral similarities of Fascism and
Stalinism.
In 1933, after the Fascist had passed through periods of relative
liberalism and economic UllW"7.-TI11 Mussolini announced that "corporativism,"
the system of the Fascist state, involved the "complete
and totalitarian regulation of production with a view to the expansion of
the wealth, political power and well-being of the Italian pcople."8') As early as the
end of the 1920S, Fascists had spoken of the corporate state as
coordinating and harmonizing all the forms of productive that contrib-
ute to the progressive increments in material wealth of the nation.
With that characterization of the Fascist state, Fascist theorists were pre-
to acknowledge that not only had Soviet "communism gravitated in-
creasingly to the right, ... Fascism had moved increasingly toward the left. The
conviction that there was an absolute antithesis between Moscow and Rome on
matters dealing with the national economy, was false." Fascist intellectuals antic-
ipated that both systems would ultimately fuse, to produce the I!eneral outline of
an economy that satisfied the needs of the twentieth century.
Fascism's major intellectual spokesmen did not hesitate to Klentifv the slm-
ilarities of Fascism and Stalinism. Ugo Spirito, one of Fascism's foremost theore-
maintained that Fascism and Bolshevism, as the two revolutionary sys-
tems of the modern world, shared fundamental affinities. He argued that those
affinities would ultimately lead to a "synthesis": Fascism, a "superior revolution-
ary form," would absorb "everything 31ive and fruitful" to be found in that
Bolshevism that had already abandoned the critical postulates of Marxism.'!Z
Mussolini himself argued that because of the singular conditions of the
twentieth century, the "corporate solution" would "force itself to the fore every--
where." He was convinced that the Soviet Union had already traversed much of
the distance between the "Sovietism" of the Bolshevik revolution of 1917 and a
future Fascism, through the "crypto-fascism" of Josef Stalin.
Mussolim identified some of the major distinctions
Fascism from Stalinism. Among them were Fascism's qualified de-
fense of private property and a disposition to proceed "circumspectly in the fielel
of economy.""4 Fascism, he maintained, was prepared to experiment with vari-
ous forms of control and guidance of the nation's economy but was ill disposed to
exclusively bureaucratic institutionalization.'" In Fascist Italv, thl: basic features
of an essentially market economy were to be preserved.
The bscism that Mussolini anticipated would hecome dominant in the twen-
tieth century would be a fascism having all the major attributes of the Stalinism
of the Soviet Union, but private property and the market, to provide
both a rational price structure for the entire system and some measure of overall
eHiciency:)(' The suppression of private property and the market in
the Soviet Union ofJosefStalin was sufficient, in the eyes of Fascist theoreticians,
to distinguish it from the paradigm.
Stalinism was only one of the modern systems gradually adapting itself to the
model. Fascist theorists fully expected to see such systems ultimately transtorm
themselves into perfect analogs of the model they had provided on the Italian
They fully the twentieth century to be a century of Fascism.
By the end of the 19305, Italian Fascism had entered its fmal War had
been successfully fought in Spain, and Fascism had embarked upon the acquisi-
tion ofcolonies that it imagined would provide the raw materials fundamental to
148 FASCISM AND BOLSlIEVISM
the self-sustained and self-sustaining industrialization of the Italian peninsula.
9
!
By the middle of 1937, Fascism was being drawn further and further into the
maelstrom of what would be the Second World War.
For Mussolini, Fascist Italy fi:lCed the "plutocratic nations" in what he con-
ceived to be a decisive contest filr sovereign independence, cultural autonomy,
space, resources, and international 98 The inequities of the modern
world were to be finally resolved. The "proletarian peoples" would
secure their place in the sun.
Fascism was consumed in the world war that followed. What it left behind
was an interrelated set of concepts that afforded an interpretation of
an accounting of the revolutionary movements of our time, and an interpretation
of how Fascism itself was to be understood. Through the two decades that
followed the advent of Fascism on the Italian peninsula until its disappearance in
the Second World War, Marxist-Leninist thinkers persisted in the interpretation
of fascism they had jerry-built out of the conjectures of Nikolai Bukharin.
During the interwar years they had used this interpretation to very little theoret-
ical effect. Captives of that interpretation, Marxist-Leninist theoreticians f ~ i l e
to understand not only their own system, but almost everything of importa
that was occurring around them. In the decades that followed, they and the
regime that Marxism-Leninism had built were swept away. Out of the collapse,
the anticipated Russian fascism made its fulsome appearance.
Fascism,Marxism,andRace
That Soviet Marxists, with the collapse of the regime they had legitimated for
seven decades, found themselves drawn to some variant of fascism is explicable,
it can be argued, once one understands something of Mussolini's Fascism. With-
out the thicket of confusions that impaired Marxist thought after the failure of
revolution in the advanced capitalist countries, the reactive national-
ism that had alwavs inspired Russian radical thou2:ht took on the logic of Fas-
cism. Fascism spoke to the of those nations that con-
ceived themselves as treated as inferiors by the "advanced powers." The informal
logic of reactive nationalism reveals itself in the postures assumed by less devel-
oped countries in the twentieth century.
With the collapse of the Soviet Union from "superpower" to a nuclear armed
"third world nation," the entire psychology of a humbled nation is engaged. In
the ruins of the former Soviet Union, humiliation and despair fuel a reactive
nationalism that should be familiar to those who know something of revolution
in the twentieth century. The mythic appeals to a glorious past, the anti-liberal
and anti-democratic posturing, the irredentist reconstruction of empire, the ap-
peal to a "magnificent state," and the anticipated role of "heroic" elites-are all
reminiscent of the Fascist revolution.
Beyond that, however, is something more ominous. If Marxism in less devel-
oped environments is condemned to devolve into some form of fascism, how
much of fascism will be accommodated in the process? One of the features of
fascism that Western academics have tended to identify as peculiarly "right-
is "racism." Racism has been made the defining property of "right-wing
extremism" and singularly characteristic of fascism.
That racism has surfaced in the political notions of Russia's new nationalists
and old communists has created a puzzle for those who divide the
if
149
"
FASCISM, MARXISM, AND RACE 150
universe into left: and right Because of the presence of "racist thought"
among former communists and current nationalists in Russia, many commenta-
tors have begun to refer to the "die-hard communists" of Eastern Europe as
"right-wing extremists." Entirely unsclfconscious about the paradox involved in
such creative naming, these commentators have stumbled on a feature of senes-
cent Marxism they would rather leave unexplored.
There is an interesting historic connection between Marxism and racism that
is rarely considered. That contemporary Marxists have found refuge in one or
another form of racism has perplexed analysts, simply because no thought is
given to that connection. Most recently, the convoluted ethnobiological work of
Lev Nikolaevich Gumilev has become a doctrinal favorite among those Marxist-
Leninists in post-Soviet Russia who have made the easy transition from "left" to
"right." Gumilev's major work, Ethnogenesis and the Biosphere, was written as a
supplement to, and an application of, the historical materialism of Karl Marx,
and was published as such by the MarxistLeninist state nublishin2: house before
the definitive collapse of the Soviet Union.
Concerned with the rise and fall of civilizations and the formation and de-
cline ofethnoi, Gumilev's work has been assessed as "racist" by critics.
1
Whether
credible or not, it is clear that Gumilev's discussions turn on the evolution of
ethnic communities that, in time, stabilize themselves as nations and civiliza-
tions-not simply as socioeconomic and political communities, but as
cal realities ... surrounded by a social envelope of some sort."
Gumilev insists that his concepts have nothing to do with traditional racial
but he does speak of ethnogenesis as a complex biological process that,
over time, sees ethnoi organized as tribes, clans, city-states, and more
configurations, ultimately to find expression in the history of nations. I Ie speaks
of ethnoi as "stable collectives of individuals each of which opposes itself to all
other similar collectives.'"
In opposing themselves to out-groups, the survival needs of ethnoi
the cultivation of behaviors "by which the interests of the collective will become
higher than personal ones," Gumilev holds that "group sentiment," out-group
enmity and in-group amity, is a common element in the evolution of ethnoi and
the history of nations, and that collectivities must inculcate norms of behavior
that enhance the survival, perpetuity, and prevalence of the community.4
The entire life of ethnoi is sustained by emotions of attraction and repug-
nance, of self-sacrifice, commitment, discipline, and "drive." Ethnoi arise, ex-
pand, stabilize, contract, and decay in response to "an irrational ... passionate ...
for power" that invests not only individuals, but entire ethnoi, in the
perpetual struggle for survival and triumph that is at the center ofethnogenesis."
The ethnoi that survive and prevail in that struggle, create "superethnoi"-
civilizations that shape the history of the world.
Ethnoi are "natural," complex products of geography, genetic mixture, biol-
ogy, group affinities, economic, cultural, and political influences all finding ex-
pression in a mode of production, language, faith, and a sense of historic destiny.6
Each ethnos results from the "creation of a new stereotype of behavior" that
defines it, with each new "stereotype" anslllg from instinctive ac-
tivity."7 The new "stereotype" is cultivated in each political community sanc-
tioned social norms communicated through education and often
and ritual.
However one wishes to interpet all this, Gumilev's ideas share considerable
similarities with Fascist doctrine as formulated by some of Fascism's most nota-
ble thinkers. There is the suggestion that nationalism and some form of "racism"
share some relationship in the ideologies of reactive nationalism. I n Fascism,
biological racism played only a marginal role.
s
It bore very little, if any,
similarities to the biological determinism that was at the heart of Hitler's Na-
tional Socialism. Fascism's "racism" was a form of racism that grew out of the
intense nationalism that animated the system. As such, it was an part of
Fascist doctrine before the appearance of National Socialism. It was a predictable
product of reactive nationalism.
A case f()r the contention that some form of racism is a product of reactive
nationalism can be made by considering Fascist thought as a paradigmatic in-
stance of reactive nationalism. Fascism gave rise to a form of racism that the
more competent Fascist thinkers articulated, Fascist intellectuals celebrated, and
which, in our own time, Marxist-Leninists have begun to mimic.
Fascists identified their revolution with a "new era of Inational!
ment."'! This notion implied that the international community had entered into a
protracted period of revolution in which poor and less developed nations would
be compelled to put together a strategy designed to allow them to effectively
compete against those nations that enjoyed the advantage of early industrializa-
tion.
w
Such a strategy almost invariably involved "proletarian nations" in a
program of rapid economic development in order to produce a domestic indus-
trial base for industrially retarded nations capable of providing credible defen-
sive potential as well as substantial power projection.
Given these sorts of convictions, Sergio Panunzio, one of the reglme's most
ideologues, identified the "breaking out of the vicious circle of under-
development" as one of Fascism's principal responsibilities. Italy, capital-poor,
oppressed by the burden of overpopulation, and without natural resources,
would have to undertake an arduous program of raoid industrial ripupl"",.....,pn'
153 152 FASCISM, MARXISM, AND RACE
andeconomicgrowthifitweretosurviveandprevailinthefrenetic
II
ofthetwentiethcentury.Sustained,intensecollaborationbetweenall
elements, under the superintendence ofan authoritarian "national
would be required ifthatweretobeaccomplis
To assure the
have toassume
ties that would provide in such a way
Ii
the state,
outsidethestate,and
thestate."12 ForFascism,thestate
structure by the state, was understood to
ofcollective and individual realization, without which life
was without meanin2' or purpose. The nation was conceived ofas the gift of
the moral foundation ofself-realization, the hope for
and the inspirational "myth"ofthe present.
14
Given
form by the state, the "nation"was thecentral empirical and normative
conceptin Fascisttheory.It wasthenationthatmustarmitselfinordertopursue
its renovativemission. A nation united, inspired by its antiquityand its accom-
plishments, led by a charismatic elite, and informed by a strong state, would
createthematerial meansnecessary to prevailagainst"plutocratic"enemies.
In theory, Marxists refused to considerthepossibility thatnationalismcould
serveanysuchends.ForMarxists,nationalism hadtobea subterfuge,acontriv-
anceemployed by the "class enemies" ofthe proletariat to servecapitalistinter-
estsandcorruptrevolutionary"class consciousness."
ForFascists,nationalismwastheirprimary"myth,"andaroundthat"central
and dominant" concept, all the "thought, doctrine and literature ofFascism"
collecteditself.
I
' Itwasamythic"exaltationoftheFatherland"thatwas toserve
as the emotional foundation intended to assure system maintenance and the
realization ofdevelopmental goals.II> Thenation, its history, its past its
antiquityanditsattainmentsalloccupiedspacein thepoliticalimageryofFascist
mobilization.
InItaly,inthedecadebeforeandthetwodecadesoftheregime,proto-fascist
and Fascist an enormous body ofdoctrinal literature
tn ')" ,)".,Inc;< 'lnA ofthe conceptsnation and nationalism.17
material in this body ofliterature
was the work ofsome ofthe century's most gifted political theorists-Roberto
Michelsamongthem,18 Michelswas notonlya classic political theorist, he was a
Fascist as well.19
unliketheMarxistsofhistimeandsince, treatedtheconceptsnation
andnationalism seriously.Hetreatedbothashistoricalproducts,theconsequence
ofpopular response to a shared culture, a common history, and psychological
FASCISM, MARXISM, AND RACE
historicenvironment.
2o
Michels,like many proto-fascist
andFascisttheoreticians,was toarguethathumanbeingswereintrin-
disposed to identifythemselves withoneorothercollectivity-whichone
being determined, in large part, by time-conditioned circumstances.
21
Within
the loose constraints ofthose circumstances, suggestible masses could be led by
resoluteelites.
22
Forproto-fascistand Fascist thinkersalike, humanbeings were understood
tobe,by nature,social,associative,politicalcreatures.Theyseekout,andliveout
their lives in association with, their similars. Language, culture, territorial af-
finity, social visibility, religious conviction, together with the memories ofan-
cientglories,asharedhistory,orananticipatedfuture,providethegroundsfora
durable sense ofin-group identification. Nationalism was onedramatic form
assumed by that identification and could be expected to recur in the course of
revolutionarycrisis throughoutthetwentiethcentury.
Inthecourseofhistory, identificationoftheindividualwithagroup,a
acity-state,oranationwouldbetheproductof anumberof complexinfluences.
The community with which individuals identify could be the resuit, among
other things, ofdemanding collective external threat, or economic
It could be the consequence ofenduring humiliation, the result ofa
sense ofinadequacy in the face of by out-groups, or the reactive
ofreal orperceived predationssuffered at the handsofothers.24 In the
modernera,it wasargued,nation;llsentimentis veryoftenthe reactive product
ofgroup affirmation in the face ofchallenge, provocation, threat, oppression,
andhopelessness.2
5
Michelsframedall thesenotionsas thoughtheywerelawlike
regularities.
Michels,like those who preceded him and those whof()llowed him,argued
thatin themodernworlditis thenation withwhichtheindividualcharacteristi-
cally identifies. Lessercommunities-tribesandcity-states-nolonger offer the
prospectofprotection,opportunity, andsurvival theyoncedid.
2h
Michelsargued
thatalthoughhumankindhad harbored thedisposition toorganizeitselfin self-
regardingcommunitiessince timeimmemorial,only in themodern period had
the nation served that purposeP In the modern world only the nation can
providetheresourcesandcapabilities sufficienttoensurethesurvival and pros-
perityoftheindividual in theface of 28
Given this kindofassessment, proto-fascists and Fascists alike rejected the
entire theoretical schema offered bv classical Marxism as an interoretation of
nationalism in the nineteenthand twentieth centuries.
29
For
ism was a time- and circumstance-specific response to the generic human dis-
to identify with somedeterminategroupofsimilars. Itwas natural to
thehumancondition.
154 FASCISM, MARXISM, AND RACE
The sense of nationhood ---nationalist sentiment-was the group response to
prevailing objective conditions as well as psychological suggestion. In some spe-
cial circumstances-as the result of trauma associated with international or do-
mestic confict or catastrophic economic Eliiure, for example-human
become particularly susceptible to group-building influences.'o
Nation building is a concrete instance of the human disposition to identify
with one or another or a collection of organized aggregates. This disposition is
the product of a psychology shaped in evolutionary time by the
human struggle for survival in hazardous environments.'1 In almost any con-
ceivable "natural" environment, survival threats overwhelm the solitary individ-
ual and recommend his identification with a larger community. Those ill dis-
to identify with a larger group perish. Individuals who do so identify tend
to have a greater survival potential and correspondingly higher reproductive
rates. Over time, those to identification with a community of similars
predominate among populations everywhere. Given such convictions, all major
Fascist thinkers could argue that Homo sapiens was, by nature, a social animaL;!
Nationalism is the reaction of human beings as group animals to the chal-
and risks of the twentieth century-and a function ofthe inci tements and
suasion of elites. H Nationalism is the abiding sense of belonging that fosters the
individual's identification with an articulated community wherein he not only
and perhaps prospers, but in which he defines himself as well.
H
Na-
tionalism, Fascists argued, would be a recurrent and inevitable feature of the
revolutionary twentieth century.
In effect, all Fascist Ideologues, whether social scientists, jurists, philosophical
or aoolo[!ists. explicitly reiected the classical Marxist notion that nation-
ality and the sentiment of reflections ofelite economic in-
terests.
l
,) They also or expressly reiected the liberal notion that individ-
in the "state of nature," survive in solitary "freedom" and only come
as a consequence of a social contract predicated on self-regarding interest.
Fascist theoreticians of the caliber of Michels, Giovanni Gentile, Sergio P;l-
and Carlo Costamagna put together an understanding of nationalism
that conceived of it as a historic product influenced, but not determined, by
affinities of ethnicity, language, history, and culture.
l
!> The sense or nationality is
I'
umwcu, cultivated, and enhanced by intellectual elites who use all the instru-
'!I ments of suggestion, moral suasion, and pedagogy in its furtherance.
l
?
II,
,
In one of the more important pieces of legislation of the Fascist regime, the
nation was spoken of as "an organism having ends, life, and instrumentalities
superior in power and in duration to those of the individuals or aggregates of
individuals of which it is composed. It is a mora\, political and economic unity
that achieves integral realization in the Fascist state."38 For Fascist theoreticians,
FASCISM, MARXISM, AND RACE 1'i5
the state is the concrete embodiment of the nation. While the state is "trans-
historical" in essence, since every organized aggregate of human beings requires
governance, at any given time it is the product of that time's psychology and that
time's circumstances.
3
'1 At any of those junctures, the state provides concrete
form to the material provided by history.4u
Fascists argued that in the modern world, the state, particularly the state that
has charged itself with a revolutionary mission, discharges enormous respon-
sibilities. In its revolutionary commitment to the creation of a "Greater
it must restore lost territories, defend its boundaries, protect its culture, assure
the continued prosperity of the community by securing its productive
provide for its freedom (rom the dominance of foreign influence, mediate be-
tween the assertive corporate interests of business and labor, inculcate the princi-
that enhance collective life, as well as train successive generations of those
who will implement national policy.
By the end of the Great War, the first Fascists were consistently arguing that
the primary task of a truly revolutionary state would be the "salvaging, protect-
nation'sl magnificent industrial development," the founda-
tion ofa new and greater Italy.42 As early as 1914, Michels had counseled Italians
that only industrialization could assure them a place in the modern world.
43
All
this would require enormous discipline, self-sacrifice, and commitment to the
larger
Fascists always the world a hostile pIace- a place in which com-
was intense and weakness a fatal flaw. It was a place in which the
"hegemonic nations" had seized not only most of the earth's surface, but its
resources as well, and in which the advanced industrial powers systematically
to thwart the industrialization of those less developed, in what was seen
as a veritable "class struggle" between nations.
44
The sense of disadvantage- the conception that the nation, both poor and
less developed, might forever remain the servile inferior of the more advanced
industrialized powers-became a constant incitement among Fascists. The ap-
peal to the glories of the past and hope in the future were calculated to mobilize
eff()rt, discipline performance, provide noneconomic benefits, and ensure un-
coerced commitment.
Fascists maintained that for those nations undergoing late development, it
was necessary to tap the deep sense of humiliation, the prevailing feeling of
collective privation that typified their populations, if revolutionary leaders were
to mobilize them to developmental enterprise. In order to sustain the tempo of
development once undertaken, Fascist theorists were convinced that it would be
necessary to engage whole populations at the most prof(lUnd level of collective
sensibilities.
In order to mobilize the forces for revolution and to engage and sustain an
entire population in a renovative and transformative enterprise, "nonlogical"
appeals through sign, symbol, and ritual helped to assure commitment, obedi-
ence, and endurance. Fascists anticipated that all developmental regimes would
have to assume some of these strategies if they were to be successful in the
twentieth century. There was little that was "irrational" in any of this. Fascist
social theorists argued that the vast majority of human beings characteristically
respond to emotive appeal, to symbols and ceremonial ritual. Fascists rejected
the notion that human beings in general could be moved to intense labor and
selfless sacrifice through exclusively rational In their judgment, most
human beings were largely creatures of passion, ideals, will, and impulse-a
conviction that IS not uncommon among contemporary social psychologists.
Fascists were convinced by the arguments found in works like those of
Gaetano Mosca, Vilfredo Pareto, and Gustav Le Bon, that individual and collec-
tive human action, more likely than not, was motivated by suggestibility, passion,
and "nonlogical" influences.
4
'l The judgment that such was the case was not
consequence of mystical intuition; it was based on the then available sociological
evidence. Fascist judgments in this regard were the result of rational calculation.
In order to undertake mass mobilization, to succeed in eliciting compliance
behavior, it would be necessary to engage the passions, the ideals, and the senti-
ments of subject populations.
4
('
Fascists argued that the intensity with which the entire collection of group-
building sentiments were celebrated, and rewarded created the condi-
tions for the appearance of "charismatic" leaders among "suggestible" massesY
More than that, those same group-building sentiments produced a propensity to
conceive the community as organically bound together not only in moral union,
historical continuity, and cultural homogeneity, but through biological
as well.
4H
Even before the march on Rome, Mussolini indicated that Fascism had
dedicated itself to creating out of the forty million citizens of the peninsula a
"great family," united by blood in "one single pride of race" and steeled by an
abiding "racial solidarity."49 The biological continuity of a people that had given
the world the "grandeur of Rome" and the "Universal Church," as well as the
art, science, architecture, and literature of the Renaissance, was identified as
"racial." Fascists regularly spoke of Italians as a "race" of "sublime heroes" who
had made their prodigal contributions to civilization against all odds.
50
The race
was traced back to the earliest antiquities of the Italic peninsula.
More often than not, the term race was used as though it were synonymous
with people or nation.
51
As the regime matured, however, an entire body of
literature was produced that provided the term with relatively specific biological
reference.
52
In its most sophisticated use, the term race was used among scholars
and social scientists in Fascist Italy to refer to a breeding population that had
been subject to rdatively long reproductive isolation. Such a population, isolated
by geography, in-group sentiment, out-group enmity, culture, or politics, re-
producing within the confines of a restricted breeding-circle, would gradually
take on properties, "stereotypical behavior," that could be represented in terms of
statistical modalities-sometimes spoken of as "national character" or "racial
traits."
The best of the theoreticians in Fascist Italy entertained a conception of race
as a dynamic constant, the product of geographic and social isolation, attendant
inbreeding, natural and artificial selection, and genetic variability.51 According to
the thesis, any "breeding-circle," isolated by whatever circumstances, was a po-
tential race.,)4
Fascists thus spoke of nations as "races in formation," infilling the nation
with still more significance. "Long established nations," it was affirmed, can,
over time, "solidify themselves into races, become new races."" Thus, there was
talk of a Hmesodiacritic" Italian race, formed in relatively "oure" breedinl! isola-
tion for almost a thousand years,'!'
These notions concerning race developed, in substantial part, before the ad-
vent of National Socialism in Germany. Fascist racism was not mimetic. Inde-
pendent of National Socialist influence, Fascist racism, together with statism,
developed effortlessly and coherently out of reactive nationalist enthusiasm. In
fact, major Fascist theoreticians, more often than not, rejected the "materialistic"
implications of biological determinism that typified the racism of Hitler's Ger-
many.57 Race, for Fascists, whatever the mixed ethnic elements out of which it
arose, was a historic product, forged over an extended period of time in the
crucible of rule-governed institutions.'R It was shaped by political will and sus-
tained by a sense of cultural integrity."")
For our present purposes, what is most interesting in these theoretical de-
velopments is the fact that some of those most responsible for the argument were
radical Marxists. However unorthodox their Marxism may have been
as revolutionary syndicalists, Marxists in Italy recognized them as "comrades in
socialism." Some scholars have found it difficult to understand how some of the
most radical Marxists of pre-First World War Italy could, by the commence-
ment of the Second World War, lend their intelligence to any doctrine of racism
whatsoever. Yet, there are precedents and significant instances which suggest the
real possibility that Marxism and Marxists in the revolutionary crises of the
twentieth century have followed a similar process of transformation that has
concluded not only in emphatic nationalism, but in one or another form of
racism as well.
159 158 FASCISM, MARXISM, AND RACE
Among the revolutionary syndicalists who ultimately contributed to the
articulation of the Fascist doctrine of "natioracism," Roberto Michels, Sergio
Panunzio, and Paolo Orano were the most They made a
transition, common to an entire class of Marxist radicals, from being the advo-
cates of a proletarian, anti-capitalist, universal social revolution to being adepts
of nationalism. statism, and a form of racism.
In our own time, we bave witnessed a similar process in the last of the
Soviet Union. By that time, Lev Gumiliev's "ethnogenesis" had captured the
imagination of some of the foremost intellectuals in the ranks of Marxism-
Leninism. Gumiliev's "ethnogenetic Eurasianism," alive with the notion of the
evolution of ethnoi from tribal communities to nation-states to civilizations,
traces an intellectual course all but identical to that of the "racism" of paradig-
matic Fascism. By the time of the disappearance of the Soviet Union, Gumiliev's
"racism" had captured the imagination of Gennadi Ziuganov and his "national
patriotic" Marxist-Leninists.
Among the leaders of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, the
"racist" conjectures of Gumiliev have found a place. Reactive nationalism is so
emotionally intense that it is not difficult to understand the urgency with which
the nation is given more than a philosophical rationale, but one that is endur-
ing-not only historical, economical, cultural, and philosophical, but biological
as well.
The "racism" of the anti-democratic opposition in post-Soviet Russia is the
predictable product of an intense reactive nationalism. Jt is a "natural" product
of the intense emotion associated with the nationalism of deprived and humili-
ated peoples. That reactive nationalists have a tendency to invoke an enduring
biological basis for their nationalism is evidenced by the history of contemporary
revolutionary thought. A singular example of the relationship, in fact, is pro-
vided by the life history of Moses Hess, the "communist rabbi" credited with
made a communist of Karl Marx.
More than half a century before the Fascist march on Rome, Moses Hess
wrote a singular tract entitled Rome and Jerusalem. He followed an intellectual
itinerary remarkably like that of the Marxist syndicalists of pre-Fascist Italy.
Deeply involved in the Marxist movement of his time, Hess wrote a treatise in
which his ideological cohorts were surprised to discover that he argued fi)r
as a "force" independent of the "economic and class" determinants
that governed "bourgeois society."1>l Between the years when his intimacy with
Marx and Engels led to his collaboration in the preparation of some of their most
important theoretical works and the publication of Rome and Jerusalem in 1862,
Hess made the progression from ineluctable, universal "class revolution" to
emphatic Jewish nationalism and an unmistakable form of racism.
62
FASCISM, MARXISM, AND RACE
Hess was candid in accounting f(Jf the changes in his ideological position.
With the publication of Rome and Jerusalem, he spoke of reaffirming a sentiment
he had denied for two decades-a sentiment he believed that he had literally
suppressed beyond recalL Hess credited the rebirth of his Jewish nationalism to
his recognition that history had entered a "new age of nationalism," in which the
hIture of humankind would be shaped by nationality. Whereas, as a young man,
he had allowed "the suffering of the proletariat in Europe" to anesthetize him to
the suffering of his own "unfortunate, maligned, despised, and dispersed peo-
" the reality of nationality had reoriented his consCiousness. "After twenty
years of estrangement," he rediscovered the cause of his people and
allowed his "Jewish patriotism" to find expression. Hess had become a reactive
nationalist. The humiliation suffered by his "unfortunate, persecuted, and ma-
people" compelled I-less to mobilize his energies in their service. In and
through them he sought fulfillment.
Typical of reactive nationalism, Hess made a point of the unique gifts of his
humiliated people. More than an effort to simply shield his people from op-
Hess reminded his contemporaries that it was historic "Jewish ge-
nius" that provided the "seed of a higher and a more harmonious development"
for all He was convinced that "Judaism alone has divine revelations"
that reveal "the unity and holiness of divine law in nature and history."I" Not
only had the Jews provided the world with the substance of Christian thought,
I-less insisted, but it was a Jew, Spinoza, who laid the foundation fc)r all modern
philosophical, social, and political reflection.!>(' In fact, Hess reminded both Jews
and Gentiles alike that it had been the destiny of the Jewish people, "since the
beginning of time, to conquer the world- not like heathen Rome with its force
ofarms, but through the inner virtue of its
"i)7
For Hess, the Jews constituted a nation that, however humiliated and de-
spised by those more powerful, was of primary historical significance. Hess
enjoined Jews to unite and mobilize themselves around a program of national
development in the Holy Land, the land of their ancestors. If the New Israel was
way of existence," Hess went on, if it were to
maintain its own population and sustain itself with equity and security in the
modern world, it would have to develop its own "science and industry" on
"its own soil," secure in its own "national Jewish nationalism
would have to be largely autarkic and developmental.
The reaffirmation of Jewish nationalism would have to be redemptive, and
that program of redemptive development would be sustained by a "cult of na-
""the primal power of nationalism." It would be carefully cultivated
"the patriotic spirit of IJewish1prophets and sages Ithat would serve] as an anti-
dote to destructive rationalism." There would be promotion of
Ii
and ritual to reinforce the reawakened national spirit and inform the "restora-
tion of the Jewish state," because Hess argued that the "masses are never moved
intellectual abstractions towards progressive ideas, whose mainsprings
everywhere lie far deeper than the socialist revolutionaries themselves knew."6'J
Hess was convinced that nationalism was a "natural and simple sentiment," sus-
tained and enhanced by traditional ritual observance, symbol, and song. Emo-
tion reinforced the patriotic determination to prevail in the inevitable strife that
accompanies development.
For Hess, one of the principal functions of nationalism would be the dissipa-
tion of class tensions during the desperate struggle for the creation of the
state. "On the common basis of Jewish patriotism the ... poor and rich will ag;lin
recognize themselves as the descendants of the same heroes" who suffered the
"two thousand year martyrdom and ... carried aloft and held sacred the banner
of nationality."?l
Hess's plan for the patriotic revival of the Holy Land recognized that the
nation, in order to realize its purposes, would have to be organized as a state and
establish and maintain the social institutions that would effect its purposes.72 The
state would appeal to Jewish and non-Jewish capital to establish and foster the
growth of "Jewish organizations for agriculture, industry and commerce in
accordance with Mosaic, i.e. socialistic principles." Whatever the transfer of
and talent, the new Jewish state would not allow foreign dominance of
the process.?l
All this displays the major features of reactive, developmental nationalism.
More than that, it also exemplifies a further property of the intensive nation;llism
that inspires the entire process. Hess's nationalism took on manifest racist fea-
tures, affording a firm biological basis for the sense of identity, community, and
collective destiny on which his nationalism depended. Hess spoke of the Jews as
a "primary race," apparently one of the races rooted in the origins of humankind.
It was a race that "remained indelibly the same throughout the centuries."?4
There is no doubt that, for Hess, race provided the biological foundation for
Jewish nationalism. For him, "all of past history was concerned with the struggle
of races and classes. Race struggle is primary; class struggle is secondary." In
he argued that "life is a direct product of race, which patterns its social institu-
tions after its own innate inclinations and talents."?)
Hess's racism seems to have arisen spontaneously out of the intensity of
reactive nationalism. In and of itself, that need not necessarily be ominous. Hess
conceived of racial differences as contributing to a diversity in development that
would ultimately culminate in a world in which racial and social inequities
would resolve themselves in universal harmony,?6
The history of the twentieth century does not allow one to be sanguine with
FASCISM. MARXISM, AND RACE 161
respect to all this, however. Some notable Fascists voiced humane sentiments
very much like those of Moses Hess. Balbino Giuliano, a minister in the Fascist
government, for instance, insisted that the regime held that "all human beings
deserve respect because they are human beings bearing the imprint of divine
creation; like us they love and have responsibilities; like us they labor, directly or
indirectly, in the enhancement of civilization." He went on to insist that "the
Fatherland, at its foundation, is humanity itself seen and loved in the distinct and
concrete form provided by Iife."77
None of this precluded the promulgation of anti-Semitic and anti-
miscegenation legislation during the tenure of the regime. However benign the
sentiments expressed by representatives of the regime, an exacerbated national-
ism generated a form of racism that shaped domestic policy at the cost of civil
liberties and public freedoms,?H The signal tragedies that have attended racial
conflict in the twentieth century make it extremely difficult to review racial doc-
trines with equanimity. None of this can be gainsaid, but the purpose of the pres-
ent review is not to credit the protestations of benignity on the part of doctrinal
racists, but rather to trace the transformation of Marxism from a universalistic,
class-determinate creed to a nationalism that takes on racist overtones.
Marxists, from the very inception of Marxism, have, with some regularity,
transferred their loyalty from class warfare to nationalism-and, just as fre-
quently, to some f()rm of racism. There have been historic instances when that
transfer has been catastrophic in its consequences.
Evidence that it has not been difficult for Marxists to make such a transition
from proletarian international revolution to nationalism, and from there to some
form of racism, is found throughout the history of modern revolution. Italian
revolutionary syndicalists provided by no means either the first or the
instance. Moses Hess provided a dramatic, illustrative instance of the same
phenomenon before the turn of the century.
Some Marxists have traversed the distance from orthodox Marxism to na
tionalism and thence to racism at exorbitant cost to humanity in general. There
has been at least one instance of a major Marxist theoretician transforming his
Marxism into an expression of racism and thereby bringing tragedy to an entire
generation. More than a century before Marxists in the former Soviet Union
began to attempt to buttress nationalism with allusions to racial origins and
racial continuities, Ludwig Woltmann made the same transition.
Born in Solingen, Germany, in 1871, Woltmann joined the German Social
Democratic Party before he was twenty-eight and became one of his nation's
most competent Marxist theoreticians. In 1890, he published his Der historische
Materialismus, which was so faithful and competent a treatment of classical
Marxism that Lenin recommended it to all his followers,?9 By the first years of
the twentieth century, Woltmann was overwhelmed by a growing preoccupation
with the future of Germany. He had been transfixed by what he took to be
Germany's inestimable contributions to civilization. He had convinced himself
that German influence was to be found wherever human beings had made
literary, architectural, and graphic arts progress, though this was no-
where acknowledged. Germans were treated as inferiors. Woltmann's reactive
response was to discover trace evidence of German creativity in the military,
and literary achievements of France and the artistic, scientific, and
literary accomplishments of the Italian Renaissance.
so
Employing physiologic
blondism as a marker, Woltmann traced German creative influence throughout
In the course of his studies, Woltmann noted that not all German nationals
shared the same overt somatic traits. He observed variability in the population.
He began to draw a sharp distinction between Germans in general and members
of what he called the "German race."RI This race was pandiacritic, its members
sharing overt, measurable, heritable properties that identified them.
By 1902, Woltmann had begun to raise so many objections to the orthodox
Marxism that had originally inspired him, that even Marxist revisionists were no
prepared to consider him a "Party comrade." Woltmann dismissed tech-
dynamics, relations of production, and class struggle as determinate
factors in world history and settled instead on group sentiment,
and racial I n his reactive quest to assure Germany a place in
the modern world, Woltmann abandoned the proletarian revolution for national
and, ultimately and exclusively, racial regeneration. Marx, Woltmann main-
had neglected the organic basis of human development. Quoting from
Vas Kapital, Woltmann pointed out that Marx had indicated that the
ness of labor by implication, all subsequent social history was "fettered by
conditions ... all referable to the constitution of man himself (race,
"Hl Apparently, Woltmann argued, Marx was prepared to recognize that the
inherent, biological properties of human groups might influence the course of
but he had failed to pursue this insight. By the time of his death in 1907,
Woltmann had not only entirely abandoned Marxism, he had also dismissed
nationalism as secondary to the spiritual rebirth of Germany. He had surrended
himself entirely to the biological racism that, in time, would inspire the ideology
of Adolf Hitler's National Socialism.
R4
Woltmann was not the last Marxist to allow his nationalism to transfi)rm
itself into homicidal racism. The experience lfI former Yugoslavia is recent
enough. There, Marxists, often from the highest ranks of the Communist
have employed nationalism as a warrant for the "ethnic c1eansin2:" that has
horrified the contemporary world.
8
?
That Marxists, throughout the twentieth century, have abandoned the ortho-
doxies of their ideology and transferred allegiance from class to national ism
to some measure, to racism is reasonably well attested. The massive defection of
Japanese Marxists to the national cause in the years between the two world wars
is yet another arresting instance of the same phenomenon. In the interwar years,
between 1929 and 1933, successive groups of Japanese Marxists, members of the
Communist Party of Japan-some members of the Central Committee of the
Comintern-underwent "conversion (tenko)" and made the transition from pro-
letarian internationalism to reactive, developmental
Sano Manabu, perhaps the most prominent among them, in the course of
time formulated a program of nation;ll socialism that abandoned internation;ll-
ism and sought to embrace the nation (kokutai) and protect the race (minzoku).H7
I lis conversion to the cause of the nation, like that of his party comrades, was
genuine. Marxism had failed to address the problems that afAicted a moderniz-
ing japan facing the multiple threats that international tensions brought in their
wake. Neither class warfare nor international revolution could redress the short-
ages of ra w materials, enha nce the amount of arable land, or augment the limited
fi)ssil fuels available to japanese industry. Only national socialism could redress
national disabilities in its contest with the advanced industrial nations.
By the end nfthe 19205, and particularly after it became apparent that
might face a war on the Asian mainland and increasing opposition from the
advanced industrial democracies, many japanese Marxists were forced to make a
choice between the defense of the nation and adherence to Comintern
that gave every appearance in the service of the Soviet Union. It became
more and more evident that Marxism, either in the form left as an inheritance
Marx or in the version provided by Lenin or Stalin, offered little that
resolve the policy dilemmas of the Japanese.
the end of 19.H, the majority of the leadership of the Communist Party of
Japan had defected, seeking reconciliation with the kokutai, to once again pursue
as members of the Japanese people (kokomin). Class warfare and
revolution had dissolved in the solvent of nationalism.
Between the mid-1930s and the Second World War, Japanese Marxists
sought to transfi)f[TI Marxism and Marxism-Leninism into a political ideology
that would allow the Japanese people to resist what were perceived to be the
economic and military predations of the advanced industrial powers.
88
There
was a frantic effort to conceive of a state structure and a national policy that
could remove the Western preserve in China and shepherd the Japanese nation
through its survival crisis to mature industrialization, national independence,
assured sovereignty, economic self-sufficiency, and international respect.
Independent Marxists like Ryu Shintaro had by that time conceded that
Japan required not "proletarian revolution," but an intense collaboration of all
classes in the interests of expanding the nation's "productive power:'89 Japan's
dense population, its lack of domestic its dearth of immediately available
entrepreneurial skills, as well as the absence of those resources necessary for
industrial growth, together with the perceived indisposition of the Western
powers to allow its economic expansion into East and Southeast were all
cited as compelling reasons for the abandonment of orthodox Marxism or any of
its extant anti-national variants. What Japan required was not Marxist revolu-
but sufficient "living space" to assure its immediate survival and the per-
of its "singular racial gifts,'''JO
Japan's problem was seen as that of any less developed nation in the years
between the two world wars. There was the perceived need to create a powerful
national state, capable of mounting an adequate response to the economic, mili-
tary, and cultural threats that attended Western imperialism and assuring the
and survival of the "superior Japanese minzoku."'JI Japan's Marxists
followed the same trajectory of ideological transformation as Moses Hess and the
Italian revolutionary syndicalists decades before.
The declining Soviet Union witnessed very much the same phenomenon. As
the system went into irreversible decline, years before the final collapse, Marxist
theoreticians abandoned the orthodoxies of the past to support various forms of
and some of them, as has been suggested, abandoned themselves to
the rankest expressions of biological racism.
We have become increasingly familiar with the attempts of Marxists to deal
with the critical problems of the twentieth century. Fascists had early anticipated
something like this process taking in all Marxist-Leninist systems. What is
suggested by all this is that Fascist theoreticians anticipated some of the principal
features of revolution in our time---and gave expression to their insights in
" It also appears that the failure of Marxism to address the issue of
national sentiment contributed both to its general irrelevance to our own time
and its decay. Nationalism frequently grows out of such decay, fertilized by the
frustration experienced by Marxist theoreticians disillusioned by the failure of
their inherited doctrine to even address, much less solve, the most vexing prob-
lems of our time.
Since statism and elitism frequently accompany the emergent developmental
nationalism that results from Marxism's compounded failures, revolutionaries
often have awesome coercive power at their disposal. Since such nationalism is
frequently, if not always, nurtured by an abiding sense of individual and collec-
tive humiliation, it is not uncommon to find it accompanied not only by bellig-
erence, but by homicidal rage as well. Possessed of power and animated by rage,
what results may well be the kinds of horror that history has documented in the
mass murders of the twentieth century.
A racism that arises out of a nationalism born of failure, real or perceived
status deprivation, and protracted exposure to threat may be capable of unim-
agined bestialities. This is the fear that haunts many commentators who see only
future horrors in the rise of nationalism in the former Soviet Union:
J4
Even those Fascist theoreticians who foresaw so correctly the changes that
would ultimately transform Marxist-Leninist systems and who so well appreci-
ated the failures of Marxist theory never anticipated all that would emerge out of
the revolutions the twentieth century. To a significant extent, Fascist
never really understood what it meant to say that not Marxism, but "Fascism
rwas I the idea of the twentieth century. "'J'i
I
167
I'
.I
j
!
"Fascisms"
It seems unlikely that we will ever have an adequate explanation of why acade-
Marxist and non-Marxist alike, have generally failed to understand
Fascism, Fascist theory, or bscisms in general. Still less likely is the prospect of
ever fully understanding the peculiar relationship between Marxism, Mussolini's
Fascism, and modern revolution.
Nonetheless, the disintegration of Marxism into nationalism
and its accommodation of one or another form of racism in its effort to prove
itself relevant to our time arc instructive. The Fascism of Italv's heretical Marx-
ism has demonstrated its and its to a wide variety of revolution-
aries in the twentieth century.
It is hard to account for why so much of this has remained obscure. Part of
the answer may lie in the bct that Italian Fascism was identified at its very
inception as implacably "anti-Marxist." In reality Italian Fascism was more anti-
Leninist, in its insistent anti-nationalism, than it was specifically anti-Marxist.
Many of the principal theoreticians of Fascism, as we have seen, had been
schooled in Marxism and, like Giovanni Gentile, demonstrated a competence in
the material that won the admiration of Lenin himself.
The fact was that the philosophical nco-idealism that served Fascism as its
normative foundation shared its with orthodox Marxism through their
common connection to Hegelianism. Both had a conception of human lJeIl1gs as
social animals. Like Marx, Gentile rejected the "liberal" conviction
that human beings are best understood as independent, self-sufficient monads,
possessed of inherent freedoms, interacting onl y at their convenience.
2
Fascism and Marxism were both collectivist in orientation, and fundamen-
tally anti-liberal. They sbared a conception of society as an organism in which
individuals survived and matured into persons only as constituents in complex,
166
"FASCISMS"
interdependent relationships. Implicit in such notions was the tenet that society
somehow had priority over the individual. It was a philosophical belief that
nFlrrt>tvc',1 individuals as essentially and "naturally" social in character. In conse-
quence, the liberal view-that persons entered into social relationships only as a
consequence of calculation-was dismissed as an immoral fiction. It was a view
that remained constant among both Fascists and Marxist-Leninists throughout
the lives of their respective
None of this was at issue when the of Italian socialism identified
those Marxists who had come out of its ranks to fight in the Great War as
"renegades," As has been suggested, the breach in the ranks of socialism was the
consequence of a difference regarding Italy's participation in the First World
War. The Marxists who had rejected the official party position with respect to
I taly's neutrality in that war were deemed traitors to socialist universalism.
neutrality and universalism, they had become nationalists.
the end of the First World War, those same Marxist heretics sought the
fulfillment of the nation's promise. Having dismissed the possibility of pro-
letarian revolution, they sought development, enhancement of the nation's pres-
tige, restoration of lost lands, and acknowledgement of Italy's place among the
powers. They or)[)osed themselves to the anti-nationalism ofofficial social-
ism. They were to become the first Fascists. As the more ortho-
dox Italian Socialists and revolutionary Leninists rejected the Fascist
position. As Leninists, the pro-Soviet revolutionary Marxists found Fascism a
direct competitor on the peninsula. Given the Circumstances, it was politically
to define F;]scisrn as "anti-Marxist" and "right-wing" in principle. The
was deemed adversarial, and the armed conflict that followed fixed
this cha racterization HI
The consequence since then has been that Fascist and Marxist-Leninist
systems have been dealt with as antipodal. Both Marxist and non-Marxist ana-
lysts have tended to accept the thesis at considerable cognitive cost. The issues
that divided the first Fascists from their adversaries turned less on Marxism per
se than on an assessment of the to a indlIstrialized
in a world of Darwinian conflict.
The differences between Fascism and Marxism that arose out of the First
World War were inflamed by the enmities bred of the long, venomous, violent
conflict in the postwar period. The conflict reached such an intensity that Marx-
ists of whatever variety refused to acknowledge the heretical Marxist origins of
the first Fascism.' Marxists attributed the "defection" of some of their foremost
intellectuals simply to venality and opportunism. The next step in the of
denial was to conceive of Fascism itself as venal and opportunistic. The final
step was to see Fascism as the "tool of capitalist reaction," since onlv monied
168
169
"FASCISMS"
"reaction" could offer enough in benefits to those motivated rnore
than personal material advantage.
The very intensity of recrimination led Marxists and leftist enthusiasts of all
sorts to insist that Fascism could be nothing more than the defense of capitalism.
This was deemed the "reality" of Fascism. The result was a densely written
interpretative "theory" of Fascism that had little to recommend it but that
succeeded, above all, in misleading both Marxists and non-Marxists. The intel-
lectual costs were only slightly less than the price paid by Marxists in revolution-
ary failures. Few ever succeeded in understanding the real threat posed by
fascism for the twentieth century.
However flawed, this entire treatment of Fascism influenced all subsequent
assessments attempted by Marxists and non-Marxists alike. A more [In!f-itable
. of ltalian Fascism in particular and generic fascism in might do
better to be!!in with the reco!!nition that Marxism-Leninism and Fascism share
a common ongll1 111 response to some common prnhlpm In
more astute non-Marxist analysts of our time have
and Fascism were animated by a "related "almost
identical and yet typically modified methods.""
As has been indicated, many Fascist theoreticians, throughout their active
political lives, acknowledged the affinities between Fascism and Marxism--
Leninism.? There were even Italian Marxist-Leninists-including Nicola Bom-
bacci, one of the founders of his nation's Communist Party-who conceived of
Fascism as the only viable form of Marxism for economically retrograde com-
munities.
K
In the years that followed, many other Marxist-Leninists acknowl-
as much, and many more offered confirmation not only by adopting
Fascist I)olicies, but by articulating a Fascist rationale in their support.
academics in general, Fascism and Marxism have been dealt with so
as diametrical opposites that there has been a failure to treat their
intrinsic aff-inities with the skill and attention deserve. After more than half
a century of puz:z:lement, it would seem that the time has come to attempt an
assessment of Fascism, fascisms, and contemporary Marxism that might illumi-
nate, rather than obscure, some of the maior features of the revolutionarv twen-
tieth century.
As has been argued, many of the earliest Fascists, as well as some of
f-irst Nationalists, were originally Marxists. They subsequently shared many
affinities with the Marxist-Leninists of the interwar years, and the surviving
Marxist-I,eninists of the present continue to display properties that have always
been part of the criterial definition of fascism.')
Of criterial definitions of there is an abundance. In general, they
share overiappinf! properties that have been rehearsed throughout the present
"FASCISMS"
discussion.1O What has been absent has been an accompanying "explanatory" text
that would sUl)l)lv the grounds for the observed similarities. Marxists, as we
to radically distinguish fascism from Marxist-Leninist
the former with a defense of "moribund capitalism."
However their effort, it has influenced intellectuals in the
world. In the absence of a persuasive alternative text, there has been a manifest
failure on the part of most academics and political
similarities of "leftist" Marxist-Leninist systems and
Fascism. Marxist-Leninists themselves either failed to see, or
plain away, the common traits.
More and more frequently, in the recent past, it has been observed that some
of the most obvious traits of Marxist-Leninist movements and tend to
approximate those of fascism. It has been more and more regularly acknowl-
edged that there is "a tendency ... for the extremes Oil the right and left, to
meet." j j The criterial traits of the one overlap, in significant measure, those of
the other. The resemblances between Fascism and Marxist-- Leninist regimes are
substantial. If those resemblances are to be treated as anything more than curi-
must be associated with some common factors that, taken together,
past events and allow some anticipation
of future events. Such treatment appears as a discursive "text" in which
"causal" factors are associated with shared similarities. Observed similarities are
related to socioeconomic and political factors in an
Each of the features that constitute the grounds of a
characteristically selected because that trait is somehow deemed important to the
explanatory text. Traits are related to each other in a nexus that adds an increased
measure of plausibility to the narrative. The traits themselves are directly or
indirectly observable, contribute to easy storage and retrieval, result in the provi-
sion of reasonably discrete but related categories, assist in the formulation of
complex hypotheses, and in general further empirical theory generation.
The fact that M<lrxist theoreticians insisted on a fundamental distinction
between fascism and Marxism-Leninism, because they chose to identify Italian
Fascism with the defense of capitalism, confounded any analysis that might have
arisen from the evident fact that fascism and Marxism-Leninism shared not
observable institutional but some elemental socio-philosophical
aff-inities. Even Leon the "fateful similarities" between
fascism and Stalinism, failed to pursue the to any cogl1ltlve purpose,
because he could not disabuse himself of the notion that the Soviet Union was a
"workers' state" and Fascist Italy was nol. Inextricably up in the notion
that revolution must be either "proletarian" or " Marxists never
understood reactive nationalism, developmentalism, or the political dynamics of
170 "FASCISMS"
the twentieth century. As a consequence, they failed to understand very much
about the twentieth century.
The more Marxist theoreticians spoke of "internationalism" and "proletarian
democracy," the more nationalist and authoritarian their systems became. The
many have
continued to
more thev sDoke of "Droletarian democracy," the more clearly did rule pass to the
because there is an insistence that one cannot understand what "fascism means"
unless one can appreciate what "lies behind the hatred and destructiveness
unleashes" ~ ~ s though "hatred" and "destructiveness" arc unique and exclusive
to fascism ~ ~ ~ n d any attempt to deal with the subject independent of that recog-
nition is dismissed as evidence of cognitive impairment.
12
account of generic blscism must deal with the issue of the high emo-
tional salience and attendant violence that accomnanied almost all its manifesta
tions. At the same it must also be that such features were s ~
socia ted with almost every manifestation of revolution in and Marxism
Leninism in particular.
Every serious commentator has cited the highly charged environment 1!1
which Italian Fascism developed. Fascists themselves acknowledged that Fas-
cism could only "live in an atmosphere of strong ideal tension."1l Marxist-
Leninists were rarely as candid, but it is hard to overlook the excess of emotion
that accompanied almost all their revolutionary activities. At some point in their
almost all revolutionary movements display very much the same inten-
sity. They are almost invariably attended by violence. For some reason,
fascist intensity and bscist violence have been seen as unique. Fascists were
peculiarly "xenophobic" and "pathologically ethnocentric." They were given
to "ultranationalism," and their violence and genocidal fury were its natural
Such accounts enjoy a certain measure of plausibility. The first Fascists were
fervent nationalists. Italian Fascism was a form of reactive, anti-democratic,
nationalism. It conceived of itself as a reaction to the
treatment of Italians as a backward, servile, dependent in an
international universe dominated by advanced industrial nations. At its incep-
tion, Fascism's self-assertiveness evoked a deeply telt affirmative response among
sectors of the population of post-First World War Italy. After their sacri-
fices in the Great War, Italians demanded that Italy be treated as an equal by the
"Great " and no longer as a mendicant among the powerful.
The reactive passions of the first Fascism extended across boundaries of
category, and age. Although at first composed disproportionately
1
"FASCISMS" 171
of young veterans of the Great War, membership in the ranks of Fascism soon
included substantial numbers of the urban and rural middle classes. as well as the
proletariat of the centers. For its
tion elements caught up in its political theater, Fascism was, in substantial part,
the vital, aggressive, intense, response of a long-suffering and
people to the arrogance of the "Great Powers."
That the First World War provided the occasion for the rise of Fascism can
and military challenges from without all
contributed to its eventuality as well as its aggressiveness. The availability of
millions of mobilizable young men, schooled in war, gave Italian Fascism an
inimitable and
be lIainsaid. The charged environment of domestic internal conflict and
Rut other revolutionary movements were to arise in the interwar years and in
the years ;trter the Second World War that did not share those same immediate
circumstances or demographic resources, and yet, in the course of time, took on
many, if not all, of the major features of bscism. Fascism seems to respond to far
collective needs than a simple reaction to the dislocations of international
war or some specific economic crisis.
as some contemporary Russian analysts have seems to
at least in substantial part, an of collective outrage. It arises from a
sense of profound and protracted, real or fancied, group humiliation. In the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries such humiliation was often a direct or indi-
rect result of economic retardation. The inability to meet the military challenges
of the advanced industrial nations often left less developed nations with an e n ~
sense of inefficacy and inferiority, which revolutionary minorities often
r:ltionale may flow vcry
centrism, to xenophobia, and, in the most extreme to justification of
murderous violence against indigenous "indigestible" mll10rities or foreign op-
ponents-and "fascist traits" make their commonplace appearance. What is
nificant is that Marxist-Leninist regimes have gradually assumed an
number of just such traits. State-sponsored violence against citizens, mass mur-
succeeded 111
Under the
into a reactive
of such a
to a rage for domestic homoge
and, at the extreme, genocidal carnage, have come to typify Marxist-
Leninist systems with no less frequency than they have their fascist counterparts.
In fact. Marxist-Leninist systems have destroyed more of their own nationals
political violence than any fascist ever did.
17
In the effort to come to with all this, the has been made that
an explanation of such collective dispositions is to be found in the emotional in-
tensity of the critical identification of individuals with a community of similars.
172
173
"FASCISMS"
Very recently, comparativists have put forward the argument that throughout
history human beings, in the course of their individuation. have identified with
groups of limited com pass.
lR
I n those
a sense of self, and self-esteem. But when the host community is humiliated, the
individual is humiliated as well. The individual's search for personal worth
through "self-transcendence" in the community is reactive hos-
tility as its natural consequence.
l
,!
The social science literature devoted to collective life is rich with allusions to
the individual's identification with his or her community. Individuals achieve a
level of recognition and a sense of personal worth as part of a group. I n the past,
individuals identified themselves with their tribes or clans or city-states in order
to achieve the desired sense of self-esteem. Many contemporary social scientists
of the disposition to identify with a collectivity as a generic human trait.
By the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as part of this universal process,
individuals tended to identify themsdves with the nation-state, the ultimate
of sanction, the final arbiter between alternatives open to the commu-
and the supreme defender of life lived in common. The contemporary
argument is that nationalism is the modern f(Jrm of tribalism, and thus that
thwarted nationalism can give rise to anachronistic, barbaric violence.
I n the very recent past, others have spoken or the "struggle for recognition"
that is at the center of the individual's life lived in common, making allusion to
the critical role that group life has played in the psychosocial process of self-
articulation throughout the twentieth century. The clear intimation of these
kinds of social science speculations is that if a human being fails to find requisite
through normal group life, he or she seeks it in "unnatural" group
in an extreme sensitivity to real or fancied slights directed at their commu-
nity, an aggressiveness in defense of that community, a tendency to exaggerate
the accomplishments of their group, and a readiness to sacrifice themselves or
others in its service.
These dispositions have been observed in exaggerated form among the popu-
lations of communities undergoing late economic development during the latter
part of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. I n the nine-
teenth and twentieth centuries economic growth and technological development
have largdy determined rank in the order of nations. The place occupied by a
person's nation in that order sie:nificantlv influences each individual's sense of
worth.
Jn the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, retarded economic development
carried so many disabilities in its train that it soon became evident that the
national community, whatever its past, would suffer grievously at the hands of
others unless it could effectively protect itself economically, politically, and mili-
"FASCISMS"
tarily. The drive to industrialize became a at the conclusion of which
nations expected to achieve the necessary military capabilities to ensure survival,
and stature. In the process, their populations, individually and collec-
would find satisfaction in the "powerful experience of self-transcendence"
111 a enjoying international recognition.
24
Frustration in the course of such a resol ution "irra-
tional" and "pathological" responses. Influenced by an indetermin;lte number of
time-specific, local intervening f:lctors, forms of exacerbated reactive national-
isms make their appearance. Thus we are told that although human beings,
throughout history, have identified with groups of restricted membership, find-
ing in them a sense of personal identity and accomplishment, in our own time,
nations serve as the vehicle of individuation and sdf-affirmation. "When a
people, having gone through the first phases of economic modernization, is
denied both national identity and political freedom," one can expect frustration
to all features of group life. " the account "it is not
that the two Western European countries to invent fascist ultrana-
tionalism. Italy and Germany, were also the last to industrialize and to
politically, or that the most powerful nationalisms in the immediate aftermath of
World \Var II were those of Europe's f()rmer colonies in the Third World. Given
past precedent, it should also not surprise us that the strongest nationalisms of
arc tc)und in the Soviet Union or Eastern Europe where industrialization
was relatively late in coming" -and, one might add, where populations have
long suffered from a sense of inadequacy and conceive their treatment at the
hands of the more industrialized nations as humiliating and demeaning.
2
'
However synoptically expressed, what all this suggests is that under certain
conditions, human beings, as group animals, become particularly mobilizable
and eminently aggressive. In the twentieth century those conditions engage a
shared by human beings "since time immemorial" to intensively seek
fulfillment in a national "community of destiny."2!> Should all this be
persuasive, the fact that Fascist recruitment in Italy, Bolshevik recruitment in
Russia, and Chinese Communist recruitment in revolutionary China were never
really governed by class or status considerations becomes easily comprehensible.
Revolutionaries in industrially retrograde environments, whatever their political
persuasion, have always recruited wherever they could; and nationalism,
or covertly and in the last analysis, supplied the ideological solvent of class,
category, or status differences. Anyone, or any group, that did not or could not
merge without remainder into state-engineered homogeneity became an "out-
" an enemy, and the potential object of violence.
The initial attractiveness of s[)ecificallv fascist in such circumstances
IS to a sense of national, not outrage. Fascism appeals to the abiding
174 "FASCISMS"
conviction that an entire has been of
time, humiliated by its more "advanced" counterparts.
Leninists were to exploit essentially the same sentiments, and, in time. class
appeals weretransformedinto"patriotism."
WhatdistinguishedFascistsinall thiswas thatFascistintellectualsprovided
anunambiguousideological rationale.Fascistsinvariablyperceivedtheworldas
nations sought to mailltain and perpetuate their
thedemandsofthe"proletarianpOOr."27 Itwasa viewofthe
world in which the dignity, security, and life ofthe poor are purchased and
assuredonlythroughnational struggle.In thejudgmentof Fascists, and
competition areatthe heartofevery humanactivity;and in themodern
the struggle between poor and rich nations shapes events and determines fu-
tures.
2H
ContemporaryMarxist-Leninists,with theirallusions to the struggleof
"socialist" nations a2'ainst "imperialist" nations, say, increasingly and emphat-
In thecontemporary world,there is a recognitionamongless devel-
opedcommunitiesthataneffectivedefenseof grouplifecanonlybeundertaken
and sustained by the development and maintenance ofan adequate economic
base.
2
) Theadequacyofthatbaseis largely determinedby technological innova-
tion and industrial growth. Within such a conception ofthe world, national
econonllc becomescriticalto theself-esteem,security,and prestige
remained essentiallv al!rarian in a world environment
dominated
vival makes rapid industrializationan
What is eminently clear is that rapid industrialization and modernization are
undertaken not to reduce poverty or restore equity or achieve universal har-
mony. Industrialization is the necessary condition f<)r securing the nation, f(lf
the nation's mission, for restoring "lost" territories, and for uplifting
theself-esteemof entire
Itbecameabundantlycleartothefirst Fascists thatthe
sive,andultimatelyoffensive,militarypowerreauiredthe and
technological sophistication made available In-
dustrialization. The revolutionary demand for "national economic
ment" was thus driven not by a search for wealth or to sustain a program of
redistribution,"butbya recognitionofits necessityfor theestablish-
mentand ofdomesticand internationalpower.lII
For Fascist intellectuals formulating their thought at the beginning ofthe
twentieth century, the world was cnmnnsf'c1
animated by a tradition as old as
tradition was Roman, and for Fascists, it deserved tosurviveand prospereven

"FASCISMS" 175
against the overwhelming material power ofthe "demoplutocracies."ll In the
judgmentoftheleadersofFascism,onlya strong,centralizedstate,animated by
an of obedience,classcollaboration,andanethicofheroicself-sacrifice,
could manage extensive and intensive industrial development and
growth-the necessary preconditions for national reconstruction, and
transformation ina worldofintensecompetition.
These were the central convictions ofFascism, and they can serve, for the
purposes of classification, as the criterial properties of generic fascism. The
collectivist persuasion, the nationalistsenseofmission, theanti-democraticstat-
the militarism,and theposturingthattend toaccompanysuch regimesare
familiar to comoarativists. In a oolitical environment animated by a rage for
the invidiOlls out-group, or class discrimination that
often follows is eauallv well whether that system identifies itself as
Fascist or not. All the traits ofsllch political and economic regimes arc the
functional by-productsof anintense,reactivenationalism.Theyareall found,in
varyingstrengths,in the experiments in Castro'sCubaand KimIISung's
Democratic Republic ofKorea. Their violence against "unassimilable"
groupsGill vent itselfin incarcerationordeportation-or,in the lastanalysis, in
mass murder.
In the recent past such systems have been often in
among the less developed nations ofsub-Saharan Africa. They were found in
uncertain variantscompatiblewiththeirnational traditionsduringtheinterwar
years in Getulio Vargas's Brazil, and after the Second World War some ofthe
samefeaturessurfacedinJuan Peron'sArgentina.\2 Theyarcfound intruncated
forms in the ArabandIslamicdictatorships in theMiddle Eastattheendofthe
twentiethcentury. \.l
The ideolo!!v oflate industrial expresses itselfin a set offea-
turesthathas now become familiar. Whatevertheirposturesatthe
beginning, movements ofanti-democratic reactive nationalism take on, over
time,commontraits.Compelledby functional requirements,inanenvironment
ofthreat,contemporaryreactive nationalismstendtodisplay commonideologi-
calandinstitutionalfeatures.Thus,atitsinception,Bolshevismspokealanguage
andsoughtends totallyalien from those that typify reactiveanddevelopmental
nationalism. with the passage oftimeand under the pressureofcircum-
stancesdid Bolshevismtransform itselfintooneoffascism'svariants.
Similarly,amongthosemovementsand identifiedas "fascist"
the interwar years were some initially lacking some of the essential proper-
ties identified here as central to the concept. Among the successor states that
emergedfrom thedissolutionoftheAustro-HungarianEmpireattheendofthe
First World War, for example, wefe anti-communist movements of reactive
176
177
"FASCISMS"
nationalism, which academics have traditionally identified as "fascist," that were
devoid of the developmental features typical of the species or sub-
species.
l4
Anti-communist nationalists in Hungary and Romania, as cases in
point, initially sought the defense of their traditions in a program that was
essentially anti-, or at least, nondevelopmenta!. Such reactive nationalists
Hungarian or Romanian palingenesis in defense of the virtues of the peasant
smallholder and the traditional economic system-against the seductive "corrup-
tion" of foreign "stock-jobbers" and "shopkeepers." Nationalist revolutionaries
in the successor states of the Austro-Hungarian Empire sought national salva-
tion in a return to the cultural roots of their nations' preindustrial past.
While such ideas were predominant, f{Jr example, in the early years of Hun-
"fascism," by the mid-1930s, the "vast majority of radicals Ihadl suc-
cumbed to the inexorahle logic of their militant nationalism once they realized
that the exigencies of military power ... made the industrialization of the
country inevitable.">'> Thus, initially anti-developmental Hungarian revolution-
aries, like the Bolsheviks before them, were driven by the irresistible logic of
their circumstances to promote the industrialization of their domestic economy.
The effort to secure the nation in a world of intense competition
Hungary's fascists to attempt to industrialize under authoritarian
Of coursc, each such fascism has its own history. Reactive nationalists 111
Romania, for example, understood their several movements to be a response to
circumstances that found the people of Romania threatened by the real proba-
of permanent international "inferiority."ll> They feared that the nation
would forever be subject to the yoke of f{Jreigners.
17
In 1938, the Romanian Encyclopedia, in formulations that have long since be-
come familiar, complained that imported manufactured commodities were sold
in Romania at high prices, while domestic primary goods were purchased abroad
at "very low prices" -affording the wealthy industrialized nations every advan-
tage in economic exchange. It was argued that, as a consequence, Romania was
in danger of "being permanently a colony, open or disguised, of the foreigners.",g
The initial response to this common sense of national vulnerability on the
part of what is now generally referred to as Romanian fascism was, in many
respects, unique. In making what they considered an appropriate response, the
anti-communist intellectuals of the Romanian Legion of the Archangel Michael
appealed to the virtues of peasant life and religious mysticism to supply the
nation's renovative strength.!9 According to the ideologues of the legion, tradi-
tional virtues and an absolute commitment to God and the Savior, Jesus Christ,
would make Romania "honored and powerful."40 In fact, there was something
reminiscent more of primitive cargo cults than of paradigmatic Fascism in the
original ideology of Corncliu Zelia Codreanu, the leader of the
"FASCISMS"
In the organizational manual of the legion, members were admonished to
pray to "the mysterious f()fces of the invisible world.... Those forces ... will
provide for your defense .... They will sow panic and terror among your
paralyzing them. In the final analysis, victories do not depend on
material preparations ... but on the collaboration of spiritual forces."42
Codreanu, the charismatic "Captain" of the movement, seems to have been a
genuine mystic who distinguished his movement from Fascism by insisting on
its religious inspiration.
4l
While he clearly sought a "great and powerful Ro-.
" he conceived of his salvific mission as essentially religious in character.
The "new men" who were to bc created by the legionary regime would be
heroic, loyal, obedient, diligent, and self-sacrificing-as they are expected to be in
all movements of reactive nationalism bur, more than that, they would be
"pure of heart," because God could dwell only in a pure heart. Where nuritv was
there Satan dwelt.
44
Codreanu's entire strategy was "spiritual." At the very foundation of his
program for Romanian renewal was a grueling process of spiritual regeneration.
Codreanu intended to transform the best of Romanians into transcendent "new
men" who would create a "new Romania." None of this involved industrial
development and economic growth. Codreanu's "new men" would be ascetics,
not modernizers. They would deny themselves the most elementary indul-
gences, not to supply capital for the growth of heavy industry, but to sanctify
themselves. Codreanu's "new men" would commit themselves to chastity and
poverty, the better to overcome the temptations of the flesh. Fasting was under-
taken as a purification prior to prayer in the effort to render themselves worthy
of the intercession of the invisible spiritual forces they invoked.
4
'i
Other than the regenerative liturgy that informed legionary practice, there
was really no explicit social, economic, or political policy that uniquely character-
ized the revolutionary program of the legion of the Archangel Michael or its
Iron Guard. Codreanu took pride in the fact that the legion had no specific
program.
46
What there was, was a collection of ideas common to reactive na-
tionalists. The thinkers of the legion spoke of the creation of the Romanian
nation as a product of millennia of struggle, ethnic conflict, and religious per-
of the nation as a product of reproductive relationships and
traditional culture, of a continuity in place, biology, and history.47 General favor
was accorded corporativist ideas, the organization of functional economic cate-
gories under the superintendence of the state.
48
Governance was understood to
be, in principle, hierarchical and authoritarian. The ideal was totalitarian-the
total integration of all individuals, classes, sects, and functional components into
the resurgent nation.
49
But there was no enthusiasm for technological develop-
ment or the creation of domestic industry. It was only after the murder of
178 179 "FASCISMS"
Codn:anu in 1938 that the ideology of the movement, for whatever reason, took
on more of the developmental features of paradigmatic Fascism. The work of
Mihail Manoilescu, attracted to leadership after Codreanu's death, brought new
dimension to the doctrines of the movement.
In a manner almost entirely absent in the works of Coureanu, Ion Motza, or
Horia Sirna,"!) the ideologues of the legion, Manoilescu spoke of the necessities of
industrial development in the twentieth century. He addressed the issue of the
exploitation of the less developed agrarian economies of the world at the hands
of the advantaged "plutocracies." He spoke of national rebirth through the
agency of rapid economic development and industrialization and of maintaining
control, through the institution of a single party, over an economy
>1
that surrounded
Michael and the Iron Guard took on some
Fascism. Bv the 19405, one
major feature Michael and the Iron
Guard from the Fascism of Mussolini -its f""LdLJIC anti-Semitism.
Unlike the sometimes anti-Semitism of Fascism, the anti-Semitism of the'
legion was central to its every political conviction. Legionaries saw the Jews as
the unregenerate enemies of Christ. Those who could not have Jesus in their
hearts made a place for Satan. Like all fascisms, the f;lscism of the Iron GU'lrd
had its distinguishing characteristics. At the center of the regenerative ideology
of the legion and its guard was their concept of "ethnic purity." In substance,
what this meant was a purge of all Jewish influence from Romanian life.
The putative Satanic influence of the Jews and its expression in the
question" served as the linchpin of the ideology of Codreanu and his
ways that were totally absent from the thought of Fascism's intellectuals.
In the judgment of the intellectual and political leadership of the
movement, development and corporativism were entirely secondary to the reso-
lution of Romania's Jewish Anti-Semitism was an irrepressible con-
stant in the nationalist writings of the intellectuals of the legion.
Unlike the anti-Semitism of National Socialism, Romanian anti-Semitism
was religious, not racist, in derivation. Legionaries insisted that the Jews, promi-
nent in the economic and intellectual lire of Romania, constituted a threat to its
"true" Christian culture. Romanian fascism, reactive in elitist
irredentist in
in character, was, in a dear sense, sui generis. Like j-asclsm, It was prepared to
protect property and social distinctions if they contributed to the nation's pro-
gram of survival and prevalence. Like Fascism, it was multi-class in origin and
recruitment, with a for peasant members and peasant values.
53
"FASCISMS"
It was doctrinal anti-Semitism and doctrinaire that the
legion from Italian Fascism. While Mussolini, like Stalin, entertained a f()rm of
vulgar anti-Semitism and after 1938 imposed anti-Semitic legislation on Italy,
the Jewish question was never an essential component of Fascist ideology any
l110re than it was of Stalinism.>4 While Fascism, and (ultimately) Stalinism,
accommodated religion, religion did not constitute the core of their respective
')'5
In retrospect, it has become evident that and anti-democratic,
and develoDmental nationalisms had similarities. Marxism-
Leninism, almost from the moment of its accession to power in 1917, was
compelled to embark on a course of intensive economic growth and industrial
development even though such a program had no in its original revolution-
ary agenda. Economic, civil, and political rights were sacrificed in the serviec of
extensive and intensive growth. By the time Josef Stalin assumed control of the
process, it had become clear that if the Soviet Union were to survive, more than
it would be required "to overtake and outstrip the advanced
of the develoDed capitalist countries.">/) Like Fascist Italy, either the
Soviet Union would the advancedlldustrial democracies, or it would
be "forced to the wall."'>7 the time Stalin held sway over the system, the entire
program of Lenin's "proletarian revolution" had bcen transformed into the
forced-draft industrialization of the Soviet Union in order to "emancipate" the
"whole of Russia from the yoke of world imperialism" and transfi)rm it "from a
colony into an independent and free country."'>H The Soviet Union
like the Italy ofMussolini's Fascism, had assumed the major features ofa reactive
developmentaI nationalism.
Like Fascism. Marxism-Leninism in the Soviet Union, under authoritarian
rule, undertook the rapid industrial and agricultural
of a nation facing international threats of a magnitude that jeopar-
dIzed its survival. In its pursuit of the leadership of the Soviet Union
exploited its industrial and agricultural labor force in order to fuel its programs
of development. The Soviet Union was a and retrograde" community in a
world of aggressive, advanced industrial powers. In its defense, everyone was
expected to make sacrifices; but it is evident that the sacrifices fell more
on the workers than on the bureaucracy or the political elite.
As has been argued, the first Fascist theoreticians anticipated most of those
developments. In a world in which the more advanced industrial powers "colo-
nized" those that were less developed, one did not need much sophistication to
the reactive rise ofdevelopmental nationalisms on the periphery. How-
of the Bolshevik revolution may have been for Marxist-
Leninists at its Inrpnt.nn for Fascist the revolution in economically
180
T
"FASCISMS"
retrograde Russia was actually the first of many "revolutions of poor nations ...
against the ... tyranny of [established international] capitalism."59
Stalin recognized that in less developed countries "the struggle against impe-
rialist oppressors" would produce a nationalism that would act as a "powerful
predominating factor," drawing "the revolutionary forces of the country to-
gether into one carnp."60 In effect, whatever one might have expected from
Marxist "theory," Stalin was prepared to recognize the multi-class nature of
"revolutionary forces" in those industrially and economically less developed
countries that found themselves confronting "imperialism."
Whatever the political dynamics of the Maoist revolution in China, in retro-
spect it is evident that Chinese Communists sought the rapid industrial and
economic development of their nation in the effort to establish its sovereign
place in the modern world. However confused and incompetent Maoist strat-
egies of national development proved to be, thne is little doubt that their pur-
pose was the establishment of China as a major power in the modern world. At
its most coherent, Marxism under Mao Zedong meant reactive nationalist eco-
nomic and policies.'>t However much Maoism was larded over with
Marxist jargon, its purposes ultimately became manifestly clear in its behavior.
Against the threats and power of foreign imperialism, Maoists sought to restore
China to its rightful place at the "center of the world." Once this is understood,
all Mao's invocations concerning "class struggle" and "proletarian international-
ism" are seen as obstructions to what were, in fact, the primary tasks of the
revolution.
On the Chinese mainland, only the death of Mao freed the leadership of the
People's Republic of China from the anti-market prejudices of orthodox Marx-
ism. Only then were China's "capitalist roaders" free to embark on a program of
rapid economic and industrial growth-the real purpose of the long Chinese
revolution. Only then could they allow the effective existence of private property,
the exercise of individual initiative, and the pursuit of personal profit to influence
the allocation of resources as well as the investment of capital. Only after the
death of Mao could the Marxists of Communist China allow property, profit, and
personal initiative to fuel the impressive industrial growth that has distinguished
post-Maoist China from its Maoist past.(,2 With the attendant transformation, the
distinctions between generic fascism and Chinese Marxism-Leninism have be-
come increasingly threadbare.
By the mid- J9905, the inspiration for the Herculean efforts of the mainland
Chinese to develop their nation economically turned on "love of country" and
continued resentment of "the humiliations" suffered by China at the hands of
"foreign aggression."63 By that time, all notions of domestic "class struggle" had
"FASCISMS" 18l
been abandoned. In their place, a conception of an international struggle be-
tween "poor" and "rich" nations was embraced without equivocation.
64
Not only are "class distinctions" to be tolerated in post-Maoist China, but the
leader of the Communist Party of China, Jiang Zemin, instructed the party to
foster the union of all Chinese, whatever their "class," in the eHort to further
national development. The party was counseled to reconstruct itself "under the
new banner of nationalism."6> For the most modern spokesmen ofcontemporary
China, patriotism, the commitment to the national state, has become a cardinal
virtue to be invoked and/or inculcated in the masses of the mainland. Patriotism
has become a form of national affect ignited by a communal celebration of the
millennial culture of China. Where the memory of past glories is absent or weak,
it must be stoked by ritual incantation.!'(' Nothing less was advocated by Fascist
pedagogues in the 1930sP
The ideology that today legitimizes the rule of the Communist Party of
China is identified as "socialism with Chinese characteristics." Itis a "socialism"
that has long been familiar to fascists. Itis a socialism in which economically
defined classes collaborate, under the aegis of a single-party state, in the fur-
therance of national developmental purpose. As a reactive nationalist, elitist,
etatist, authoritarian, irredentist, anti-democratic, developmental, single-party-
dominant, and increasingly militaristic regime, post-Maoist China shares an
unmistakable bmily resemblance to paradigmatic Fascism.(,H
What was used in the past to distinguish the class of fascisms from Marxist-
Leninist regimes was the latter's doctrinal objections to private property and the
existence of a market through which the bulk of resource allocations were made
and commodities were exchanged for money. With the passage of time and
changed circumstances, Marxist-Leninists in the former Soviet Union, in post-
Maoist China, and in Vietnam have shown themselves prepared to tolerate
private property and market influences in accelerated economic development.
As a conseguence, the distinctions between "left" and "right" single-party,
nondemocratic growth regimes has become increasingly less substantial.
In Fascist Italy, private property and the market were treated as instrumental
to government purposes. Irrespective of the massive intervention of the Fascist
state, the exchange of goods and services in the market supplied the price struc-
ture by virtue of which allocations could be rationally undertaken, profits fixed,
wages established, and collective goals pursued.f.,)
However different Marxist-Leninist systems were, and are, from paradig-
matic Fascism, given their different histories and national circumstances, the
traits are evident. Both systems conform to the informal, but demanding,
logic of anti-democratic reactive developmental nationalism. A syndrome of
182 183 "FASClSMS"
emerge out of all this-too familiar now to warrant rehearsal. It
features the traits of a class of nationalisms that includes
many of the late countries of the twentieth century, of which Italian
Fascism was the illustrative instance.
all there is a sense in which Ii ke Renzo De
Felice arc correct. There was only one Fascism, that of Benito Mussolini.
7il
It was
a product of the First \Vorld War, without which it would not have existed.?' No
other movement had its history, and no other movement, by definition, could
have had its history. That granted, everything in the world is unique in the same
way and the same sense. Everything in the universe has had a unique history; but
there is very little cognitive profit in acknowledging that. With an insistence on
the uniqueness of every single thing, speech itself, not to speak of empirical
generalization, becomes impossible. We would be condemned to experience the
world, but never to have any cognitive purchase on it.
The fact is that we do generalize, typologize, classify, and taxonomize. We
tease out similarities and observe family resemblances. We stipulate meanings
and offer operational det1nitions-all in the effort to bring order to our domai'ns
of inquiry. We do this for "pretheoretical" purposes, in order to provide, on
occasion, for the easy storage and retrieval of otherwise com plicated informa-
tion. We sometimes do it for heuristic purposes, to suggest what to look for
among instances of the same putative category of objects or events. And some-
times we do it to establish functional relationships between categories of
and/or events. All this we do in the hope that viable theory will be
Social science has not been particularly successful in generating
theory.72 Historians and social scientists have provided us with
mal typologies and taxonomies intended to provide us some pretheoreticallever-
age on understanding. Thus Richard Pipes recently reminded us that "Bolshe-
vism and Fascism were heresies of socialism" and shared
a fact that was early acknowledged bv Mussolini himseiFl
That differences nonetheless
But differences we still
and generalize.
.. Mussolini's Fascism was very different from Hitler's National Socialism, as
from Codreanu\ legion. More interesting than the confession of differences is
the question of how the remaining similarities are to be classit1ed. Given the his-
tory of all these revolutionary movements in the twentieth century, perhaps the
them would be to identify a genus, "reactive, de-
" of which "democratic" and "nondemocratic" would
for example, might fall under the
nationalism?4 Under the spe-
"FASCISMS"
cies "nondemocratic" one might find reactive nationalist authoritarianisms and
autocracies as subspecies as long as they gave evidence of developmental intent.
would be a subspecies of nondemocratic, reactive, developmental
nationalisms. The criterial properties of the subspecies would include possession
of a formal ideology inspired by a collectivist a clear commit-
ment to growth and development, an institutionalization
ofelitism and hierarchical arrangements, "charismatic government," mass mobi-
lization, and the ethi<.: of essentially militaristic service and
sacrifice, as well as extensive state control of the economy and the flow of
information.
As reactive nationalisms, elements of "masculine protest" would be evident.
Uniforms would be prevalent. The military would serve as a model for citizens.
There would be an emphasis on unanimity in opinion, faith, and sacrit1ce.
Political discourse would feature the language of "manhood," war, and
sacrifice. I rredentism would be a common, if not universal, feature of the sub-
There would be an aggressive agenda to restore the nation's "true"
boundaries. Equally common would be the appearance of a "charis-
matic leader" who would be identified with the red sun" or the
"millennial of his nation. Should the system charisma would be
routinized or bureaucratized. An effort at autarkic would
recommend itself. There would be constant and a
call to a transcendent mission.
fundamentalisms, various f(-}fIns of non-
racisms and as well as incoherent
found-all members of a subspecies sharing some family
resemblance. While such a resemblance urges itself upon cornparativists, it is not
clear what measure ofsirnilarity is required to define categories. Even less clear is
how similarities are to be quantified. As a consequence, there are questions of
Ijow much mobilization must take place if;1 movement or regime is to
qualify as "mass mobilizing"? Should that mobilization find expression in politi-
cal party mobilization? What might qualify as a "formal ideology"? And how
much intervention in the economy qualifies as "extensive"? How many of the
traits must a regime display in order to qualify for entry? And what of move-
ments that have not established themselves as regimes? How is one to treat the
ideology of a movement that is at demonstrable variance with regime behaviors?
There is, in effect, no end of questions. And there are no easy answers. As in
all the informal sciences, what is required is judgment. Taxonomic effi)fts are
pretheoretical. They are undertaken to bring order into an otherwise
universe of inquiry. In the search for order, it is logically possible to generate an
"infinite number of schemes."75 In the human sciences, those that are, in
IH4 "FASCISMS"
attempted are, more often than not, intended to bring not only order with them,
but understanding as well.
"Understanding" can be taken to mean the reduction of puzzlement con-
cerning some complex sequence. Evidence f(lr its success is an avowal on the part
of an audience. "Understanding" can also be taken to mean that some recom-
mended ordering of things make possible "gener3\izations about how the pres-
<'nee, absence, or clustering of certain combinations of variables affect
"Theoretical understanding" can be taken to mean that the
are testable and afford a measure of predictive competence.
With respect to this final social scientists have not been not;l-
have perhaps been least successful in their treatment of
and Marxist-Leninist systems. As a conse-
quence and for the foreseeable future, we will probably not have much that
pass as theoretical understanding of some of the most important political
phenomena of our time.
In stich parlous circumstances, we can offer very little insight into the future
of a "Russian fascism," or the more likely "Chinese hlscism" that will occupy
space in-and threaten the peace of-the twenty-first century. For all that, 1I1
some indeterminate future, perhaps a century from now, social scientists will
wonder why we failed to predict the political eventualities of their
what they would then perceive to have been the clear anticipa
ollr own.
Appendix:
TheDevolutionofMarxist''Theories''ofFascism,
ANarrativeChronology, 1919- 1995
First Period: 1919-1924
orientations ranged from those
founded in March
1919. It was an uncertain collection of groups and
of the left-wing revol utionary national symlIcahsts to
those of the iconoclastic Futurists ofF. T. Marinetti. Veterans of the First World War
and the class warfare commitments of
was to identify Fascism with "reaction."
At its first appearance, and with its rise lo prominence, efforts to provide an
the component.
revolution on the Italian
posture was resistance to the threat of social iSl
Fascists snecificalv opposed the anti-nationalism
account of Fascism were made by relatively unknown socialist authors
like Julius Braunthal (an Austrian Social Democrat) and Julius Deutsch (a German
Social Democrat). Fascism was immediately identified as a "creature" and/or a
"tool" of simple "class" reaction against the inevitability of the "progressive" world
revolution of the "working class."
Fascism's class sponsor was taken to be the "bourgeoisie." Neither the term bour-
geoisie nor how any such class might create this kind ofmovement or render it obedient
was explored with any ri(!or. This disabilitv continued throullhout the entire
of Marxist
Such
interests as
" Neither definition of critical terms
evidence to support the claims of Marxist commentators was forth-
It was clear that the earliest were uncertain which elements of
the collective bourgeoisie had ordered, subventionizcd, directed, or utilized the
Fascists in their war of resistance to progress.
Second Period: 1924-1926 The first serious intellectual efforts at interpretation
appeared. Gyula Sas (Aquila) (1893-1943), a Hungarian Marxist, produced for the
185
186 187 t\PPENDlX
Comintern Infcmnation Department one of the first reasonabl y coherent accounts of
what Marxists understood Fascism to be. He identified the leaders of Italian industry
as the occult masters of Fascism. Klara Zetkin (1857-1933), the German head of the
women's section of the Comintern and member of its Central Committee, followed
the lead of Sas and conceived Fascism as the simple instrument of major industrial
of that account was supplied by the
under Fascist control of the
Italian
Third Period: 1927-1930 By now it had become evident that it was far from
satisfactory to interpret Fascist political behavior exclusively in terms of the interests
of the Italian industrial bourgeoisie. Many more interests appeared to be involved.
Palmiro l()gliatti (dlY3-1964), halian Communist Party member and a member of
the Presidium of the Comintern, that Fascism represented an entire conJor-
Italian oeninsula. This meant that it would be
without confirming or
wcre class-based. Whatever Fascism did one or
another bourgeois interest.
Fourth Period: 1931-1935 During this period, Fascism revealed itself to be more
than a function of the peculiarities of Latin circumstances ami l,atin temperament.
Adolf Hitler's National Socialism made its appearance in one of the most advanced
\Vhat sought was a comprehensive account that was
and as well as to those fascist-like movements that
in various other and non-European environments during
the same period. A "standard version" of what would pass as the "Marxist theory of
fascism" appeared with the publication in 1934 of the work of Raiani Palme
Dun (dly6-1974), an Indian-English Marxist-Leninist, who
was the specific reactionary re.rponJe c!f finance capital to the apparent
that had overwhelmed industrial capitalism in 1929.
Karl Marx had left his followers with a theoretical expectation that the average
rate of capitalism must at some point inevitably sink to "absolute zero,"
the entire Western industrial enterprise to a halt. Palme Dutt interpreted
the Great Depression of 1<)29 as tbat anticipated final crisis. Since there could be no
rational resolution of such a the masters of Western capitalist industry, the
finance capitalists, acted as sponsors, organizers, financiers, and directors of fascism
in their effort to artificially sustain their revenues. Hitler and Mussolini were the
"supine agents" of their creators. They were assigned the task of monoDolizin2' their
respective industrial systems in order to produce goods at
maintain sustainable profit levels.
Fascists were to destroy education in order to suppress technological innovation
in a system that, according to traditional Marxist theory, derived profits
from buman labor. Fascism was designed to obstruct ,IllY industrial improvements,
APPENDIX
because capitalism, in its final crisis, was compelled to reduce productivity. Moribund
capitalism was committed to a "new dark -and fascism was its instrument.
As a consequence, the standard ofliving throughout the capitalist countries must
gradually, but systematically, decline. The means of production must be
because improvement in those means would gcnerate increases in supply that could
not be distributed by capitalism at a profit. According to the thesis, the declining rate
of profit was the nemesis of industrial capitalism. Fascism was the spawn of that
"internal contradiction," finance capitalism's pathological response to its final crisis.
In 193'5, the substance of this account in a report authored by Georgi
Dimitroff (1882-IY49) tbat served as the main report of the Seventb of
the Communist rnternational, the official Imprimatur of Soviet
Marxism- Leninism. Generic fascism was "the open terrorist dictatorship of the most
reactionary, most chauvinistic, and most imperialistic elements of finance
Trotskyists like Daniel Guerin (1904-1C)88) attempted to make the same case at
approximately the same time. Other Marxists, not with either wing of
Marxism-Leninism, argued that the ofticial standard version was impaired in a
number of critical ways.
Even before the clos(: of the fourth period, a major work by the (;erman Marxist
Franz Borkenau (lyo0'57), "The Sociology of Fascism," which appeared in the
Archz'v fuel' Sozlalwis.rCrlschaft und Sozialpolirik in February 19t), argued that the
on the notion that thc "historic tasks" of fascism
and industrial modernization, when in fact Italian
FaJci.rm sporl.(ored developmental programs for the Italian peninsula. At about the same
time, the Austrian Marxist Otto Bauer (Iilill 1938) ar2'ued that 2'eneric fascism had
demonstrated political independence from any Jpec/fic bourgeois faction and as
an "independent force" sustained by a multi -class base. It was the
political environment in which no single class could dominate.
Fifth Period: 1936-1940 This period was characterized by important intellectual
While the official Marxist-Leninist interpretation remained that of
it was evident to many that Fascism could not be dismissed as
While the vagueness and of the term allowed fascism to be
in some sense, with the class the
clear evidence of its developmental properties and
be accounted for so easily. Fascism could be identified with the because
it provided protection for private property and/or the role o.t'private in economic
activities, but it could not be identified as' a creature or tool ofcapita!;m. More than
Leon Trotsky (1879-1<)4), an anti-Stalinist Marxist--Leninist, the "sub-
stantial similarities" between fascism and Stalinism.
Sixth Period: 1941-1949 The effort to a canvincing interpretation of ge-
neric fascism largely ceased during the of the Second World War and its
immediate aftermath. Soviet intellectuals the standard version of
193'5, and the emplovment of what were taken to be the defining Dfoperries of
188 189 APPENDIX
generic fascism became increasingly commonplace. Fascism was seen to be a bour-
geois political system, designed to defend private property and industrial capitalism.
I ts overt political features included (I) the leadershi p principle (rule by a charismatic
figure); (2) a hegemonic party (single-party rule); (3) large-scale state intervention in
the economy (state monopoly capitalism); (4) extensive control over
munication, and social life; (5) nationalism, chauvinism, and aggressiveness;
tarization of the economy; (7) invocation of an obedience and sacrifice ethic; in
service of a national mission; with (9) the restoration of lost lands as part of a
of return to national grandeur.
were defeated in the course of the Second World War, but
Mao Zedong (1893-1976) identified the forces of Republican China as a "fascism"
'oceeded to pursue the resolution of a civil war that had
beset mainland China since the 19205. The definition of Chinese fascism was under-
stood to conform to the standard Marxist-Leninist account of the interwar years.
The leadership of Republican China was the tool ofthe generic Chinese bourgeoisie or
the '.'fYlreign imperialists" or both together.
Seventh Period: 1950-1962 Little in the way of responsihle interpretation of ge-
neric fascism was attempted during this period. The lines of struggle had been
drawn, and the Korean War (19'50-'53) had pitted the United States and its allies
against the Soviet Union, Mao's China, and North Korea: the "imperialists" against
the "worldwide proletarian revolution."
The death of J. v. Stalin (1878-19'53) events that gave Impetus to
changes in tbe official Marxist-Leninist of fascism. N. S. Khru-
shchev's denunciation of Stalin in 1956 created intellectual space in which Soviet and
non-Soviet Marxist-Leninists and Marxists could attempt a more cognitivcly per-
suasive of fascism.
At the end of this period in Italy, the Communist Party theoretician Paolo Alatri
that Italian Fascism was multi-class irl origin and, while bourgeois "in essence,"
develOPmental in charaaer. In some sense, it was a variant of "bourgeois dictatorship"
the economy of the peninsula from one to another, more progressive
between the owners of property and industry and Fascist rule
was not direct. Fascism was no longer seen as simply a "class phenomenon," but as a
complicated political system that arose in a complex political environment.
Eighth Period: 1963-1969 At the end of the seventh period, because of growing
bilateral tension, the Marxists of Mao Zedong to identify the Soviet Union as a
"robber imperialist state." Krusbchev was declared a "number one
attempting to restore capitalism to the Soviet Union, thereby a "social-fa.,cist
dictatorship." The increasing intellectual that appeared with the
Khrushchev "thaw" saw scholars such as Alexander Galkin anmirH': that
hitherto nterpreted in accordance with the contrived artificialities of the
best be characterized not as a of the "final crisis" of
but as a response to the demands ofa in the development of "state
monopOly capitalism." The leadership of fascism was neither the creature nor the tool of
APPENDIX
any specific class, if class is defined in terms of the ownership of the material means
production.
According to this
while interests of the
the bourgeoisie. Under crisis condi-
bscism ushered the capitalist mdustrial system from one level
one form of modern state monopoly capitalism, with the
prerogatIves of capitalists surrendered to a politically independent dic-
industrial capitalism into wars of mass destruction.
At ahout the same time, Mihaly Vadja, a member of the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences, argued that Italian Fascism, in particular, was a "progressive" response to the
crisis of industrial capitalism on the peninsula. The "proletarian forces" that threat-
ened Italy with socialist revolution after the First World War were "reactionary,"
hecause, had their demands been met, Italy would not have been able to accumulate
the capital, retain the entrepreneurial talent, or provide the incentives for economic
growth and industrial development. Had the socialist revolution
First World War Italy, that country would have lanlruished at the level of
industrial growth.
It is in this context that the work ofNicos Poulantzas
some Marxist-Leninist understand-
Sino-Soviet
If fascism could no longer be identified as a direct consequence of bourgeoisie
of the means of production, it might hetter he seen as a result ofpolitical
slruggle between elements ofthe petty, commercial, indus-
and financial. Further, since such "class struggle" was political, it need not be
directly associated with the ownership of property; so YaJcl.rm" could exist ill enviroll-
me1lts ir1f1ocent ofprivate property and capitalist industry. All that was required was a
collection of persons who entertained bourgeois intentions-a "class" of "capitalist-
roaders." Thus, it could be argued that the Soviet Union, where private property had
been abolished with the revolution, had been transformed into a "fascist state."
The Soviet Union had estahlished a new class system in which those who COil
trolled collective property could employ it to their advantage. To protect their
"social-f:1scist state," the Soviet Union's "capitalist-waders" took on all the subsid-
iary properties of traditional fascism. They become oppressive with respect to their
domestic population and aggressive and in dealing with their neighbor
Poulantzas had supplied a Maoist of fascism that allowed the Soviet
U lion to be identified as an exemolar of the class.
Ninth Period: 1970-1980 What Poulantzas had done was to provide, for West-
erners, a fairly coherent account of generic fascism as that account became standard
in the writings of the intellectual and political leaders of China's chaotic "Great
Proletarian Revolution." Yao Wenyuan, Zhang Chunqiao, and Wang Hongwen had
made their case in essays that had been widely distributed throughout China and the
West as a vindication of Beijing's denunciation of Soviet fascism.
At about the same time, commencing before the end of the preceding period,
190 191 APPENDfX
various Soviet authors came to perceive Maoism as a form of "petty bourgeois revolu-
tionism" and an identifiable form o.ffascism. Not only had the Chinese leadership
declared Soviet Marxism a "class enemy," but by the first years of the T970S they had
begun a rapprochement witb the "imperialist" United States.
Since Marxist-Leninists in general no longer identified fascism as the instru-
ment of a particular class of property owners, it might be associated with any
collection of persons in authority, but not owning property, who lIsed
their power for their own benefit. Such persons could be found in any "socialist"
environment.
Soviet authors cited the "bourgeois character" of the leadership of
anti-intellectualism, its aggressiveness, its invocation of force in the service of
cal ends, its express nationalism, its reliance on mass mobilization through ritual and
liturgy, its appeals to charismatic leadership, its fostering and sustaining of single-
party dominance of the system, its militarization of the economy, as well as its
flirtation with "imperialism," as evidence of a Chinese fascism. Chinese Marxist-
Leninists, in turn, identified the reintroduction of market elements into the com-
mand economy of the Soviet Union, Moscow's increasing appeals to the state ami
national interests, its use of military force against "fraternal socialist states" such as
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland, together with its domestic "restoration of
capitalism" and its abandonment of nrolerarian values. as cOlIlDellim! evidence of its
filscist character.
By the end of the period, Marxist-Leninist commentators in both the Soviet
Union and the People's Republic of China were characterizing the political, eco-
nomic, and social system of the other as fascist. Fascism was perceived in terms of
political intentions rather than any empirical class properties. i\ bscist political and
economic system was one that supported material class, sectoral, and regional differ-
ences and was geared to the industrial and technological maintenance and expansive
support of an institutionalized military. It was a system that had abandoned class
warfare as a "key dement" and was nationalistic, essentially and terri-
aggressive. Its leadership was animated by a conviction of its own
It was essentially anti-liberal, anti-democratic in practice, elitist in
episodically mass-mobilizing.
On 9 September 1976, Mao Zedong died. China was immediately plunged into
political crisis. Mao's hand-picked successor, Hua Guofeng, was dismissed, and
Xiaoping acceded to power. The leaders of Mao's Gang of Four, architects of
the devastating Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, were arrested.
At the same time, the economic crisis of the Soviet Union steadily
worsened. Various desultory attempts were made to reform the dysfunctional com-
mand economy. A series of ineffectual leaders succeeded Leonid Brezhm:v.
Final Period: 1981-1995 In 1 Konstanrin Chernenko died and was
on 10 March 1985, by Mikhail Gorbachcv. The Soviet Union
into a systemic crisis from which it was not to emerge.
By then, \Vestern Marxists like Charles Bettelheim had identified the reformist
system introduced into China by Deng as fascist. Chinese domestic critics like Wang
APPENDIX
The Marxist-Leninist trans-
formed bv six decades of served as
[n the Soviet Union, Marxist-Leninist theoreticians who were nnmHt'"d
bachev's "new thinking" finally articulated those theoretical,
tical differences between "Marxism-Leninism" as it had
sented throughout the Soviet period and the truly revolutionary
promised salvation to the threatened Russian state and the people it served. Sergei
and Alexander Prokhanov prepared a "spiritual" and "patriotic" pro-
gram for the "national-patriotic forces" organized behind Gennadi Ziuganov, leader
of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation. The proposed program, de-
to salvage the nation in its mortal stru;r;rle with
cated on extensive class
of market adjuncts to direct the economy. Russia was to continue its
"historic responsibilities" as the Eurasian "gatherer of lands" and recover its domi-
nance throughout what had bern the Soviet empire.
The national-patriotic forces committed themselves to the restoration of Russia's
status as a major military power. They anticipated a political system that would not
suffer from the disabilities of liberalism. The entire ideological system was sup-
by an appeal to thc ethnobiological convictions of Lev Gumilcv (!() 12-92),
who understood nations to be biocthnic units structured over time, sustained by an
and an out-group enmity that found expression in patriotism, and
[m," entered into a process of
major territorial and cultural Gumilcv argued that all these notions were
compatible with the Marxism-Leninism that inspired them.
What almost everyone else has maintained is that Cllmilev's ideas share
thcoretical afflnities with the '"natioracism" of Fascism. Further, both Kurginian and
Prokhanov have acknowledged the general similarities of their ideological convic-
tions with those of classical Fascism. I n substance, the ideology that illSpires the
f<)rces of Ziuganov's Communist Party shares demonstrable re-
semblances to the Fascism of Mussolini. The nationalism, the domestic class collab-
oration and the international "class " the commitment to a vanguard party
and the irredentism and
the potential appeal to
ethic, are all c1assic;I\ Fascist postures. Marxism-Leninism, as a consequence of its
own internal "diakctic," has transformed itself into what is manifestlv a form of
paradigmatic Fascism.
Xizhe rendered similar
I
Notes
Pn:f;\Cc
. Robert FrmchFa.fci,m. Th,Fir..-t Wave. 1924"19)}(NewHaven:Yale Univcr,ity
Press, 19I1b), p. Xl.
2. Mark Neodeous,Fr.J.fclJm of Minnesota Press, (997),p. x.
3.SecPeterH.Mcrkland Leonard (t:(k),TheHevlValofHil!htWillI! Extrcmwn
intheNinetie.' (London:FrankCass, 1997).
4. St'c theentirediscussion in workslike Roger(JriHin,The Nature
(991),and Roger Eatwdl,FaJ(i.'m:A History (NewYork:
5.St:c A. James Gregor. The FaJcI.,.t Pen'uw'ion ill Hadieal Politiu (Princeton: Princeton
Press,
Chapter I: OnTheoryand Revolutionin()urTime
I. The term relJO/utioll will be used throughout to mean "any systemic in the
sociopoliticalorderthatis theconsequenceoftheusc,orthethreatoftheusc,ofviolence."
2. The term Fa'(ciun, capitalized, will refer throughout to the Fascism ofBenito Mus-
solini. Thetermfa..-ci.ml, lowercase,will refer tothe classof genericf;lscisms.
. l. Sec,e.g., theviewsofPeterII. Mcrkl,"Introduction"toPeterII.Merkl and Leonard
Weinberg(eds.), The RevivalofRight.Wing Extrem':,.m in the NinetieJ (London: Frank Cass,
pp.I-16.
4. Glyn Ford (ed.), FaJci,t Europe: The RiJe ofRaelJ'm andXenophobill (London: Pluto,
pp. x-xiii.
5. Tobe told that"commontoallmovementsoffascism" was "brutality ...a contempt
f()r theindividualandaloveof violence,"tellsus very little.Withsuchadescriptivecharacter-
ization,onecould an almost infinite numberofcandidatesfor membershipofthe
class"fa1>cist." Seethediscussion in H. R. Kedward,FaJusm in rYe.item Hurope 1900-45(New
York: NewYork UniversityPress, (971),pp.4,26.
6. As with FaseiJmlfascism, thetermcommunism refers to the class ofsystems so identi
fied. It will be caDitalized when Dreceded by a specifying term, so "SovietCommunism"or
"CbineseCommunism."
7. GriHin,TheNature (London: I'<oulleage, pp. 229
193
195 NOTES TO PAGES 2-6
8. As ,ired in Paul Hollander,DeclmeandDi,content: Communism andthe West Today
(NewBrunswick,N.J.:Transaction, 1992),p. 127.
9. See NormanMailer,"ACountryNota Scenario,"Parade Magazine, Hj August 1984,
as in Paul Hollander, The Survival Adversary Culture (New Brunswick, N.J.:
Transaction,1988),p.,)4;thediscussionin J. ArchGetty,OnginsoftheGrt'at TheSoviet
Communist Party Reconsidered (New York: Cambridge University Press, 198'; and R. J.
Barnet, The Giants-RussiaandAmerica (NewYork: Simonand SchllSter, pp. 93, !O6,
111,119, 161l-dl9, 171-175.
10.Sec thediscussion in PaulHollander,PoliticalPilgrim"(NewYork:Oxford
Press, 1981).
I I. See,e.g.,A.JamesGregor.TheFascist Pl'!:(uasion in RadicallJollti"(Princeton:Prince
ton UniversityPress, 1<J74), chaps.2-4,and idon,ASurveyof Marxism:Problemsm Philosophy
andthe Theory of History (New York: Random HOllse, 19(,5), chaps. '), (l. More recently, the
Bobhcvik revolution has heen described as "a daringmove hy a handful ofzealots leadinga
crowd ofsoldiers, workers, and sailors ..to seize power" (Adam B. Ulam, The
Communi.(ts: The Story of'Powerand Lost Illusions 1948--/991 1New York: Scrihners, 19(121,
p.
12. Paul Hollander, "Durahle of PolItical
H, no. "
4')-')')
13. HogerEatwell,Fascism:A J-IlSfory (New York: I'enguln, 1995),Chaps. II 14.
14. Aslateas 199",SheldonWolincouldstillarguethatthecommunist beingof
the left, were thc "only ones that professed, and to sOllle degreeachieved,a commitment to
equality"(SheldonWolin,"BeyondMarxismand Monetarism,"Natio/!, 19 Mar. 199",p.
I'i. Piero Ignni, "The Extreme Right In Europe: A Survev." in Merkl and
(eds.),Revival,p. 41l.
I(l. Walter Laqueur,Fascism: PaJt, Pre.it'nt. Future (New York: Oxford University Press,
IY9(,), p. 90 .
17. See thedisnmionin Ignazi,"ExtremeRight," PI' 48,'19,
Ill. PeterMerkl,"Introduction"to Merkland Weinberg(uk), RClIival, p. 2.
19. More than a generation ago, the simiI,lrities hetween the Right and the Left were
Gregor,FascistPersuasion in RadiallPolitics.
20. Mikhail Agursky,"TheSoviet Crisisand Its International
illl\c1orton Kaplan(ed.), Th(' Many FaceJ oj'Communism(NewYork: FreePress,
21. Peter Viereck,"TheMobwithintheHeart,"in P. JuvilerandH. Morton(cds.),Soviet
Policy Making (New York: Pr;leger, p. 27. See Agursky's comment>, "Soviet
imacy," p. 167'
22. Henry E. Carey, "Post-Communist Right Radicalism in Romania," in Merkl and
Weinberg(eds.), Rt'lIitJal, p. 149.
2j.Merkl,"Introduction,"inibid., p. 8.
24. See Gennadi Kostyrchenko,Out of the Red Shadow.,: AntiSt"mitiJm in l\uJsia
(Amherst,N.Y.: Prometheus, and ArkadyVaksherg,StahrlagainsttheJewJ (NewYork:
1994).SeetheaccountinMikhail Agursky,TheThirdRome:NationalBolshevisminthe
USSR(Boulder,Colo.:Westview,
2'). Whileit is tothe"extreme that theauthoraddresses his comments,it is clear
thatcommunistsystems, noless thanfascist ones,demonstratethesesameproperties(Ignazi,
"ExtremeRight,"pp.
26. Ibid.
27. Asquoted byWalter Laqueur,The Dream thatFailed: Ref/ections01'1 theSotliet Union
(NewYork:Oxford UniversityPress,19(4),p. 78.
NOTES TO PAGES () - J5
28. ThatwasthecentralthesisofmyFascistPersuaJion in RadicalPolitic.<.
29. See,e.g.,Richard Pipes,Russia underthe Regime(NewYork:
chap.".
30. See the discussion in A. James Gregor, "'Totalitarianism' Revisited," in Ernest A.
Menze(ed.),Totalitarianism Recon.ridered(London: Kennikat, 1981),pp. 130-145,
3I. Russia,p. 245
32. F. Cohen,"BolshevismandStalinism," in Menze(ed.), Totalitarianism, p. 67.
33,SeethediSCUSSion inMichael Mann,"TheContradictionsof ContinuoliS Revolution,"
in Ian Kershaw and Moshe Lewin (cds.), Stalinism andNazism: Dictator.(hip.( in Comparison
(NewYork:CambridgeUniversity Press, 1(97),esp. pp.
Seethediscussionin KennethMurphy, theFinlandStation:
in theBl'eakdowtloj'Communism (NewYork:FreePress,1992).
37.Martin Malia,"Fromunderthe What?,"ProblemJ
1992,p. 10'5.
31l. See Hollander,PoliticalPilgrims.
39. Seethediscussion in Bill Bruggerand David Kelly (cds.),ChineJe Marxism inthePOJt
Mao Era (Stanford,Calif.:Stanford UniversityPress, (990), pp. 171-17').
40.Seethediscussion inCarl Lindenand JanS. Prybyla,RUJ.(ia andChinaon theEveofa
Neu'Millenium (New Brunswick, N.I.: Transaction, 1(97),chap. 2.
41. RusJia, p. 242.
42. Ibid.,p. 253.
43. Ibid.,p. 264.
44 Ibid.,pp. 24') and 2')3
4')' A selectionofthevarietyofMarxist notion,ofi;]scism advanced
years is available in David Beetham(ed.),MarxiJfS in Face of Fascism:
FascismFomthe Inter-WarPeriod(Manchester: Manchester UniversityPress,
46. See thediscussion in A. I<lmes Gregor,AnIntroduction toMetapoliticJ: A BriefInquiry
intotheConceptualLanguageo(PolitiralScience (NewYork: FreePress, 1971).
47 See thediscussion in Gregor,SW'veyof Marxism,chaps. 1,2,'), 7.
See theinsightfuldiscussion in FredM, Gotthcil,Marx's }:'conomicPredictions(Evans-
ton, III.: NorthwesternUniversity Press,19(6).
49. Sec the discussion in Arif Dirlik, "Postsocialism? Reflections on 'Socialism with
ChineseCharacteristics:"inArikDirlikand MauriceMeisner(cds.),MarxismandtheChi1l<'se
f<:xtJeru'nce (Armonk,N..:M. E.
50. See London Times, 2
SocialScienceJ(NewYork: Macmillan, vol. 14,p. 330.
Nov. 1929; and
51. Pipes,RU.wa, p. 242.
')2. Ibid.,p. 245.
53SeethesuggestionsinLaqueur,Fascism,chap.3;AlexanderYano\', WamarRussiaaud
What We Carl Do About It (New York: Slovo-World, 199'; Vladimir Kartsev, Zhl'rinovJkyf
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1995); Vladimir Solovyov and Elena Klepikov
ZhirinovJky: RUJsian Fa.rciJm andthe Makingoj'aDictator(NewYork: Addison-Wesley, 199'5).
54. Seethediscussion in AlexanderYanov, The Rus.rian NewRight:Right-WingIdeologies
intheContempolary USSR(Berkeley:InstituteoflnternationalStudies, 1978).
55. James P. Scanlan, "From Samizdat to Perestroika: The Soviet Marxist Critique of
Soviet Society," in Raymond Taras (cd.), The Roadto DisilluJion: From Critical Marxism to
POJtcommunismin EasternEurope(Armonk,N.Y.: M. E.Sharpe, P.37.
56. A. Volkov and V. Mironov (eds.), The Phenomenon of Socialism: Essence, RefIularities.
Perspectives (Moscow:Global Research Institute, 1990),pp.43-'44,90, 159,
)7' See Kershaw and Lewin, "Afterthoughts," in idem (eds.), Stalinism and Nazism, pp.
H-\-358.
Daniels, Elsewhere. Journeys in a World: North Korea, Cuba,
Albania, Romania, Vietnam (NewYork:Crown, 1991), p. 9.
59.Seethecommentsin Russia, p. 280.
60. See Zeev Sternhell's discussion off ~ s c i s m in France: Neither Right no>' Left: Fascist
Ideology in France (Los UniversityofCalifornia Press, 1986).
61. Ihid.,p. 270.
(n. See A. James Gregor, Phoenix: Fascism in Our Time (New Brunswick, N.J.: Trans-
action, 1999).
Chapter2: TheFirstMarxistTheoriesofFascism
I. See the account in A. James Gregor, Young MU.Holmi and the Intellectual Ortgins of
Fasd;m (Los Angeles: ofCalifornia Press, 1979). Themost suhstantial account of
theearlyhistoryofFascism is 10 he found in thedefinitivebiographyofMussolini writtenhy
Renzo De Felice: see his Mussolini if rit1oluzi(Jnm'io (Turin: Einaudi, 19(5) and MU;'J'olini il
192/-/925 (Turin:Einaudi, 19(6).
1.. Mussolini n:gularly maintained that while Fascists opposed the politics ofcommu-
nists, it shared with them "intellectual affinities" (Mussolini, "Per la vem paciflcazione," in
Opel'll omnia IFlorence: La Fenlce, 19'>3-641, vol. 17,p. 295)
3. Only in the English edition ofthe Manifesto of 11188, years after Marx's death. did
Engels attempt to define the conceptsbourgeoisie andproletariat, and then thedefinition was
leXIcal-i.e., witbout quantification ormeasure. Much the same can be said about almost
the central concepts ofclassical Marxism. None are defined with measurable or testahle
precision. That includes essential concepts such as matenal jiJTce.' of production, productive
relations, andJubsistence wage. Someof theseissuesaredealtwithmoreextensivelyin A. James
A Survey of MarxiJm: Problems in Philosophy and the Theory of Hi.;tory (New York:
RandomHouse, 19(5),chaps. 1,2,and'),esp.pp. 273-28
4. Fora more elaborateaccount,see 1\. James Gregor,The FaJCiJt Perwasion in Radical
Politics (Princeton: Princeton Press, 1974),chaps. 2 and3.
5. See Karl Marx, Capital (Moscow: Foreign Languages, 1954), vol. 3, pp. 227-230 ;
M.Gillman,The Falling Rate ofProfit (I.ondon: Unwin, 1957),
6. Sec the more ample discussion in (}regor, Fasci,t Per.,uaJJOn I1l Radical Politics,
pp.62"75
7. See E. Galli della Loggia,La III lnternazionalt> e if destino del calJitali.;mso: I'analisi di
Evghenij Varga (Milan: FeItrinelli, PP.980 1015.
8. JuliusBraunthal,"DerPutschderFaschisten,"Del'
9. JuliusDeutsch,Die (Vienna:Volksbuchhandlung, 1923), p.5
10. See John M. Cammelt, "Communist Theories ofFascism, 1920-1935," Science and
150 - 1'5'5.
text is very difficult to obtain. Theavailable translation, G. Aquila, "II
fascismo italiano," in R. De Felice (cd.), II fascismo e i partiti politici Italiana (Rocca San
Casciano: 1966), is a translation ofthe German texl. A revised, edition,
rasczsc'(01 Italia, appearedinMoscow in 1929:see p. 421.
12. KarlMarxand FriedrichEngels,The Communist Manifesto (NewYork: International,
1987),p. I I.
NOTES TO PAGES 27 34 197
13. In the third volume ofDas Kapital, Marx spoke ofan "infinite fragmentation of
interests and rank created by the social division oflabor among laborers, capitalists and
landlords." The putative relationship between ownership ofthe means ofproduction and
"class interests"appearsincreasingly uncertain ina numberof intheMarxcorpus.See
Marx,Capital, vol. 3, p. 863.
14 Ibid.,pp.477-479, 494
" in Ernst Nolte (cd.), Theorien
ueber den Fa,rchismus (Munich:Kiepenheuer&Witsch, pp.88 11I.
15. Clara Zetkin, "Der Kampfgegen den
16. Aquila, "I! fascismo italiano," p. 469: Zetkin, "Der gegen den Faschismus,"
P99
17. Cf. Aquila, "II fascismo italiano," pp. 458-467,and Zetkin, "Der Kampfgegen den
Fachismus,"pp.99-105.
18. "Lalottadic1asseeil fascismo,"inC.Casueci(ed.),II fasclsmo (Milan:Mulino,1961),p.
271 ; added.
J(). Ibid.,pp. 275,1.76.
20. As cited in R. Palme Dut!, FaKi.rm and Social N.etIolution (New York: International,
1934), pp. 88-90, myemphasis.
2[. PalmiroTogliatti,"Apropositodel fascismo," in Caslleci(ed.), Fascismo, p. 291.
22. Ibid.,pp. 292, 298;cf. p. 294.
23. Seethecommentsin Ernst Nolte,"Introduction,"in Nolte(cd.),Theorien, p. 54.
24. Georgi Dimitroff, The United Front agamst War and Fasci.rm (New York: Gamma,
P7
25. Daniel Guerin, Fascism and Business (New York: Pathfinder, 1()73; 1St ed. in
French in July ((}36): and R. Palme Dut!, Fa.,czsm and Social Revolution: A Study (I the
r:conomics and Politic.< (Ithe Extreme Stage.< (I Capitalism in Decay (San Francisco: Proletarian
Publishers, 1974: 1sted.in June
1.6. See LeonardoRapone, Iiot.rkij e il fa.rcismo (Rome: Latl'rza, 1978), pp. [2- [6,21.
27.Ihaveattemptedtounpackthelogicoftheclaimthattherateo!'profitinindustrialcapi-
talismmust declineovertimein Gregor,FaJCist Pt'I"sua.rion in Radical Politic,-, chaps.2and3.
28. Guerin,Fa,-cism and Big Busine",-, p. 22.
29. Thus, one ofLeon Trotsky's followers gave expression to a proposition that had
hecome a commonplaceamongmostMarxists: "Thewhole basis ofFascismarises outofthe
decomposition and decay of (E. R. Frank,"Introduction," in Leon Trotsky,Fas-
cism, What It Is; How to Fight It [NewYork: PioneerPublishers, 1944],p. 8).
30. Ihid.,p. 24.
31. Seeesp.Guerin,r(uci,-m and Busines,., pp. 209, 239,and
,F. Thesenotions werethedeductive consequences ofboldingsomeantecedent premises
to be true.Therearefew economists whoaccept the notion that the value ofcommoditiesis
determined by theamountof"concretizedliving labor"they incorporate. Fewerstill believe
that incrementsin investment in research and development,technological improvementand
machinery, must necessarily reduce the rate of profit. In this context, see the interesting
analysis ofMarx'sdeductive system in FredGottheil,Marx's Economic PredictiorlS (Evanston,
III.: Northwestern UniversityPress, (966).
.33. See Jane Degras,The Communist lntt'l"national 19/9- 194?"Documents (London: Pluto,
vol. 2, p.418.
34. As in T. Pirker (cd.), Komimern und Faschismus, 1920-/940 (Munich: DTV,
pp. 180.
35.Guerin,"Prefacetothe1945 FrenchEdition,"inFascism and Big Business, p. 7.
36. PalmeDutt,PaJcism and Social Revolution, pp. 13,24'
198 NOTES TO PAGES 39
37. Ibid.,pp.
38. Ibid.,p. 16.
39 Ibid.,pp.n n 308.
40. See thediscussionofthe ratesofreal growthin industrial productionin Italy during
theFascist Shepard B.Clough,e.g., indicated thatby 1926FascistItaly had regained
its pre-First World War levels of production and rates ofconsumption per capita (The
EconomicHistoryofModem Italy lNewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress, 1964], pp.226- 227).
Tbeperiod between 1922and 1929 in FascistItaly wascharacterizedby rapid industrialand
agriculturalexpansion. See Rosario Romeo,Brevestoria delfagrandeindustria in Italia (Rocca
SanCasciano:Cappelli, 1967),pp. 134-135.
41. Ibid.,p. 19
42.Seethediscussion in ibid.,chap. 12.
43.SeethediscussioninGregor,YoungMussolini,chap. 10.
44. In this see AngeloTasca,Nasdtaeave1lfO (Milan: La nuova Italia,
pp. 513"525; De Felice, Mussolini ilrivoluz/onario, chap. 14; idem, Mussolini
I 4; Mario Missiroli, Jl fascismo e il colpo distato dell'Ottobre 1922 (Rome: Cappelli,
u)66); Roberto Michels, "Elemente zur Entstehungsgeschichte des italienischen Faschismus
(1922)," inSozialismusundFaschismusIn ltalien (Munich:Meyer& Jensen, pp. 251-324.
45. In this regard, see Roland Sarti,Fa.,clSm andthe Industrial Leadership in Italy: 191 9-
1940(Los Universityof California Press, 197d.
46. 1n this context see some ofthe discussion in Renzo Dc Felice, Mwsolini
/'organizzazionedel/ostatofluclsta nlHin:Einaudi, (968),
47. See,e.g.,GaleazzoCiano,C,am/,Hidden Diary: (NewYork:Dutton,\(153)
and TheCianoDlarit,s: (NewYork: 1946);cf. alsoG. Rumi,Alleorixini
della estera faseista (Bari: Laterza, I Villari, ItaliarJ Foreif?n Polley under
MussolindNew York: DevinAdair, 1())6),
ForyearsaftertheSecondWorldWar,MarxisttheoreticiansinsistedthatFascismhad
imposed "stagnation"onthe peninsula'seconomic system. Thatthiscontention could not be
supported was by Italy's major postwar economists, See Gianni Toniolo,t:economia
dell'Italiafascista (Rome: Laterza, 19110), l.
49. Nicos Poulantzas, Fascism and Dictatorship (London: NLB, p. emphasis
added.
50. "On the one hand, the massive introduction ofcapitalism into agriculture
resultsin Italy: notablytheyield of cereal production,which was
naaequalc." By 1939, Poulantzas reported, Fascist Italy was producing
graintosatisfythe needsofthenation(ibid.,p. '19).
5I. W. Welk,FascistEconomicPolicy(Cambridge,Mass.: HarvardUniversityPress, '93H),
p. 200; seealsopp. '91-205.
52. See,c.g.,E. Ragionieri,"Lastoriapoliticae sociale," inStoriad'ltalia(Turin:Einaudi,
1975),vol. 4,pt. 3, p.2IiL
53. See thediscussion inBrunoCaizzi,Storia dell'industria Italiana (Turin: UTET,1965),
15, and the comments ofStanley Payne, A J/i.rtory Fascism 1919 1945 (Madison:
UniversityofWiscollsinPress, 1995), 14
Maddison,J:conomicGrowthinthe West(NewYork:TwentiethCenturyFund,
1964),appendicesA,E, H,andl.
55. SeeAugust Thalheimer,"UeberdenFaschismus," in W. Abendroth(cd.),Faschismus
undKapitalismus(Hamburg:EuropaeischeVerlangsanstalt, 1967),pp. 19-38.
56. Arthur Rosenberg,"DerFaschismusalsMassenbewegllng,"in Abendroth(cd.),Fas-
chismu.,undKapitalismus,p. 1'4.
NOTES TO PAGES 199
57. OttoBauet,"Ocr Faschismus," in Abendroth (ed.), Faschismus tlndKafJitalismu,,' pp.
143-,67,esp. pp. 151, '53, 156, 162.
Franz Borkenau,"ZurSoziologiedes FaschisInlls,"in Nolte(ed.), Theoriel1, pp. 1')6-
181.
59. Ibid" esp. pp. 164, I 178.
60, The germ ofthese notions in Otto Baller, Die oe.iterrelchische
(Vienna: n.p., 192,),pp. 242-248,27,)-291,
61. As quoted in C;erhard Botz, nrrt:ltinn ofFascism," journalor
Contemporary1li.;toI'Y, I [(1976): 133.
62. According toGuerin,thebourgeoisie, faced with thecrises of"decaying
"handed over the state to completely subservient
Business, p. 32; see also pp. 39, 1I" 115, '17, Q7).Guerinclaimed that Hitler
"obeyedhisfinancial backers"(p. 142)orwent"inpersontoKrupp,in Essen,togethis
orders" (p. '4'' Both Mussolini and Hiller were compelled to"obey" their financial masters
(I" 2()4):lnd magnates"(p. ForC;uerin,fascism wassimplytheohedienttoolof
heavy industry" (p. 2H7). For Paime Dutt it was the "decision ofthe
to put "fascism in power"(Fascism andSocial Revolution, pp. 144,145),and it was to
that fascists owedallegienceandobedience.
6j. Palme Dutt,FasdsmandSocialRevolutIOn, p. 213,
64. "ResolutionoftheVII (;ongressoftheComrnul1!st International," in T. Pirker(ed.),
Utopleand del' Weltrevolution (Munich: DTV, p. 226, and Palme Dutt, Fascism
andSocialRevolution,p. H.
65. Borkenau,"ZurSoziologie," p. 17H. See thediscussion in Salvatore La Francesca,La
(Rome: Laterza, [973},pa.uzm.
66. Asquoted in Hotz, I ntcrpretationofFascism,"p. 1.3).
(17. Leon Trotsky,TheRevolution Betrayed(NewYork: Doubleday, (937), P, 278.
6H. HrunoRizzi,Lalezl()1Jl' del/o Stalini.,mo (Rome:(}perenuove, [9()2), p. ,H.
69. G. Prezzolini,"Ideologiacsentimento,"and R. Mondolf(),"II Eiscismoin halia,"both
in DeFelice(cd.),llfa.;ci,;moeipartitipolitidItaliani, pp, ')49.
70. Karl Renner, like many Marxists ofrhe period, recognized that fascism was a "new
staresystem," not simplya variation ofthe traditional "ruleofthe bourgeoisie" (WandhmKen
dermodemen Gnelhchaft:Naehgelassene Werke IVienna: Buchhandlung, 19'531, vol. 3, PI" 68-
7(),
71. See Borkenau,"ZurSoziologic,"pp. [71 [HI.
Chapter3: TheMarxist ofFascism aftertheSecond WorldWar
!.M.Rosenthaland P. Yudin(eds.),ADictionaryofPhilosophy(Moscow: Progress, 19(7),
p. 1'511; cf.aIso G. KlansandM, Buhr(cds.),Philosophisches Woatabuch(Berlin:VEB,19(6),p.
I9!.Fortreatmentsby SoviettheoreticiansimmediatelyaftertheSecond World \Var,cf.S. M.
Slododskoi,StorjadeljaJcismo (Rome: Riunti, 19(2),originally published in Moscow in '945.
A GermaneditionappearedasDeritalienischeFaJchjsmusund_'ein Zusammenbruchin 1948;see
also IringFetKher,"Faschismus und Nationalsozialismus,"Politische Vierteljahres"chrift'lh,
no.4{(1962): 11. 2.
2, Boris Lopukhov, "II problema del fascismo italiano negli scrini di autori sovietici,"
Studistorici,6, 110. 2 255.
3 AlexanderCalkin,"CapitalistSocietyand Fascism,"SocialScience.': USSRAcademyof
Sciences, 2 (1970):
4. Thisassessment corresponds quite well with thatollered by MLlssolini himsel[ See
200 201 NOTES TO PAGES 49-)7
BenitoMussolini,Stol'ia di un anllo: 1I tempo del bastonl' e della carota, inOpaa omnia (Milan: La
Fenice, voL 34, pp..
5. PaoloAlatri,Le origini delfasci.'mo (Rome: Riuniti, 1963), pp. xv, xxi,264.
6. Ibid.,pp. 24, 108.
7. R. Kuehnl, Fm'men buel'JZerlicht'l' Herncha{t: (Munich: Ro
wohlt,
8. Mihaly Vajda, "On Fascism," 'fdo,., 8 (Summer 1971): 43-('3; idem, "The Rise of
Fascism in Italy and Germany,"Telos, 12 (Summer 1()72): 3-26;idem, Fasusmt et mouvement
de maJSe (Paris: Lesycomore, 197(1).
'I' Vajda.Fa.,Dsme et mouvement de ma,'se, p. 1'5.
IO. Ibid., p.
I I. Ibid., pp.29- ,0.
12. SecVajda,"On Fascism," pp. 47f.
J'). Ibid.,p. 5l.
14.Vajda,"Ri.leofFascismin and Germany," pp. ')ff., I dT., I).
'). Vajda,"OnFascism,"p. 44-
16. The one "conservative" feature of rcmarked was
('lsClsm's !!cncral Elilure to "attack the
(;lscis15 (,()Illillued toguaranteethe--rIghtot property'...extendingto
could accumulate and enjoy the weial and econOlntc
cssentialtothe "myths"ofcontemporarycapitalism. Thus. Italian Fascism was revolution-
ary and progressivearrangement,"conservative"and "bourgcois"only insofaras it tolerated
theinstitutionofprivatepropertyandthemarketexchangcof goods.At thesametime,it was
acknowledged that Fascist political power was exerted with the
legal arrangements !(Jr the protection of private property as an institution,See ibid.,
Pp47-4
8
.
17. See Vajda, "Rise ofFascism in Italv alld pp. 10, 12; idem, Fasc-ismc et
mou!'ement dt mas,'e, pp.74,
d:S. Vajda,Pascisme et mouvemelll de ma""e, p. 74.
19. Calkin,"Capitalist andFascism," p. IjO.
20. See the book jacket of Nicm Poulantzas, Fas'cism and lit'tfltrJ,-,hll' (London: NLB,
1')74)'
21. Ibid., p. II;see pp.310-312.
22. Ibid., pp. 16, 17.
2,.Ibid.,pp.38,39,40;sce pp. 42, 44.
24. Ibid.,pp.')8, 120. Poulanlzaswasparticularlyemphaticin his rejectionofthe viewsof
PalmeDUlt;see p. 58, n. 5.
2'). Seeesp. ibid., pp.54
26. Such categorical judgments arc found throughout I'oulantzas's text, hut the more
outrageousexamplesareon pp.3'54 and 355.Seep.,!')L
27 Ibid.,pp. 134,
28, Seeibid.,p. 42, n. 8; pp. 140,225,228,2,0[;seealso pp. 43,.18,60.
29, Ibid.,p. 228.
30. Seeibid.,pp.431.
31. SeethediscussioninA.JamesGregor,ASurvey ofMarxi.,m: Problems in Philosovhv and
the Th('ory ofHistory (NewYork: Random Ilouse, 1')6'),pp.
32. Karl Marx,Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, in Karl Marxand Fried-
rich Engels,Selected Works (Moscow: ForeignLanguages, I ')6')), vol. I, pp.
NOTES TO PAGES 57 62
33.Marx,ina lettertoAnnenkov,2H Dec. inMarxand vol.2,
P442.
34. Karl Marx,The Poverty ofPhilosophy (Moscow: Foreign Languages,n.d,),p. 122.
3'). Seethediscussion in j\. James Marxirm, China and Development (NewBruns-
wick, N.J.: Transaction, 1')')5), Pl" 33-41.
.36. See the discussion in Maria IIsia Chang, "What is Left ofMao Thought,"
lsmcs and Studie.,, 28, no. I (Jan. 19,)2): 1
37. SeeMao'sextensivecriticismsoftheSovietUnion,which,by themid- [9()OS, hadbeen
codifiedinPartydocuments:Mao Critique OfS(ll'lct Economin (NewYork: Monthly
Review, 1977).
!<.eview, no.4(1974),trans.inSocial
Yenan Books,n.d.),pp. 16-18.
39. Sec 19(4); sec the materials in
EdwardCrankshaw,Tht New Cold War (Baltimore: 1(6 )).
40. G. Apalin and U. 19Ho),
p. I,.
41. "'ThoughtofMaoTs('-tung'versusMarxism," ill Maoism through the
twU (Moscow: Progress, 1')70), p. 47.
42. A De"tructit'e Policy (Moscow: Novosti, 1(72), p. 44. S('(' the('ntirediscllSsion in V. A.
Krivtsov and V. Y. Sidikhmenov (eds.), A Critiqut oj" Mao T.;c-tunp) Tht!o,-,tical ConCt'ptiOlH
(Moscow:
4).See the"Moscow Declarationof 1957," in David Floyd(ed.),Mao AKainst Khru"hchelJ:
A Short ofthe Sino--Soviet (New York: Praegcr, 1(6),p. 249; cr. the specific
rdt:rcnccto"theexistenceofbourgeoisintlllcnce"andthe"internalsourceofrevisionism,"
Live Lt'tIinisml, p. 10.
4+ See the collection The Great Sodalist Cultural Remlution in China
Languages, l()66), vols. 1-10.
4'). Circular (!f the Ctntral Committee of the Chinese Communist 16, 19(6)
(Beijing: Foreign Languages, 19( 7), p. 3.
46. Yao Wenyuan,011 the Social Basis oftht Un Piao AlltiParty Clique (Beijing:
1')7'5), fl 3
47. "Mao Tse-tung's Thought is the Telescope and Microscope ofour Revolutionary
Cause," in Great Socialist Cultuml RCl'Olution in Chma, voL 3,pp. II 17.
Ibid., pp. 14, I').
49. AwayAllMonsters,"inGreat SodaliJt Cultural Rczdutiol1 in China, vol..), p. 5.
the Class " Liberation Army J)aily, 4 May 1966, in Great
Socialist Cultural Revolution in China, vol. I,PI'.20,26;andYao\VcnVlIan,"OnThree
,,,in ibid.,p. 58.
51. In thisconrcxtsee the MaoistworksofBob Avakian,For a llarvest
"Cri,.i, of MarxLrm" and the Powt'r of MarXIsm Now More than Ever Rep, 198-\),and
Phony Communism is Dead . ..Long Live Real Communmni (Chicago: Rep, 1992).
52, "Soviet Revisionists' Fascist Dictatorship,"Beijing Ret,jew, no. 4 (1974); repr. inSocial
Imperialism: Reprintsfrom Peking ReView (Berkeley: Yenan Books, 1974), pp. 16--18.
53 Sec Betrayal of Proletarian Dictatorshlj) is the Heart of thc Book on "Self-Cultivation"
Foreign Languages, 1967),pp.8-9.
'54. Seetheargumentin On Exenising All-/{ound Dictatorsh,J) owr the
DOUI'!;'eo.we (Moscow: Foreign 1975), pp.3-4.
'55, Poulantzas,Fascism and Dictat01:rhip, pp.223--.233; seeesp. PI', 230and 2,1.
56. Ihid.,pp. 16,44,50,63,passim.
57. See ihid., p. 22, n. 6.
58. james D. Cockcroft, Andre Gunder Frank, and Dale L. johnson, Dependence and
Underdevelopment: Latin Americas Political Economy (GardenCity, N.Y.: Douhleday, 1972), is
aclassic statementofthisthesis.
59. Seethediscussion in ibid., pp. xxvi, 138, 178,400.
60. Oneofthemorepopularexpressionsofthese theses can he found in NoamChomsky
and EdwardS. Herman, The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism (Boston: South
End,1979)
(n.Seethemoreamplediscussion in Gregor,Marxism, China and Development, chap. 8.
62. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manzfesto. in Collected Works (New
York: International, 1976), vol. H, pp.486-488.
()). Karl Marx, "The Future Results ofBritish Rule in India," in Shlomo Avineri (ed.),
Karl Marx on Colonialism and Modernization (NewYork: Douhleday, 1<)68), p. I)!.
64. SecChomskyand Herman, Washington Connection, pp. x, xiii, I, 10, I I, 15,passim.
('5. See thecollection in KingC. Chen(cd.), China and the Three Worlds: A Foreign Policy
I<eader (White Plains, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1<)7<)).
66. SeeLinPiao,Long Live the Victory ofPl'Oples War (Beijing: ForeignLanguages, 1<)68).
Chapter4: Fascismanu Marxism-Leninismin Power
I. See the account provided hy Michael T. Florinsky, Fascism and National Socialism
(NewYork: Macmillan, 193('),chap.3. Someacademics.aftertheSecondWorldWar,accepted
essentiallythesamelistofpropertiesas characterizingbscism.LloydEastman,e.g.,employed
the list to Identify the Kuomintang as Elscist. See Lloyd Eastman, The Abortive Revolution:
China under Nationalist Rule 1927-1917 (Camhridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1<)74),
pp. Ho-8I,andidem, "Fascism in KuomintangChina: The Blue Shirts,"China Quarterly, no.
4<) (Jan.-Mar. 1<)72): 2H.
2. Therewereprohlems,ofcourse. It was notclear whether Franco's SpainorSalazar's
Portugal qualified as "fascism." Sec, e.g., Antonio Costa Pinto, The Salazar "New State" and
I:uropean Fa.rci.rm (Florence: European University Institute, 1<)91). Nor was it clear whether
thewartimeregimesin HungaryorRomaniaqualifiedas "bscist."See thediscussionin M;lri-
;1110 Amhri,I fahifasojmi: Ungheria, jugoslavia, Romania 1919-1945(Rome: jouvence, 1<)80).
3 Sec,e.g., DieterDux(cd.), Ideology in Conflict: Communist Political Theory (Princeton:
Van Nostrand, 1<)63); A Mirrorj,)/" Revisionisf;" (Beijing: Foreign Languages, I <)6)); On Khru-
.ihchov' Phoney Communism and It.r Historical Lessons for the World: Comment on the Open Letter
ofthe Central Committee ofthe CPSU (IX) (Beijing: Foreign Languages, 14 july 19('4).
4- Harrison E. Salisbury, War between Russia and China (NewYork: Norton, 1<)6<)).
5. Both sides in the ensuingdispute produced an ahundance ofjustificatory argument.
Eventually, their respective allies joined in the enterprise, and much ofthe argument was
generated in Alhania, as an ally ofChina,and East Germany,as an ally ofthe Soviet Union.
See,e.g.,Marxist-Leninzjt Ideology Will Certainly Overcome Revisionism, 2vols. (Tirana:Naim
Frasheri, 1<)64), China and Albania-Friends in a Common Struggle (Beijing: Foreign Lan-
guages, 19(4);Ernst Henry, What Are They Ajier in Peking? (Moscow: Progress, 1<)7<)).
6. Soviet thinkers associated Maoism with "a petty-hourgeois nationalistic trend" that
found "support, first and foremost, in the nationalistically-minded non-proletarian, petty-
bourgeois...strata ofChinesesociety" (P. Fedoseyev, "Maoism: Its Ideological and Political
Essence," inA Destructive Policy [Moscow: Novosti, 1972], p. IOI).
NOTES TO PAGES 71-76 203
7. See V. A. Krivtsov and V. Y. Sidikhmenov,A Critique of Mao Tse-tung's Theoretical
Conceptions (Moscow: Progress, 1972),p. 167.
8. Ibid., pp. 193-195, 202-203; see Klaus Maehnel, "Economic Policy of the Mao
Group," in V. I. Krivtsov (ed.), Maoism through the Eyes of Communists (Moscow: Progress,
1970),pp. 278-280.
9 Ibid.,pp. 8,9, I I.
10. See A. james Gregor, Interpretations of Fascism (New Brunswick, N.j.: Transaction,
1997)
I I.KrivtsovandSidikhmenov,A Critique, pp.64,66.
12. SeeFedorBurlatsky,Mao Tse-tung: An Ideological and Psychological Portrait (Moscow:
Progress, 1980), pt. I.
13 Krivtsovand Sidikhmenov,ACritique, p. 199.
14. KrivtsovandSidikhmenov,ACritique, pp. 144-145.
I'). Burlatsky,Mao Tse-tung, p. 257.
16. Maoism, Soviettheoreticians decided, was "an ideological trend hostile to Marxism-
Leninism'(A. KruchininandV. Olgin,Territorial Claims ofMao Tse-tung: History and Modern
Times IMoscow: Novosti,n.d.l, p. 6).
17 See Wlodzimierz Wowczuk, "Hieroglyphs ofthe Chinese Economy," in Krivtsov
(cd.),Maoism through the Eyes ofCommunzsts, pp. 2<)<)-300.
18. KruchininandOlgin,Territorial Claims, pp. 8-10.
1<). Ihid., p..B.
20. Sec O. E. Vladimirov (ed.), MaOism As It Really Is (Moscow: Progress, 1981), pp. 220-
2')6; ana A. Malukhin,Mllitartsm-Backbone ofMaoism (Moscow: Novosti, 1<)70), p. 33.
21. "'Thought of Mao Tsc-tung' versus Marxism," Einheit, nos. 4/5 (1<)68), repr. in
Krivtsov (ed.), Maoism through the Eyes ofCommuntsts, pp. 33-48.
22. See the discussion in A. Zelochovtsev, La Rivoluzione Culturale vista da un sovietico
(Milan: Rusconi, 1<)71).
23. See Boris Leibson, Petty-Bourgeois Revolutionism (Anarchism, TrotskYism and Maoism)
(Moscow: Progress, 1<)70); and Malukhin,MilitarIsm.
24 Vladimirov(cd.),MarJtsm As It Really Is, pp.7, <)-1 I,24, 28, 30-31,34,38.
25 "TearAside the BourgeoisMaskof'Liberty,Equalityand Fraternity,'''Peoples Daily,
4 june 1<)66, repr. in The Great Socialist Cultural Revolution in China (Beijing: Foreign Lan-
guages, 1<)66), vol. 4, p. 32.
26. Hurlatsky,Mao Tse-tung, pt. I.
27. KrivtsovandSidikhmenov,A Critique, pp. 1<)5-201.
28. Ihid., pp. 57f.,2161".
29 A Destructive Policy, p. 30; G. Apalin and U. Mityayev, Militartsm in Pekings Polides
(Moscow: Progress, 1<)80), p. 6; see thediscussion in ibid.,chap.3.
30. Leonid Gudoshnikov and Rostislav Neronov, China ajier Mao (Moscow: Novosti,
1<)7<)), p. <).
3 I.M. Sladkovsky(ed.),Developments in China (Moscow: Progress, 1968),p. 16; O. Leoni-
dov,Peking Divisiontsts (Moscow: Novosti, 1971), pp. 104-110.
32 Pauly Parakal,Pekings Betrayal ofAsia (NewDelhi:Sterling, 1976), p. I 13.
33 Chinas Alliance with U.S. Imperialism (NewYork: SpartacusYouth, jan. 1976).
34 See the discussion in A. james Gregor, The FaSCIst Persuasion in Radical Politics
(Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress, 1974),chap.6.
35. Chang Chien, "Imperialism on the Eve ofthe Social Revolution ofthe Proletariat:
NotesonStudyingLenin'sImperialism, the Highest Stage ofCapitaltsm," Beijing Review, no.39
204
205
NOTES TO PAGES 76-80
repr. inSocial/mperiali.rm:Reprintsfrom PekmgReview YenanBooks,
p.2.
36. Allthiswasalready intimated indiscussionsconducted by Maoist theoristsasearlyas
1960. See the essay prepared by the Editorial Department ofHongqi: Long Live uminiJm!
(Beijing: Languages, 1964),pp. 1011 andpassim.
37. MingSung,"DireConsequencesof SovietRevisionsts' All-RoundCapitalist Restora-
tion," Beijing Review, no. 42 (18 Oct. 1974), repr. in Social Imperialism, pp. 5-7:"Carry the
GreatProletarianCulturalRevolutionthroughtotheEnd,"People'sDaily, IJan. 1967,repr.in
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in China (with the puhlication ofthe eighth pam-
Beijingchanged thenameofthe series from The Great Socialist CulturalRevolution to
TheGreatProletarianCulturalRevolution), vol. H, p. I.
38. Chunqiao,On All-Round Dictatorshipoverthe BourgeoiJie
..anguages, 1975), p. 3
39.LongLivetheGreatProletarianCulturalRevolution,"RedFlag,no.8(l<j66),repro in
GreatSocialistCulturalRevolutionin China, vol. 4, p. H.
40. See MartinNicolaus,ReJtorationofCapitaliJmintheUSSR (Chicago: Liberator, 1975).
41. Ihid.,pp. 12 14,19
42. "Soviet Revisionists'Fascist Dictatorship,"BeijingReview,no. 4(1974), repr. in Social
imperialism,pp. 16-dl.
4{.ChangChien,"Imperialism,"p. 2.
44 Ibid.,p. 4
45. See "Aid or Control and Plunder?," Beijing Rev;(:w, no. 4'5 repro 111 Social
/mperialiJm, pp.
46. HsinFeng,"Mighty Weapon in the againstRevisionism:AStudy
ofLenin'sImperialism, the Capitalism,"BeijingReview, no. 20 (17 May
repro inSociallm/,t'rialiJm,p.9.
47.SeeWangChongjie,"TheAcuteContradictionsIn theEconomyoftheSovietUnion,"
Xinhua, 26 Dec. 191)0, trans. in FBIS, PRe International Affairs, Soviet Union, 2 Ian. I9H1,
pp.C2-C4
48. "Soviet Revisionistsonceagain IntrudeintoChin;I's ChenbaoIsland Area,"
Xinhua, 15 Mar. 196(), rcpr. in Doumwith the New TsarJ! 19
(
9),
p.18.
49. Chien,"Imperialism,"p. 2.
50. On KhruschchovsPhoneyCommunism,pp. 33-43-
51.Leninism and Modern Revi.rionL,m Foreign Languages, See Mao Ze-
"Talk with the American Correspondent Anna Louise Strong," in Selected WorkJ
Foreign 1967),vol.4,pp.97-101;idem,"Greetthe NewHighTideof the
Chincse Revolution," in ibid., p. l20;idem,"ThePrcsentSituationand OurTasks," in ibid.,
pp. 158- '59
52. See,e.g.,LongLiveLeninism!,pp. 15-16.
53. theGreatProletarianCulturalRevolutionthroughtotheEnd,"People'SDaily,
1Jan. 1967,repro in GreatProletarian CulturalRevolutionin China, vol. 9, p. 2.
54. Seethediscussionin "AGreatRevolutionthatTouchesPeoplestoTheirVerySouls,"
Daily, 2 rune repro inGreatSocialistCulturalRevolutionin China, vol. 3, p. 8.
55. SeethediscussioninYaoWenyuan,OntheSOCIalBasisoftheLinPiaoAnti-PartyClique
ForeignLanguages, 1975),pp.3,8, 1 1-13
56. Zhang,On ExercisingAll-RoundDictatorship, p. 10.
57. Ihid.,p. 19
'58. Karl Marx,CritiqueoftheGotha Program (Beijing:ForeignLanguages, 1972),p. 15.
NOTES TO PAGES 80-8'5
59. See Chi Yen, "Ideological for Restricting the Bourgeois Klght-l"<otes on
Studyingthe'ReporttotheSecond SessionoftheSeventhCentral Committeeofthe
CommunistPartyofChina,''' Review,no. 22(1975): Ii.
60. "Great Revolution thatTouches Peoplesto TheirVerySouls,"p. "MaoTse-tung's
is the Telescope and Microscope ofOur Revolutionary Cause," Libt',wion Army
7June 1966, repro inGreatSocialist CulturalRevolution,vol. 3,p. 13
61. Zhang,Oil EXt'rctsingAlt-RoundDictatorJhip, p. 10.
62. "We must follow the instructionsoftheCentral CommitteeoftheCommunist
ofChina and never for>!et the class stfU>!>!le. (lever f(lr>!et the dictatorshioofthe
never forget togive prominence to ...We must
("Mao Thoughtis the I"lescone." pp. 16-
65. Yao,On theSocial Basis, pp.
64. Kao Chu, "Open Fire at the Black Anti-Partv and Anti-Socialist Line," in Great
81. For an insightful biographical account ofChen Erjin, see Robin Munro, "Introduc-
tion: Chen Erjin and the Chinese Democracy Movement," in Chen Erjin, China Crossroads
Socialism (London: Verso, '984),pp. 1-68.
82. Ibid., pp. 72f.
83. Ibid., pp. 91-93. WangXizhespeaks specifically of"totalitarian"controls. See Wang
Xizhe, "Mao Zedong and the Cultural Revolution," in Anita Chan, Stanley Rosen, and
Jonathan Unger (eds.), On Socialist Democracy and the Chinese Legal System (Armonk, N.Y.:
M. E. Sharpe.1985), p. 185.
84. Ihid., pp. 98- 109.
85. Ibid., p. ro6. "Proletarian dictatorship? Nothingofthe sort' ()n the contrary, this is
out-and-outsocial-fascist dictatorship,out-and-outdictatorship hy the hureaucrat class, out-
and-outdictatorshipover the proletariat"(ihid., p. 199).
86. Ihid., p. 180.
87 lhid.
88. "AsMarxand Engelssaid-' ...the theoryoftheCommunistsmay he summedupin
thesinglesentence:Aholitionofprivateproperty'"(ChenErjin,China Crossroads Socialism, p.
191).
89. WangXizhe,"MaoZedongand theCultural Revolution," p. 206.
90. Ihid.,pp. 140- 14I, 152- I53.Seethediscussionofthe"historicnecessity"ofdictatorship
atthecommencementofsocialistruleinChenErjin,Chinese CroJsroads Sociahrm, pp.
91. SeeRossTerril,Madame Mao: The White-Boned Demon (NewYork:Simon& Schuster,
1992), PP' 359,3
8
y.
Chapter5: Fascismandthe DevolutionofMarxismin theSoviet Union
I. Seethe relevantdiscussion in AdamB. Ulam,The Communist.r: The Story ofPower and
Lost Illusions (NewYork:Scrihners, IYY2), chaps. 2,3,and 4.
2. WhileKhrushchevand hisentouragewereclearlypreparedtoacceptthe
truths" ofMarxism-Leninism, it was equally evident that they immediatelysought to clear
away the "excrescences ofStalinism." See ihid., pp. I12, II4f. Withglasnost, Soviet theoreti-
cians made it very clear that, in their judgment,Stalin was an incompetent Marxist. See the
essays, particularly thoseofAnatoly Butenko,"ToAvoid Mistakes in the Future,"and Boris
Bolotin,"Dogmaand Life,"in thecollection The Stalin Phenomenon (Moscow: Novosti, 1987),
pp.8,IO,25,27,28.
). Seethediscussion in ULlIn,CommunLrts, chap.4.
4. See the discussion in John Gooding, Rulers and Subjects: Government and People in
Russia 1801-1991 (London: Arnold, 1996),chap. 8.
5. Seethediscussionin Martin Nicolaus,ReJtoration ofCapitalism in the USSR (Chicago:
Liberator, 1975),chap. I.
6. DmitryVolkogonov,"TheStalin Phenomenon,"inStalin Phenomenon, pp.43,49.
7. PalmiroTogliatti,thedurahleleaderofitaly'sCommunists,recognizedthatMarxism-
Leninism in the Soviet Union had "degenerated": quoted in The Anti-Stalin Campazgn and
International Communism: A Selection of Documents (New York: Russian Institute, Columhia
University,1956),p. '35.
8. As quoted in Kenneth Murphy,Retreatfrom the Finland Station: Moral Odysseys zn the
Breakdown ofCommunism (NewYork: FreePress, I9(2),p. IY5.
9. See David Floyd,Mao against Khrushchev: A Short History ofthe Sino-Soviet Conflict
(New York: Praeger, 1963),chaps.3and4
roo From 1959 through 1964, Khrushchev embarked ona programofreligious persecu-
tion and suppression. See Michael Bourdeaux, Risen Indeed: Lessons in Faith from the USSR
(London: Darton,Longman,andTodd, I(83).
II. See John B. Dunlop, The New Russian Revolutionaries (Belmont, Mass.: Nordland,
I(76),chap. I.
12. The People's Revolutionary Charter oftheSocial-Christian Union for the Liherationof
the People,appendixII,in Dunlop,New Russian Revolutionaries, pp.247,262.
13. Westernspecialistssuggestthat"Sovietpatriotism"servedas thefunctionalequivalent
of"Russianpatriotism"for someconsiderahletimeinthe USSR-andas a plausiblesurrogate
for Russian nationalism.See thediscussionin Walter LIqueur,Black Hundred: The RZJ'e ofthe
F.xtreme Right in Russia (NewYork: Harper, I(93), pp. 6)-64.
14. See Alexander Yanov, The Russian New Rzght: Rzght-Wing Ideologies in the Contempo-
rary USSR (Berkeley: InstituteofInternationalStudies, 1978), pp. 13-14'
IS. People's Revolutionary Charter, pp. 278f. and points I), 14,and41 onpp. 282f. and288.
While the clear intentofthe charter is politically liheral, it does speak ofstate intervention
"whenthe initiativeofcitizens is insufficienttocreateenterprises vital tothe populace."The
state is also accorded the power "to set a ceiling on the price ofhasic commodities and to
maintaincontroloverf(lreign trade."See points 18 and2lon pp. 283 and 284.
16. See ihid., points 2Y, 34, 43, and sec. 15 on pp. 28(,. 287, 28y, and 2yO-2Y2. See the
discussion in Yanov, Russian New Right, pp. 28-30. The All-Russian Union included in its
sclected list ofhooks Curzio Malaparte's Coup Malaparte was a prominent Fascist
ideologuethroughoutthegreater partofthe Fascistregime.
17. See the discussion in Alexander Yanov, The Ru.rJian Challenge and the Year 2000
(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, I(87),chap.y.
18. See I_aqueur,Black Hundred, p. ('5.
IY. Ihid., p. yi.
20. Viktor Chalmaev, "Inevitahity," Molodaia gvardia, no. Y(lyh8). Sec the accounts
provided hy Yanov in Russian New Right, pp. 44-47,andRussian Challenge, pp. IOY-II).
21. See thediscussion in DmitryV. Shlapentokh,"Bolshevism,Nationalism,and Statism:
SovietIdeologyin Formation,"inVladimirN.Brovkin(cd.),The Bolshevik.< in Rus.<ian Society
(NewHaven: Yale University Press, I9YI), pp. 271-297.
22. It is clear that C;orbachev considered himselfa committed Marxist-Leninist at that
time. Sec, e.g., John B. Dunlop and Henry S. Rowen, "Gorhachev versus Ligachev, the
Kremlin Divided,"National Interest, Spring Iy88, pp. I8-2Y.
23. See RohertC. Tucker,Political Culture and Leadershzp in Soviet Russia: From Lenin to
Gorbachev (NewYork: Norton, 1987),and MosheLewin,The Gorbachev Phenomenon (Berke-
ley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1989)'
24. See thediscussion in Philip Hanson,From Stagnation to Catastroika: Commentaries on
the Soviet Economy, 1983-1991 (New York: Praeger, IYY2), chap. 7. See too, e.g., Ahel Agan-
begyan, Inside Perestroika: The Future of the Soviet t;conomy (New York: Harper and Row,
1989)' Aganhegyanwas thechiefeconomicadviser toGorhachev.
25. See the discussion in Andranik Migranian, "Dolgaia Doroga k Evpropeiskomu
Domu," Novyi Mir, no. 7 (July 1989), andidem, "Avtoritarizm-MechtaDlia SSSR," Latin-
skaia America, I,no.3(Mar. I99o),passim.
26. See the discussions ofKurginian in John Dunlop, RZJ'e of Russia and the Fall of the
Soviet F.mpire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, IYY3), pp. 165-169; Laqueur, Black
Hundred, pp. '34- I36; Jeremy Lester, Modern Tsars and Princes: The Struggle for Hegemony
in Russia (London: Verso, 1995), pp. 140-143, 148, 167-168; and Victor Yasmann, "Elite
ThinkTankPrepares'Post-Perestroika' Strategy,"Report on the USSR, 3,no.21 (24 May 1991),
pp.I-6.
27. Kurginian joined the Communist Party in 1987, apparently because he was
convinced that the "Motherland" could be saved only by a rededicated party. Kurginian's
program of 1990 is contained in Kurginian et aI., Po.ft-PereJtroika: Kontseptualnaia
Model Raztlitia Nashef!o Obshchestva, Politicheskikh Partii I ObshcheswennYkh Organizatsii (Mos-
POJtPerestroika was agroupeffort, Kurginian'scolleaguesat
CreativeCenter,Inc.,an endowed "think-tank" in Moscow; but it is dear
thatthecentral ideasarethoseofKurginian.
28. Ihid., p. 69.
29. It is very difficult to plausihly and easily distinguish "neo-Stalinists" from "National
Bolsheviks"andhoth from "nco-Marxists"and"conservatives"usingthecurrentdistinctions.
See the suggestions ofYanov, Russian Challenge, pp. ')2 ')3, and Dunlop, Rise 0/ RUHia, pp.
As will he argued, Kurginian continued to respect Stalin and Stalinism-with
qualitlcations-although it wouldbe hard to characterizehim as a "neo-Stalinist."Thereare
Marxist residuesinKurginian'sthought;yetit wouldbedilficulttoidentifyhimas
a "neo-M,nxist." That he sought to salvage the Soviet Union might qualify him as a "nco
conservative,"butonly with verySIgnificantqU;llitlcations.
)0. Kurginian is a prolific, if unsystematic, author. iIi, original articles annearell Ifl
Literatumaia /?'osj'iia, nos. 26, 27, 28, essays appeare(j Ifl Moskotlskaia
prarJda, 8(June 19,)1);MoskrJa, no. 9 (1991); P",tfl1rim1 ,no. 1(1991); and otherjournals;see
Black Hundred, p. 135,n. 24.
31. Thisis howhe is generallycharacterizedin Westerncommcnt;lr;es.See I<ise
olRussia, chap.4
p. Kurginian nevertheless hIS reservationsahout StalInism. He
theendofthe 1940S, theStalinistsystem required fundamental overhaul.See
mekhanizmesoskalzyvaniia: statia vtoraia;'inSedmo; Stsenarii (Moscow: ECC, IY'p), vol. I,
very dear that Kurginiall saw the merits ofStalimsm, whatever his
interview withKurginianentitled"CommunismBeginsIts
WorldwideTriumph,"Kom.wmo/skaia PrarJda, q Aug. 1991, in ihid.,PI" 327-3.))'
33. Sec, e.g., the discussion in Ewa Berard-Zarzicka, "The Authoritarian Perestroika
Dehate,"Telos, no. 89 (1990): II')--124.
34. Seethediscussion inMurphy,Retrwt ji'DtTl the Finland Station, 24 and 25.
35. By the heginning of the 1990S, Kurginian seemed prepared to reject Marxism
Leninism in its entirety. As we shall sec, he sawthe futureoftheSoviet Union notin termsof
"internationalclasswarfJrc"or"internationalproletarian revolution,"butin termsof a "clash
ofculture vs. matcrial civilization" in mllch the samefashion as conceived hy Oswald Spen-
gler. Hesaw the future 01' theSoviet Union in termsofa moral "communiwrianism" versus
thecrassmaterialismofcapitalism.Seetheexchangesin Podkopalov,"CommunismBeginsits
WorldwideTriumph."
See Kurginian,Post-Perestroika, chaps.7and 9
37 Ihid.,pp. II 17
These concepts stem from Lenin's notions ahout imperialism, the tlnal phase of
capitalistdevelopment. Theyare reminiscent ofNew Left "dependency theory," which was
very popular during Kurginian's youth. It is also very reminiscent ofthe Fascist distinction
between"plutocratic"and"proletarian"nations. Kurginian'sf(lrmulationdiffersinsofaras he
an elaboratetaxonomyofdominant,semi-dependent,anddependent states, includ-
(I)thosethatare"leaders," (2) thosethatare"insiders," thosethatare"outsiders,"and
finally (4) thosestatesthatsimplyserveas "playgrounds"for theothers.Thereis littlepointin
pursuingthedistinctionshere.
39.Seethediscllssion inPost-Perestl'oika, p.40.
NOTES TO PAGES 102-10'; 209
40. Sec the discussion in Kurginian, "0 mekhanizme statia vtoraia/'
Literatumaia ROJJiia, no. 27 (1989).
41. Seethediscussion in Post-Perestroika, p. 56.
42. See ibid.,pp. 17-.H- expounds,inconsiderabledetail,on thedevelopment
of theSovietUnion's"criminal whoconstitutethebackhoneforthesuhversionof
the state and society. His notions share similarities with those ofthe Chillese critics ofthe
"feudal fascism" ofthe People's Repuhlic ofChllla under the milllstrations ofthe of
Four."Thereis alwaysa search for "bourgeois"culprits. In thatsense, Kurginian'saccountis
parasiticonhis MarxisttrainingIn "classanalysis."
43. Ibid., pp.
44 Yasmanllspeaksoftheproductivesystem proposed hy Kur>?:inian ;IS "a mixed market
("EliteThinkTallk,"p. I).
45 that time it was birly common toall "rdilrmers"that"national salvation" wasa
matter ofpriority. The survival ofMarxism-Leninism was no longer an issue of
cOllcern. See the discussion in Migranian, "Dolgaia Doroga k Evropeiskomu J)omu," and
idem, "Avtoritarizlll."As will he hy theendofthe 19805, it wasclearthatthere were
those who were attempting to the state system ofthe Soviet Union hy separatingit
from itsMarxist-Leninistrationale.
46. As quoted in Yasmann,"EliteThink'nlllk,"p. 4-
47. S<:<:, e.g.,Sergei Kurginian and VladimirOvchinsky,"Indulgentsiana
IIi Chto Takoc Kriminalnaia Burzhuazia?," Litemtumaia Ro.fJiia, no. ')1 (22 Dec. 19S'J),
paJ"siln.
48. Formany,Kurginian's"approachtotheeconomy,andill particularitsstress011 asetof
corporateprinciplesI suggestI Mussolini'sItalyaslal ... role model;an
that possessesalotofsubstance"(Lester,Modern Tsars and Prince.;, p.,n). Seethediscussion ill
VincenzoNardi,II corporat;rJismo/rmista (Rome: I.AT.,
49 See, e.g., the discussion in Guido Pighctti, "Notizie preliminari," ill Slfidamlismo
/ascifta (Milan: Imperia, 1924),pp, II -32,esp. p. 27.
,)0. See the detailed discussion in Giulio Scagnetti, Gli em; di pritlilellio nell' eamomia
Italiana (Padua:CEDAM, 1942).
51. Inthiscontext,seethediscussion in Panunzio,L'economia (Milan:
esp. pp.89and 17,where I'anunzio of"thearmroxirnalJOIIorBolshevism...to
Fascism...intermsof the realitiesofproduction"in acorporativistmixedeconomyunderthe
juridicalandpoliticaldominanceof thestate. MussolinicharacterizedtheFascistsysteminthe
tJshion: "Theecollomic man does not exist. Mall IS complete: he is political, he is
ecollomic, he is religious, he is a saint, he is a warrior." He went on to indicate that the
ecollomy implied a "regulated economy and therefore also la I controlled econ-
omy," all ofwhich, f()r its proper revolutionary function, required "anatmosphereofstrong
ideal tension"(BenitoMussolini,The Corporate State IFlorence: Vallechi, 1938], PI' 31,33,35).
52. See, once again, Kurginian's interview with Podkopalov, "Communism Begins its
WorldwideTriumph."
53 Kurginian ofa nation, in times ofcrisis, uniting in a sense of"a common
and mission, a community of blood shed and a hrotherhood based upon them"
(NezaviJimaia gazt:ta, 19 Feb. 1991).
'54' Kurginian entertains a notion of"fascism," which need not detain us. "Fas-
cists," tor Kurginian, are "criminals" who profit from created a ofcivilized
animals." This is a thoughtless inheritance from Soviet polemics. It does indicate, however,
that Kurginian has studied little, ifany, Fascist literature. Hispolitical,social,andecollomic
is notderivative.SeePOJt-Pert'Jtmika, pp. 7.
55. As quoted in Yasmann,"EliteThink Tank," p. 5
56. Kurginian's ExperimentalCreativeCenter(ECC)wasprovided preferential
of the Marxist-Leninist state before its collapse. The ECC was
access to hard currency, and its personnel were provided with the oppor-
tunity for foreign travel. In effect, the leadersofthe Marxist I,eninist state underwrote the
mak ingoffascism in theSoviet Union.See ibid., p. 1.
57. This is not to say that Western social and political scientists were any better at
events.Butthey rarelyclaimedtobeinpossessionofthe"onlytruesocialscience."
In this regard, see John Lewis Gaddis, "International Relations Tbeorv and the End ofthe
ColdWar," International Security, 17, no. 3(Winter I
Chapter6: FascismandPost-SovietRussia
1. The notable exception is Alexander Yanov, The kussian New kight-Wmg
Idt'ologies in the Contemporary USSk (Berkeley: InstituteoflnternationalStudies, 1978).
2. "The...unique feature ofthe Soviet transf()rmation is that not a single We:ilerner
its occurrence" (Steven Kull, nurying Lenin: The kevolution in Ideology and
Policy [Boulder,Colo.: Westview, 19921, krcmy Lestersimplycommentson the
fact that, "given the track recordofpredictionsby Sovierologistsand Kremlinologists," Rus-
sia's pastand presentmusthave been "unfathomahle"tothem(Modem Tsars and Princes: The
Struggle fbI' in Russia [London:Verso, 19951, p. 25rl.
3. See Mikhail norbachev's revelations in The Ideology of Reneu'al for
RevolutlOnary Restructuring (Moscow: Novosti, 1(88), pp. 35 3(" as well as thediscmsion in
Boris Kagarlitsky,The Disintegration ofthe Monolith (London:Verso, 1(92).
4. The Programme (!f the Commutllst Party of the Soviet Union (Moscow: Novosti, 1<)86),
PI" 7 and 23-
2
4-
5. Gorbachev,asquoted in A. Mikhalyov,"USSR-Polnnd:Toward New Frontiers," in
FIJlS: SovIet Union, 3"Nov. Ig88, p. 2l.
6. See,e.g.,Corbachev,Ideology ofkenewal, pp. 5(,,61.
7. SeeGorhachev,"PressConferencein C;cneva,21 November Il)S,)," in Gorbachcv,The
Coming Century of Peace (NewYork: RichardsonandSteinman,1986), pp.33
8. MikhailGorhachev,Political Report ofthe CPSU Central Committee to the
ofthe Communist Party ofthe Soviet Union (Moscow: Novosti, 1986),p. 81.
9. Mikhail Gorbachev, New Thinkingfhr Our Country and the f;Vorld (New
York: & Row, 1(87), pp. 147-148.
[0.SeeStevenKul!'sreportof aninterviewwitha"prominent"leaderintheentourageof
MikhailGorbachevwhoinsisted thatSoviet policy washostagetotheeconomy(Kull,
Lenin, p. 1
1I. Mikhail Gorbachev, "The Key Issue of the Party's Economic Policy," in
oj Peace, p. 20(,.
12. Seethediscussionill Hanson,From Stagnation to
13. Gorbachev,Pere.rtroika, p. 12;seealso"PresentationofIndiraGandhiPrize:Speechby
MikhailGorbachev,"citedinFBIS: Soviet Union, 21 Nov. 1988, p. 20.
14. SeethereportcitedinFBIS: Soviet Union, 18 May 1(1)9, p. 17
15. "TextoftheSpanish-SovietJoint PoliticalDeclaratioIl,"Pravda, 28 Oct. 1990, p. I, as
citedinFBIS: So ('iet Union, 29Oct. 1990,p. 24. Seethecomment,"manyof thevalues
by new tbinkers lin the Soviet Union ofMikhail Gorhachev werel basically the same as
Westernliberal values"(KUII' Burying Lenin, p.35)
16. "Conversation between F. M. Burlatsky, Chairman ofthe Public Commission for
NOTES TO PAGES 211
Humanitarian Cooperation, and Foreign Minister A. A. Adamishin," quoted in
FHIS: Soviet Union, 27 Jan. 1.
17. Seethe discussion in Hanson,From Stagnation to OTI
the Soviet Economy, /983-1991.
18. As cited in ibid.,p. 70.
Ig.See N.T. Glushkov,"Planovoetsenoobrazovanie," no. 1
3-
15,asquoted in ihid.,p. 80.
20. Seetheexplicitaccountand implicationsofa collectivework,Problemy sobstvc'1l1losti V
stranakh real'nogo sotsializma (Moscow: IEMSS, 1(87).
21. Gorbachev,Ideology ofRenewal, p. 5('.
22. Ibid.,p. 54.
Gorhachev, as quoted in David Renlllick, "I Cannot Go Against My Father," WaJh-
ington Post, National Weekly Edition, 23 Dec. 1990,p. 25
2+Ibid.,p. 24.
25. SeeKull,Burying Lemll, p. 1511.
26. Ceneral V. Lobov, " SO('etskaya in FWS: Soviet
Union, 19Oct. H)8(1, PI'. 101 102.
27. Asearlyasthelate 1970s, Alexander Yanovsuggestedthatthe new
intheSoviet Unioncnjoyedsomekindof CommunistPartysupport.SeeYan()v,kusJiaTi New
Right.
28. See the account in Paul Bellis and Jeff Cleisner, "After Perestroika: A
ConservativeManifesto," Russia and the l{lorld, no. 19 (19gl): 1-2.
29. Proto-foscism is llsedheretosignifyacollectionofideas,sharingsimil;trities withthose
of Fascism,thathavethepoteIllalofmaturinginto expression under
somesetofcircumstances.
30. For an excellent introduction to "EurasiaIllsm," see Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, "Asia
Russian ., in Wayne S. Vucinich(cd.), and A.flll: /essays on the of
Ru.>.iia on the Asian Peoples (Stan/(Jr(J, Calif.: Stan!()rd UniverslIy Press, 1972), pp. and
idem, "TheEmergenceofEurasianism," in Nicholas V. Riasanovskyand GlebStruve (eds.),
California Slavic Studit'J (Berkeley: UniversityofCalifornia Press, 19(7),vol. 4, pp.
31. See Walter Laqueur, Black Hundred: The Rise of the kight in (New
York:
32. See the account in Stephen Carter, and ConservativeCommunism,"RUJ.<ia
and the World, no. 1(1 (f99 f ): 30V.
B.Theparamilitaryhranchofthe Russian National Unionwassuppressedby
after it participated in thecvents ofSeptcmber-(ktober 1993 which sawthe burningofthe
Russi,ln parliament building in Moscow. See Alexander Peresvet, "Fuehrer from St. Peters-
" Moskovskie Novosti, no. 14 (1994); 6. Lionel Dadiani, "Don't Ask Whether Fascism is
Possiblein Russia.It is AlreadyThere,"New Timt's, Sept. 1994,p. 28. Barkashovhascontested
hisidentificationwithHitler's NationalSocialism,buteverythingabouthis and
its rationalesuggeststhatsuchacharacterizationis appropriate.
34. The program ofthe Russian National Union advocates protection fe)r the "genetic
fund ofthe Russian nation," a proscription against "mixed marriages" between membersof
the Russian and non-Russian gene pools. See the account in Dadiani,"Don't Ask Whether
Fascismis Possible in Russia,"p. 27.
3'5. The"social patriotic"and "statist" forces included,during this period and at various
times, such incompatibles as Dmitri Vasiliev's Pamiat, the Russian People's Front ofValeri
Skurlatov,the Constitutional PartyofSergei Vokov,thePeople'sInformationParty
of Ivan Yuzvishin, the Sakharov Union of Democratic Forces of Vladimir Voronin, the
Liberal Dt'mocratic Party oftbe notorious Vladimir Zhirinovsky, the Russian All-Peoples'
UnionofSergei Baburin,andtheRussianChristian Democratic UnionofViktor
Nikolai Pavlov recognized the incongruity ofthe company wht'n he
fact that a "Russophile movement" could find among its leadership hoth a former Central
Committee of theCommunistPartyof theSovietUnion,Gt'nnadiZiuganov,aswell
as aformerGeneraloftheKGB, AlexanderSterligov.SeeLester,Modern T.ears and Prmces, p.
297,n.9'5
37. Kevin Fedarko, Czar?," Time, [[ July [994, pp. 39-44; Vladimir Solovyov
and Elena Klepikova,Zhiritlov.,ky: Russian FasclJm and the Making ofa Dictator (New York:
Addison Wesley, uN5).
Sec J. L. Black, introduction to i of J. L. Black (ed.), Russia and Eurasia
J)ocumt'nts Annual 199.;.: The Federation (New York: Academic International Press,
uN5),pp.94 95
39. SeeSolovyov and Klepikova,Zhirinovsky, pp. [6,49,')2, I q, 114, 1'53, 160, 164, 17H.
40. Ibid.,pp. I ')6- I '57' SeeArielCohen'sexcerptedtranslationofZhirinovsky'sThe Final
Thrust South, in Zhirinovsky In His Oum Words: ExurptsJi"om TheFinalThrustSouth(Wash-
D.C.: HeritageFoundation,4Feb. [9(4),pp.2 II;and VbdmmZhirinovsky,Posled
na lug (Moscow: Pisatc!, [99,), pp. 6" 66, 71, 73, 74, 130. Zhirinovsky'sFinal
Thrust South hasbeen translatedandpuhlishedasMy Struggle' (NewYork: Barricade, [(96)in
anapparentcommentaryon howZhirinovsky'spolitical viewsarcconsidered intheWest.
41. See Alexander Yanov, "The Zhirinovsky Phenomenon," New Times International,
no.2(Oct. (992): [0 r,.
42. See theoutlineofZhirinovsky'sconvictionsinFedarko,"RisingCzar?,"pp.
4J."Slovok narodu," Nossii, 23 July [991,p. I.
44. See thereferencesin Joan Barth Urbanand Valerii D. Solovei,/(u.Hia:, Communists at
the Crossroads (Boulder,Colo.: Westview, 1(97),pp. 44-45,and lamesCarney,"ACommunist
to HisRoots," Time, 27 May [996,p. IiI.
45. See Michael "Controversial Russian behind Communism's Revival," San
Francisco Chronicle, 3 May [996, p.
46. Secthediscussion in Lester,Modem Tsars and Princes, p. 136, wherethe"Word tothe
People"is identifiedas anti-Gorbachcv,anti- Western,andunqualifiedlynationalistic.
47. A. Prokhanov,"SufficientDefense,"Nash sovremt"flllik, trans.inpartinMarkC;aleotti,
"Life after the Party: Alexander Prokhanov's 'Sufficient Defense:" Russia and the World,
no. 18 (1990): 7.
48. Ibid., p. 8.
49. See thediscussion in Lester,Modem 'Eanand Prince.>, pp. 130-137.
50. Sec the discllssion ofProkhanov's views in Current DigeJt of the Post-Soviet Press,
23 June 1993
')1. Alexander Yanov, "Political Portrait: The Empire's Last Soldier-Alexander Pro-
khanov,the Den andtheWarParty:'Novoye no. [9(May [993): 20-24.
52. Ibid.
53.Thisis the ofYanov in hisinterviewwith Prokhunov.Seeibid.
54. Sergei Kurginian, "Counteraction," NaJh sovremennik, no. 17 (J uly [(92): 3-15. An
English-language version is available in Current Digest of tht Posl-Soviet Press, 44,
no.40(4 Nov. 19(2): 13
55. In his interview with Prokbanov,Alexander YanovspecificallyemDhasized the"cor-
porativism"ofProkhanov'sproposals.Seehis "Political Portrait."
56. Seethediscussion in Peter Reddaway,"Onthe Eve: Perceptionsand Misperceptions
fromtheRight,"Russia and the World, no. 20(1991): 4-10.
'57. Sergei Kurginian,"Forum:IfWe Want to Win,"Den, 1-9Jan. 1993,p. 2, availablein
part in "Two Patriots Debate Threat ofFascism,"Current Digest of the POJt-Soviet Prtss, 45,
no. 4(24 Feb. [993): 18.
58. Prokhanov,inYanov, "PoliticalPortrait,"p. 20.
59. In his discussion with Prokhanov, Alexander Barkashov spoke ofthe millions of
Russians who had died in theStalin purges ofthe 1930S' Prokhanovdid not object. See the
discussion in"UndertheSignofa NewSwastika,"Kommersant-DaJiy, 25 1995, p. 4. An
version is availableintheOfficial Kremlin fntc'rnatlonal News Broadcast, 25 Aug. 1995.
60. Prokhanov that existing Russian law proscribed eflems at "fascist
or the dissemination of"filscist propaganda"; yet no Russian political group was
charged witheitherinfraction-whichindicatedeither thattherewereno"fascists"inRussia
orthattheauthoritiesreally did notknowhowtoidentifyfascism.
61. See John J. Stephan,The Russian Fascists: Tragedy and Farce in r.xile 1925-1945 (New
York: Hamer& Row, [(78),and Alexander Prokhanovand Alexander Barkashov,"Gloryto
" "lavtra, no. 12 (Mar. 19(4): 1-2;available in English as, "Is a Mystical,
Patriotic Russia in the " Current of the Post-Soviet Press, 41, no. 17 (2') May
10.
62. Stephan,Russian Fa.'ciJl.', pp. 29,BH.
SeeSpecter,"Controvnsial RussianhehindCommunism'sRevival," p. A14.
64. "The Essential Zyuganov," 17 June 1996, p. 17; Carney, "Communist to
HisRoots."
6'). See Matt Bivens, "Communist Party Plat!'JrIn is Odd Mix of'Isms,'''San Frallclsco
Chronicle, I [ June 1<)<)6, p. A6.
66. Sergei Skvortsov, "TheCommunist Party Still Has Not Fallen to Pieces," Mo.'cow
News, no. 8(2') Feh. [9<)4): TheRussian version appearsas"TheLast Romantic,"
novosti, no. 8 (25 Feh. 1(94): 136.
67. C;ellnadi Ziuganov, "Essay in Russian Ceopolitics: The Merits ofRus," JOVelsr.;,'la
Rossiia, 26 Feb. 1994, PI" 35--46. An English-language translation is available in Black (cd.),
Russia and Eurasia, pp. 112, 1[4.
(,8. Ibid., p. 112.
69. Adrian Karatnycky,"TheReal Zyuganov:'New York Times, 'i Mar. 1996,p. AI7.
70. Ziuganovinsiststhatthegatheringofpeoplesintoa restored UnionofSovietSocialist
Republicswouldhe
ueopOllllcS," PI'. 112, I [4- ThethemeofRussian humili-
ation recurs and speeches;see, e.g.,"Essential Zyuganov,"
p. [7
72. GennadiZiuganov,"Geopolitical Fragments,"izve.(tia, 24 Sept. 1994. Thisappears in
Englishtranslationin Black(ed.),RUJSia and Eurasia, pp. 124-127.
73. Ibid.,pp. 126, 127.
74. Ibid.,p. 127.
75. Riasanovsky,"EmergenceofEurasianism,"p. 48.
Ibid.,pp,
77. Dmitry V. Shlapentokh, "Eurasianism: Past and Present," Communist and Post-
Communist Studies, 30,no. 2(1997): [44- [4'5.
7H. LeoGumilev,EthnogeneJis and the BiOJphere (Moscow: Progress,
79. Vadim Mcdish (cd.), My R.ussia: The Political Autobiography of Gennady Zyuga1l0V
(Armonk,N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, (997),pp.47,71-72.
80. Ibid.,PI'. 71 , 75, 76.
81.See thecommentsinShlapentokh,"Eurasianism," pp. 130-131.
82. Nikolai Trubetzkoi, "On the Idea Governing the Ideocratic State," in N. S. Tru-
betzkoi, The Legacy of Genghis Khan (Ann Arbor: University ofMichigan Press, 1991), pp.
269,270.
83. See,e.g., Medish(ed.),My Russia, pp. 93, 138.
84. IvanA. Ilin,Nashi Zadachi: statii 1948-1954godov (Paris: Izdanie RusskogoOschche-
VoinskogoSoiuza, 19'56), vol. I, p. 70.
85 Ibid., p. 71.
86. See A. James Gregor,"Fascism and the New Russian Nationalism,"Communist and
Post-Communist Studies, 31, no. I (](!'i8): I - I S.
87. Seediscussion in Gennadi Ziuganov,"GennadiZiuganov Does Not WanttoStandin
Line for the Presidency," Argumenty i fakty, no. 29 (June 1994): 3. An English-language
version is available in FI5IS:USSR, no. 071 (5 July 1994): 18-20.TheprogramoftheCommu-
nist Party ofthe Russian Federation refers to such a government upon the accession ofthe
"President-Communist"tooffice.
88. Sec the discussion in Zavtra, 22 June 1994, as quoted in Veljko Vujacic, "Gennadiy
Zyuganovand the'Third Road,'''Post-Soviet Affairs, I 2, no. 2(1994): 143- 144.
89. Ziuganov,"Essayin Russian Geopolitics,"pp. 1I3- I 14.
90. Ihid., p. 114.
91. Seethediscussion in "Russia'sCommunist:A DreadfulProspect,"Economist, 1(, Mar.
199(J, pp. '53, '56; the suggestive comments hy Franz Schurmann, "Why the Soviet Union
Might Return to Neo-Communism," San Francisco Chronicle. 9Jan. 1991, p. 2, and hy Henry
Kissinger,"Beware: AThreatAhroad,"Newsweek, 17 June I 99(J, pp. 22-2,.
92. Ziuganov consistently speaks ofRussia's humiliation,and it is clear that this sense of
humiliationmotivateshim.Sec,e.g., Medish (ed.),My Ru.rsia, pp. 13, 17,20,39,80.
ChapterT Fascismand Bolshevism
I. See thediscussion in Zeev Sternhell,Neither Right nor Left: Fa,-cist Ideology in France
(Berkeley: UniversityofCalifornia Press, 1986),chaps.4and 5.
2. See,e.g., M. Rokeach, The ()pen and Closed Mind (NewYork: FreePress, 19(0),and I.
A. Taylor, "Similarities in the Structure ofExtreme Social Attitudes," Psychological Mono-
graphs, 64, no. 2(Feh. 19(0): I-,(,.
3. From a speech delivered 20 Jan. 1927, as quoted in "Cassius," in Un Inglese defende
Mussolini (Rome: Riunite, 1946), p. 38.
4. Milford W. Howard, Fa,-cism: A Challenge to Democracy (New York: Fleming H.
Revell, 1928), pp. 4(J-47.
'5. See,e.g., William Bolitho,Italy under Mussolini (NewYork: Macmillan, 1926).
6. See the discussions in Domenico Settembrini, Fa.rcismo wntrorivoluzione impelfetta
(Florence: Sansoni, 1978); Zeev Sternhell, The I5irth of Fascist Ideology (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1994).
7. The fullest account is that ofRenzo De Felice, MusJOllni II I'Ivoluzionario (Turin:
Einaudi, 19(5). See A. James Gregor, Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origin.< of Faso,'m
(Berkeley: Universityof CaliforniaPress, 1979).
8. See the discussion in A. James Gregor, The Ideology of Fascism: The Rationale of
Totalitarianism (NewYork: FreePress, 1969),chaps.2and3.
9. The most comprehensive history ofFascism, ofcourse, is to be found in the monu-
mentalstudiesofRenzoDeFelice.
10. See thediscussion in A. James Gregor,Italian Fascism and Developmental Dictatorship
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979),chaps. 2and3
I I. See Gregor,Ideology of Fascism, pp. 72-85;and A. JamesGregor,Phoenix: Fascism in
Our Time (NewBrunswick,N.J.: Transaction, 1999),chap. 2.
12. Gregor,Phoenix, pp. 100-104;Gregor,Young Mussolini, chap.3.
I,. Michels is rarely acknowledged as a scholar oftraditional Marxism, hut his work,
while he was anacknowledged syndicalist, remains ofsubstantial interest. See, e.g., Roberto
Michels,La teoria di C. Marx sulla miseria crescente e Ie sue origini (Turin: Bocca, 1922).
14. See DeFelice,Mussolini II rivoluzionario, chaps.'5-8.
IS. A. O. Olivetti,"Presentazione,"Pagine libere, 1'5 Dec. 1906. For reasons that need not
concern us here,Olivetti'scompleteworkswerenever published in Italy. Hisdaughter,Livia
Olivetti, made a two-volume, mimeographed collection ofhis writings availahle to me, en-
titled I5attaglie sindacaliste: dal sindacahrmo alfasclsmo, from which citations will he drawn.
Theahovearticleis to he found in vol. I, pp. 18-20.
16. See Olivetti, Cinque anni di sindacalismo e di lotta proletaria in ftalia (Naples: Par-
tenopea, 1914), p. 3.
17. BenitoMussolini,"Divagazione,"inOpera omnia (Florence: LaFenice, 19'53-(4),vol.
11, p. 341.
18. Filippo Corridoni, Sindacalismo e repubblica (Rome: SAREP, 194'5; originally puh.
19I 5), pp. 19, 2" 25-2(J.
19. Engelswrotethatsocialistrevolutioncouldonly"hearevolutiontakingplacesimulta-
neously in all civilized countries, that is, at least in England, America,Franceand Germany.
In each ofthesecountries it will develop more quickly or moreslowly according to whether
the country has a more developed industry ...and a more considerhle mass ofproductive
f(Jrces" ("PrinciplesofCommunism," in K. Marxand E Engels,Collected Works INew York:
International, 19761, vol. 6, p. 352).
20. Secthediscussion in A. JamesGregor,Marxirm, China and Development (NewIhum-
wick, N.J.: Transaction, 199'5), chap. 2.
21. See the discussion in A. James Gregor, A Survey of Marxism (New York: Random
Ilouse, 19(,5), chap. 5. All this is explicitin CommUnl't Manifesto.
22. Engels explicitly dismissed such revolutions as "untimely" and refused to consider
them "socialist" in any serious Marxist sense. In this context, see Engels's letter to J. Weyde-
meyer, 12 Apr. 18,)), in K. Marx and E Engels, Selected Correspondence (Moscow: Foreign
Languages,n.d.),p. 94.
2,.Seethediscussion in A.O.Olivetti,"L'altracampana,"Pagine libere, S' no. 22 (1'5 Nov.
191 I), and PaoloOra no,Lode al mio tempo 1895-1925(Bologna: Apollo, 1926).
24. See thediscussion in RohertoMichels,L'imperialismo Italiano (Rome: Lihraria, 1914)'
p. viii. Michels, himselfanearly syndicalist,regularly referred to Italy's political,miliary, and
economicsuhordination to the moreadvanced industrial powers. Hespokeeloquentlyofthe
industrial retardation ofthe Italian peninsula and affirmed that "it is industry that allow;
people to live and prosper in the modern world." Withouta mature industrial base, a people
finds itselfthe ohjectofinternationaldisdain.See ibid., pp. xii, 3, 561'., 83-89.
25. Corridoni,Sindacalismo e repubblica, pp. 55-57.
26. See the discussion in Ivon de Begnac, L'Arcangelo sindacalista (Filippo Corridonl)
(Verona: Mondadori, 1943), chap. 22; Tullio Masotti, Corridoni (Milan: Carnaro, 1932); and
Vito Rastelli,Filippo Corridonl: la figura storica e la dottrina politica (Rome: "Conquisted'im-
pero," 1940).
27. See A. O. Olivetti, Bolscevz,.mo, communismo e sindacalismo (published in Milan in
1919, hut almost unobtainable; Olivetti's daughter was kind enough to supply a typescript
copyofthe manuscript,and referencesareto thatcopy),pp.7-1I.
28. Ihid.,pp.9, 11,3I.
216 NOTES TO PACES 134-136
29 Ibid.,pp.25,.31.
30. See the discussion in Edmondo Rossoni, Le idee ddla ricostruzione: Discorsi sui Sin-
dacalismo Fascista (Florence: Bemporad, 192,-\), pp.5,30f., 57.
31.Ibid.,pp.
32. There was a merger between the Italian Nationalists and the Fascists by tbe mid-
19205. See RomoloRonzio, del Nazionalismo con il Fascismo (Rome: Italiane, 1943),
and Panunzio,Lo (Bologna:Cappelli, 1925), pp.
33. Corradini, as quoted in G. Petracchi, La Russia revoluzionaria nella po/itica italiana
1917--1925(Bari: Laterza, 1982),pp.226f.
34. Friedrich Engels,The Peasant War in Germany, in Marx and Engels, Collected Works,
vol. 10, p. 470.
35. Sec thediscussionin Rossoni,Le idee della rtco.'truzione, pp. and SergioPanun-
zio,Che cole il fascismo (Milan: Alpes, 1924)'pp.24-2,).
36. See tbe discussion in Vincenzo Zangara, Rivoluzume smdacale: 10 stato corporativo
(Rome:Littorio, 1927), pp. 113[
37. Ibid.,chap. 3. Mmsolini that what Bolshevik Russia
to"objectiveeconomic realities." Heheldthateconomic
ment necessitated "order, and work," those "verities" familiar to anyone who has
had todeal with realities(Mussolini,"Ritornoall'antico," inOpera omnia, vol. 17,
pp.
Seethediscussion in Panunzio,Che cos'l: ilfaseismo, pp. 88f., 102.
39. ThusMussolini argued thatonce Lenin recognized thatdevelopment ofthe
tive forces and theexpansionoftheeconomy were,in fact, thetasks ofBolshevism,hehad to
concede thatorder,discipline,and hierarchy were necessary_ Sec thediscussion in Mussolini,
"Fascismocsindacalismo"and"Timoriinfondati,"inOpera omnia, vol. Ii!, pp.
40. Lenin, in hisState and Revolution, had argued that the political state would hegm to
"witheraway" immediately after the socialist revolution. Compare those notions with Mus-
solini'sdiscussion in"Mentreil PUSsiedc: Lenin,Vanderlipe c."and "II primodiscorsoalia
Cameradci Deputati," inOpera omnia, vol. 16, pp. 118-121,442; "Dove impera Lt:nin" and
"Famec Russia," in ibid.,vol. 17,pp. and"La Russiaall'asta," in ibid.,vol. 18, pp.
4
0
4406.
4t. See tbediscussion in Sergio Panunzio,"Contro il regiollalismo," in Stato nazionale e
Jmdacati (Milan: Imperia, 1924)' pp. 72-91,and PI'. 117-118 and 122 dealing with National
42. "Fascistsyndicalismis nationalandproductivistic....A hasansenin
thatdoesnot ignorethenation...Iitleducatesmentolabor _..ina national !n which
labor becomes a joy, an object ofpride and a title to nobility" (Mussolini, "Commento," in
Opera omnia, vol. 18, pp. 228-229).
43.Seethediscussion inibid.
44. See the discussion in Mussolini, "Fascismoe sindacalismo," p. 226; and Ezio Maria
Olivetti.SindacallJmo nazionale (Milan:Monanni, 1927),pp.41-4'5.
45- See the instructive discussions in Panul1zio, Stato nazionale e Jindacati, and A. O.
Olivetti, II sindacalij-mo come filoJOfia e come po/itiea: Izneamenti di slntesi universale (Milan:
46. Panul1zio,Che eo/e ilfasclsmo, pp.29, 40, '52-53,62-63.
47. See the discussion in Panunzio, Stato nazlonale e sindacati, pp. 102-10'5, 11'5-123;
Guido Pighetti, Sindacalismo fascista (Milan: Imperia, 1924), pp. The accounts in
PanunzioandPighettiarea reflectionoftbemoreemphaticversion(tJllndintheworksoftbe
Nationalist Enrico Corradini, written as early as !9'3. See Corradini. "Le nuove dottrine
nazionali e II nnnovamento " in Discorsi 1923) (Florel!ce: Vallecchi,
n.d.), pp.23- 209.
48. Seethediscussion in ArdengoSoffici, I?atta{!,lia fra due viuorie (Florence: "La Voce,"
pp. 126- 137.
49 Nikolai Bukharin,Economia del perjodo di traiforma:::iol1( (Milan:laca, 1971).
50. TheFascistsemphasizedtheincredibleprivationthathadsettledon"socialist"Russia.
See,e.g., Mllssolini,"NdparadisoBoiscevico: II ritornodell'antropofagiaio Russia,"In Opera
omnia, vol. 18, I'p. 397-_398.
51. Hukharin,Economia, pp.9f.
52. Marxand bothanticipated tbatthetransitionfromcaDitalisttosocialist
wouldbe
nach der sozialen Revolution (Herlin: Vorvaerts, !9(4)- Forclas:.ical Marx-
had developed into a monopoly economy that had imtituted extensive
Thesocialist revolution net,ded onlytoaholish private propertyand the market in
orderto sketch tbe principal outlines ofthe future society. Therewas no suggestion that the
periodoftransitiollwould be burdened by a devastatingeconomic
~ See Bukharin,Economia, chaps. 2 and l
54. Ihid.,p. 42.
')'). Ibid., p. 105. Thus,Bukharinsoughtto theeconomicdevastationofthe post-
Bolshevik revolution in Russiatotheaccountof the"inevitahlecollapse"of theworld
istsystem. It wasnotthe contingent resultof civilw"rorthelIltervention
It wasthe resultofthe"finalcrisis"
')6. See the variation ofBukharin's account provided hy Leon Trotsky, The Rt'!!olwion
What i., tht' Sovin Union and Where i., it Going? (GardenCity,N.Y.: Doubleday, 19.37),
pp.22-23
57. Bllkharin,Ecol1omia, p. 171;see: the: discussion inchap. II.
5R. ThusMussolini insisted that theefftJTl to "sovietize" Western had failed,and
that there was every indication that "Marxist" revolution would fail everywhere else. See
Mussoltni,"Italiae Russia,"in0pt'ra omnia, vol. 17,pp. andthediscussionin"L'azionee
la dottrinabscistadlllI1anzi alleneces,itastoricbedella nazione"and"DiscorsodiCremolla,"
in ihid.,vol. 18, pp.41 1--424-
'59. See, e_g., Enrico Corradini, "Le uomini e i f:mi dell'uomo," "La vita
nazionale,"and"Lamoraledellaguerra," in [1)23) (Florence:Vallecchi,
PP24-31,
60_ Theentirediscussionconcerningtheempiricaloriginsofnationalismgoesback tothe
beginningofthetwentiethcenturyamongFascistand proto-fascistthinkers. See,e.g., Enrico
COrT<Hlini's discussion in "I.eopinioni degli uomini e i fatti dell'uomo"and "Lavita nazion-
alc," esp. pp. 24-25 and 36-50. These themes remained central to the interpretation of
nationalism and reclIr throughout the Fascist period. See, e.g., Corrado Gini, Nasclta, evo
luzione e morte delle naZlOne (Rome:Littorio, 1930),esp. pp.86, 100;M.CandIa,Lineamenfl di
antropobiologia (Florence:Sansoni, esp. p. 8.
61. "Fascism does not believe in the vitalityand the principles that inspire the so-called
LeagueofNations.Inthat thenationsdonotstandas TheLeagueis a kindof
Allianceofplutocraticnations...[assembled[toguaranteetheexploitationofthelarger
partoftbeworld"(Mussolini,"11 fascismoe i problemidella politicaesteraltaliana," in Opera
omnia, vol. 16, p. 158)- See Corradini's discussion, "Nazionalismo e socialismo," in Discor.';
politid, pp.213-229,esp. pp.226-229.
WI NOTES TO PAGES 140-145
practices, it would be necessary for
itself from the "Western plutocratic nations" if it intended to
forces." As lor "proletarian internationalism," Mussolini
15<))
()3. Mussoliui, "II 'PUS' omnia, vol. If), I'p. I d)-I 17.
Soffici, 1'. 137
6'5. Sec the discllssion in Celestino Arena, economica in regiml' cOIporatiw
(Rome: Diritto del Lavoro, 1<)29), I and 2, and Mussolini's comment, on "late de-
estera al Senato," in omnia, vol. 22. p. I';
Soviet RusJian Nationalism (New York: Oxt()rd
Press, H}5h), p. 29.
67. There were Marxists who refused to countenance such a
that "the contradictions in the position of the Workers' (;overnmcnt in a back ward country ...
can find a solution only on an International scale .... IThel Russian Revolution Imust I become
the prologue to world revolution.... ()f this there cannot be any doubt I(lr a
(quoted in Nikolai Bukharin, Building Socialism 1London: (;1'( ;B, 19261. pp. 34[; see Trot-
sk y, The Permanent Revolution and Remits and Prospects 1New York: Pathfinder, 19701, p. 31).
MI. V. L Lenin, State and Revolution, in Collectd Work.' (Moscow:
I 9(,!J) , vol. 25, pp. 420-421.
('9. It is clear that Lenin understood that socialism could not be
ecollomic base. He expected that the Russian "proletariat"
British, French, or (;crman proletariat will consolidate" (Lenin, "Address to the Second All
Russia COllgress of Communist (lrganizations of the Peoples of the East," in Collected Works,
vol. lO, p. 1('2).
70. As m Louis Fischer, The L,f,' ( ~ ( L t n i n (New York: Harper and Row, 19(4),
p.
7. Lenin, "Better Fewer, But Better," III Collnted WorkI, vol. 33, pp. 498-499, ')01; see
idem, "Tenth All-Russia Conference of the RJ:.I'. (B)," in ibid., voL 32, p. 408.
72. Lenin, "The New Economic Policy and the 'nl.sks of the Political Education Depart-
ments," in ibid., vol. Jl, PI" 6().
73 Nikolai Bukharin, "Critica della piattaf(lrma economica dell'opposiziolle," ill Nikolai
Bukharin and Prcobrazenski. L'accumulazione .wcialista (Rome: Riuniti, 1972), p. I q.
Bukharin took his cues on class collaboration from Lenin; see Lenin, "How We Should
the Workers' and Peasants' Inspection," in Collected WorkJ, voL .33, pp. 485-487.
74. Both Leon and Preobrazhenski recognized that peasants and pro-
letarians alike would have to SlIhmit to state authority as part of the program of "primitive
socialist accumulation." The state would extract "surpluses" from both peasants and workers
in order to fuel and industrialization. See Evgeni Preobrazhenski, The New
Eamomics (London: Clarendon Press, 196'5), and the discussion of Trotsky's position in Curtis
Stokes, The Evolution Theory a/Revolution (Washington, D.C.: University Press of
America, 1(82), p.
75. As cited in Ian Stalin: Man o(HiJtory (London: Lawrence, 1(79), pp. 1991".
76. See the discussion in Kenneth Murphy, Retreatfrom the Finland Statioll: Mon;l OdyJseys
in the Breakdown o/Cormmmism (New York: Free Press, 1992), pp. 73-76.
77. Drieu La Rochelle, Sociali.rmofa.rcista (Rome: E.G.E., 1973), p. 215; see La Rochelle's
discussion in "(;ontro Marx" and "La prossima guerra," in ibid., PI'. 78--86 and 161-168.
78. Trotsky, Revolution JJetrayed, p. 278.
79. M. Ardernagni, "Deviazioni Russe verso il fascismo," Gerarchia, I') \jllly 1934): 'i71.
80. In his Sixteenth Report to the leadership of the Communist Party in June 1930, Stalin
affirmed: "We stand for the withering away of the state. At the same time we stand for the
strengthenIng of the dirlatorship of the proletariat, which is the mightiest and strongest state
power that has ever existed. The highest development of state power with the object of
preparing the conditions for the withering away of state power-such is the Marxist formula.
Is this 'contradictory,? Yes, it is 'wntradictory.' But this contradiction is hound up with life,
and it hllly reflects Marx's dialectics" (J. Stalin, "Political Report of the Central Committee to
the Sixteenth Congress," in WorkJ IMoscow: Foreign Languages, vol. 12, p. 3i'1I).
81. A. Nasti, "L'ltalia, il holscevismo, la Russia," CriticafaJClJta, I,), no. I() (1'5 Mar. 1(37):
du.
1'12. I'anullzio argued that "statocrazia" represented the Fascist conception of the
of the state," as distinct from the Marxist notion of the "dictatorship of a class."
that Fas('ism had committed itself to the "political and juridical dominion of the
state over all classes," rather than one class over another (Il Jentimellfo ddlo stato 1 Rome:
Littorio, p. 215). By the it was clear that the Soviet, like the Fascist, ,tate
exercised "political and juridical dOmlll;OrI" over all classes, sl rata, and organized interest,.
B. Ricci, "II 'fascismo' di Stalin," Crttnafascista, 1'5, no. 18 (I'; July 1937): ,17119
T. Napolitano, "II 'fasci,mo' <Ii Stalin ovvero rU.R.S.S. e noi," Criticafascls'ra, [,;, no.
23 (I t Jet. 397. (:lassical Marxism anticipated the "withering away of the state." Fascist
to the fact that Stalinism had created a "political army" to support tbe
statc, eloquent ('vidence that the "Marxists" of the SovIet Union were not prepared to super-
vise the of the state, See Panunzio, II .>ent1mellto dello ,taro, p. 47, n. 18.
85. Sec, e.g., the discussion in Renzo Bertoni, Ru.uia: rrion{r) dd fa.,cismo (Milan: "La
prora," pp. 150-153,214,220, 2,l1-2l2.
8(1. Fascist illlellcctllais argued that the invocation of a collective sense of mission repre-
s(,llled a tacit admission that a "sentiment of nationalism" communitic!'i.
Such a sentiment was the overt manifestatIon of "the moral
sentiments to which Fascism Similarly, the ..
Marxists of Stalin's Soviet Union signaled their recognition of some of Fascism's critical
beliefs. See Panunzlo, !l sentlmento dello staro, pp. (,') 66, and idern, Popolo, tlazione, stato
(esam" gitlrid/co) (Florence: "La nuova Italia," 19B), pp. ['5 16. The argument was that the
concept of a "citizen-soldier," united to that of a
from any of its alternatives, because it cammed hoth the nationalism and the
that had come to characterize the
(Padua: CEDAM, 19l9), pp. 61-62.
87. Bertolli, Russia, p. 17.{' For Panullzio, all this signified the "exhamtiofl" of Marxist and
"Bolshevik" ideology and the clear vitality of Fascism. Sec Panunzio, Teoria genera Ie dello stato
/a.fCista, pp. xiv, 8f., 10,22 n. I.
88. Sergio Panunzio, L'e1'OlIOmla rnlJ'ta: dal JintiamlLrrno giuridico al sindacalimlO ecollomico
(Milan: Hoepli, 19,(,), pp. 8---9. See Panunzio's discussion of the single-party state and its clear
manife'station in the Soviet Union (Teoria gt'/lera/e della Jtatofa.id,ta, pp. 459-4(3).
89. See th!: discussion in Felice Guarneri, flattaglie ecol1omiche tra Ie due grandi guerre
(Milan: Garzanti, 1(53), voL I, pp. (1l-7o; Gianni Toniolo, L'ecollornia dell'ltaliafa.,eista (Rome:
Laterza, 1980), chap. 2; and the comments hy Ugo Spirito, Capitalismo e corporatzvismo (Flor-
enct': Sansoni, 1(33), p. 56. MussoIini's principal writings of the period on the Fascist corpora
tive state are available in English in The Corporate Statt' (Florence: Vallecchi, [(38), p. 8.
90. Arena, i:espansione, p. 18.
220 NOTES TO PAGES 147 152
91. Panunzio,L't'('onomiamista, p.64.
92. Spirito,Capitalismot' cOIporativismo, pp. 14 I'j. See his latercommentsin
delcomunismo(Florence:Sansoni, 1948),pp.56-57'
93. Mussolini,"Attoquintofinora,"inOpera omnia,vol. 29, p.63.
94. Mussolini, Corporate State, pp. 40, 48. In this see Franco Angelini (cd.), La
concezione]ascistadellapropril'taprivata (Rome:Confederazionefascista deilavoratoridell'ag-
ricollura, 1939).
95. Mussolini,CorporateState, pp.9(,-97
See,e.g., Mussolini'scommentson the "elephantiasisand paralysis" tharafAictcd the
"BolshevikState"becauseof itsbureaucratizationof thenationaleconomy(Mussolini,"Tothe
National AssemblyoftheCorporations,"5 May '937, in State, pp. 9('-97)' Asearly
as 1934, Mussolini insisted that nationalization and its attendant bureaucratization would
rather than sustain, economic and industrial development, none ofwhi,h would
directstateinterventionincritical industriesandcritical sectorsoftheeconomy.See
his commentsin Mussolini, "Beforethe Assembly oftheCouncils Mar.
1936, in ihid.. esp. p. 77. See in this context the
dl economiapolitieacorporativa (Florence: Barbera,
97. Mussolini,"IIpianoregolatoredella nuovaeconomiaItaliana,"in omnia,vol. 27,
PP24
1
2
4
11
911. See Mussolim, "Alia terza assemblea general" delle corporazioni," in ibid., vol. 28,
pp.
99. Fasci.st propaganda literature justifying Italy's entry into the Second World War is
ahundant.Sec,e.g., Vito Beltani,Il problema ddlemate/ie'prime(Rome: Tupini, 1940);Cuido
Puccio,LottafraduemOlldi (Rome: Edizioni italiant', 1(42); DomenicoSoprano,Spazio vitale
(Milan:Corhaccio, 1942).
8: Fascism,Marxismand Race
l.Lev thei5iosphere(Moscow: 1990),PP'9,29,37,44,
76-77,79n. 20,146n.3,147n. 23, d'4-16'i, [70n. 12,
2. See the account in Alexander Yannv, We/mar Russ/a and What We Can /)0 About It
(NewYork:SlovD- World, 199'),chap.9.
3. Gumilev,lithnogenesis, pp. 31,66, [[2, [P,
4 Ibid.,pp.3[,50, '31.Seethediscussionatp. 205
5. Ibid., pp. 206-.240 .
6. IbId., pp.80, 90, '72,177.Seeibid.,pp. 91l, 105, 109.
7 Ibid.,pp.74,143,146.
8. Set, thediscussion in A. James (;regor,Ideology .TheRiltionale
aniim (NewYork:FreePress, 1969),chap.6and appendixA.
9. Benito Mussolini,"L'ltaliae Iegrandi potenze,"inOpera omnia (Florence:LaFenice,
1953-(4),vol. 19, p. 3. Thiswasaffirmedonlyafew afterthemarchon Rome,on3Nov.
1922.
10. See DinoGrandi,Giovani(Bologna: Zanichelli, 194I), pp. 39"42.
I I. See the discussion in Edmundo Rossoni, Le idee della ricostruzione: discorsi sul sin-
dacalismofa.lcista (Florence: Bemporad, pp. 5,9,17-18,3-')1,41-42,63,9';Sergio
l'anunzio,ChI'cos',> ilfascismo (Milan: Alpes, pp. 3L
12. Senrio Panunzio,Ilfi:mdamento delfascismo (Rome: Honacci, 1987), pp. ISO"
1116.
NOTE TO PAGE 152 221
q.Itwouldhe usefulto adefInitionof "totalitarianism"asFascistsunderstoodit,
but this would morespace than I have here. Thetreatment by Giovanni Gentile is
instructive;seeGentile,GenesieJtrutturadellasocieta (Florence:Sansoni,
14 "Myth"wasnnderstoodto be thenecessaryelemental motivatorofpopularmobiliza-
tion. Individual and collective action, inf()rmed by reason and interest, was hy
sentimentand moral incentive.Seethediscussion in SergioPanunzio,Il sentimetJtodellostato
(Rome: Littnrio, 192Y). Like religious faith, political action was a union ofsentiment and
reason. For that reason, Fascists often spokeofthe state as anecclesia. See the discussion in
SergioPanunzio,LateoriageT/eraledellostatofascista (Podua:CEDAM, pt. I;andCarlo
Cosramagna,/)ottrina delfascl.rmo (Tutin: UTET,1940),
Mysticism, for Fascists, referred tothe sentimentthat inspired self-sacrificeon thepartof
individuals in the service ofthe larger community. It referred to the selfless dedication of
"humaneandheroicfigures" intheserviceof others."Fascistmysticism"meant"thereadiness
to expose oneselfto risk ..., to the total sacrifice ofone's very being, to the most ahsolute
dedication to theCauseofthe Regime" (G. S. Spinetti,Mistieajascista nelpensiemdi Amaldo
Mussolini /Milan: Hoepli, 193(,1, p. ix).
This kind of and its implied discipline and self-sacrifice were functional in
circumstances that demanded arduous and continuous lahor in a program ofextensive eco-
l10mic and intensive technological development. Sacrillcial devotion recommended
itselfwhere a less
ofmore
15. Even hd(lre the seizure ofpower with the march on Rome, Mussolini ofthe
nationas"ourmyth.. a faith,a passion....Ourmyth is thenation;ourmythis thegreatness
ofthenation"(BenitoMussolini,"IIdiscorsodiNapoli,"inOperaomnialFlorence: LaFeni,e,
[()63I, vol. dl,p. TheFascistuseofthetermmyth is aSorellianderivativeand rclerstoa
kindof that includesfacts andinvokessentimentcalculated togenerate
the energy and commitment necessary fi,r revolution. See Giovanni Gentile, Che mJa ,> il
fa.,dsmo (Bologna: Vallecchi, l(24), p. 96; c1'. Gregor,Ideology pp. "Fascist
politics turnsentirelyontheconceptofthenationalstate"(GiovanniGentile, edomina
delfascismo IRome: Littorin, 19291, p. 43)' See Sergio Panunzio,Popolo, Nazione, Stato IFlor-
ence:"Lanuova Italia," 19.BI, p. 7.
[6. See E 1'. Marinetti, "Definizione dello squadrista," in Asvero Gravelli (cd.), Squad-
ri.'mo (Rome: "AntiEuropa," (939), p. 107; and Gentile,ChI' cosa eilfascismo, p..B,when he
ofthestate.
17. Thismaterial varies inqualityandfocus. Thereareexcellent historical treatmentsof
the concepts in books like that ofRenato Soriga, L'idm nazionale italiana dal semlo XVIII
'un'If/,7aZlOtIC (Modena: Soliani, [(141), together with discursive and analytic assessments to
befound amongthe Italian nationalistsat theturnofthecentury until the First World War.
This is true ofthe work ofEnrico Corradini, some ofwhose more insightful
writings and are collected in Discorsi politici (IY02-23) (Florence: Vallecchi, 1923)
andLarinascita nazionale(Florence:LeMonnier, 1929).Seetheampleaccountof thedevelop-
ment ofthe ideology ofthe Italian Nationalist'Association in Paola Maria Arcari, Ledab-
orazioflidella dottrina politicalnazionalefra l'unitiie l'inrervento 1(14) (Florence: Mar-
zocco, 193439).TheNationalistsmergedwiththe Fascistsin
Fascists never denied that they could provide rational support for nationalist
whattheydeniedwasthatthemassescouldbemobilizedandsustainedintheireffortsby such
arguments.
lB. By the end ofthe 19205, Michels was recognized as a "comrade"in the ranksofthe
Partito Nazionale Fascista and one ofFascism's most able intellectuals. See Paolo Oranu,
"Ruberto Michels: I'amico, il maestro, il camerata," in Studi in memoria di Roberto Michels
(Padua: CEDAM, pp. 9- 14. In the preface to his L'imperialismo italiano (Rome: Li-
braria, 1914), p. v, Michels that he had lonl!been intellectuallvocclloied with
lemsrelatedto "thefatherland,thenation,and
to Fascism, Michels himselfwith the historical, political, and moral
problemsofnationality and nationalism. See his PatnotiJmus und Ethik Felix Diet-
rich, 1<)06); idem, "LePatriotismedesSocialistes Allemandset Ie d'Esscn,"Le Motle-
ment SocialiJte, 3rd ser., 10, no. 2 (I<)OS): 5-13; Idem, "Zur historischen Analyse des Pa-
triotismus,"Archlvfuer und Sozia Ipo/itik , 16, nos. 1and 2 (I<) I3): 14 43- II
1<). Sec A. lames Phoenix: FasC/J'm in Our Time (New Brunswick, N.I.:Transac-
tion, 19<)9), .1 and4
20. See Michels, "Neue Polemiken und Studien zllm Vatcriandsprobkm,"Anhit! filer
Sozialpolitik, 66,no. I (19.ll):<)8. Allthishadbeenpartoftherevolution-
much ofthe doctrinal suhstance ofFascism. See the
persistenza del diritfo (pescara: Abruzzese, 1<)10), challs. 2
and 3.
21. One ofthe central convictions ofFascist theory was that human hell1gs were not
"isolatedalOms,"butwere,inessence,"socialheings."Fascismwas,in collectivistic,
the"bourgcois"Ilotionthatindividualswereself-contained"monads,"(nteringmto
social relations only through calculated contract. In this context see the philosophical argu-
mentsof thenco-idealismof(;iovanniGentilewhich MllSsolini allowedto appearas part 1 of
theofficialDoctrine of Fasci.rm. See thegeneral argumentsill C;entik,ChI' cosa e
Michelsearlyrej('credthenotionthat"class" mighthethecollectivitywith whichindivid-
uals mIght identify. While human beings are understood to be essentially social animals,
to live in association, it was the nation, not :In economic class, that provided the
outlet. Sec Michels's essay "Patriotism," Ifl Fir.,t Lectures ill Political Sociolor:;y (New York:
Harper, l(J49), pp. 156-166.Seealsothediscussionin AlfredoRocco,"Ladottrinapolitlcadel
fascismo," in Rocco,Soitt; e disco,."i politici (Milan:C ;iuffre, 1Q,H), vo!'l,pp. I 1ll"-1101.
22. Seethediscussionsin Michels,First Lecturc's, chaps.2'1,6,and H.
di dOW'ina r:;eneralt dello
Panunzio'saccountr<.:fleets
thatofEnricoCorradini,"Lavita nazionale,"
24. See thediscussion in RobertoMichels,Del' PatriotiJmus: zu seiner soziolo-
gishcen Analyse (Munich:Duncker& Humblot, H)29), pp. I, 10-12,andtheearlyf,)fJnulations
orEnricoCorradini,L'ombra della t'ita (Naples: Ricciardi, HJoH), pp. These notions
wererepeatedregularlyinstandardI'ascistliterature;sec,e.g.,C;entile,Checosa(l IlfosclJ'mo, pp.
18-21,27;DinoGrandi,I..('origim ela missiotledelfa.,cismo (Bologna:Cappelli,1<)22),pp.,)2-')3.
25. See,e.g., Panunzio'sdiscussion oftheFirst World Warhaving"incited"the"national
idea"(Lo stato fascista 1Bologna:Cappelli, 1<)251, p. 70).
Thehumiliationssuffered by the nation werea constant theme in Fascist literature. See,
e.g.,Panunzio,Che cos'e ilfoscismo, pp. 14-- 15;<';entile,Che cosa e ilfamsmo, pp. Ifl, 1<),21,26-
27; see the discussion in PaoloOrano, Lode al mIl! tempo 1925 (Bologna: Apollo, 1<)26),
esp. pp. Grandi,Le origini e la missione pp. 52-54; Rossoni, Le idee della
rimstruziolle, pp.32,56.
Panunzioputtheentirediscussioninthecontextof contactsandcontlictsbetweengroups
as nations. The "sentiment of nationality" as nationalism aris" in the modern
world in"antithesistoothernations"(Panunzio,Popolo nazione stato, p. 43, n. 10).
26.Corradiniadvanced very muchthesameargument in thecentury.Seetheentire
discussion in EnricoCorradini,"Lenazioni prolctarie e il nazionalismo," in DiJC(mi politici,
pp. 105-118.
27. Michels,"NeuePolemiken," pp. 130- 131.
28. See Panunzio, 'l'eOl'ia generale, p. and the early characterizations by Corradini,
Combra della vita, pp.
29. Seein thiscontext Michels,"LaguerraEuropeaallumedelmatcrialismostorien,"La
Socialedrd ser.,25 (1914): 945-957
30. Thus, I'anunziospeaksof a "nationalsentiment"thatis a functionoftimeand
circumstances. See Panunzio,It sentimento del/o Sftlto, pp. See also his remarksonthe
necessities ofsurvival ina worldof competitioninChe co,'e p. ()2.
V. All this echoes the rationale for nationalism and a strong state emhodied in the
Nationalist thought ofthe tllrn ofthe century. See Corradini, "La vita nazionale." Michels,
like most Fascist theoreticians, was familiar with an entire body ofliterature dealing with
"mass" or "crowd" psychology and the disposition of humans to organize themselves in
aggregates of"similars." Treatmentsofgroup psychology werecommon among
Italian Syndicalists and Nationalists. See, e.g., Paolo Orano, La PJicolor:;ia .mciale (Bari: La-
terza, 1902), and Corradini, "Nazionalismo e imperialism()," in La rinaJClta llazionale, PI'.
143-172;seeGregor,Ideology ofFascism ,pp.72-K5.
p.See Benito Mussolini,[)ottrilla delfascismo (Milan: Hoepli, IQ3,)),chap. I, para. 2; and
Gentile,Genesi (! strutfura della soeteta, p. 4I. GentilewastheauthorofpI. 1 of theDottrina del
_B. This,ofcourse, was a constant themeofFascist theoreticians. See, e.g., Gioacchino
Fascist Mot'ement (Rome: Novissima, IQ3(l), PI'. 17,26,28. Forthe [)lore
ahstract,metaethicalversiollof elitism,seeGentile, dottrina delfo,cismo, p. '59.
)4. This ide;1 appears in the official Dottrina chap. I, para. 2, authored by
Gentile. [t is all idea that is intrinsic to the traditional German Idealism of
adopted and adapted hy Centile. III this context, see H. S. Harris, The Social Philosophy of
Giovanni Gemile (Urhana: UniversityofIllinois, H)lJO).
35. The basIC rationale f()r Fascist totaliwrianism wasthesamefor all itsapolo!!ists. The
differenceshetweenthemturnedonontological,epistemological,and
tions. While critics have made much ofthe differences hetween ontological idealists like
Gentile,sociological positivistslikeMichels,and legal philosnpherslikeI'anunzio,it is hardto
argue that Fascist itkology was "inconsistent" or "incoherent" as a consequence. Fascist
was as coherent as any revolutionary ideology in the twentieth century (olle need
curiosities ofthe "Marxism"ofFidel Castroor Mao Zedong to
recognizethetruthofthisclaim). In thiscontext,see NinoTripodi'sdiscllssion ofthedistinc-
tions between Gentile's "immanent idealism" and MlIssolini's "positive realism" (II jiuci,mo
.,,condo MtlSJolini IRome: Borghese, 1971D. Onecomesaway with a sense that filr all political
purposesthedifferencesarcnodifferences.
MLchels's rejection oftheMarxist treatmentofhothconceptsmarked his final alienation
fromtraditionalsocialismandhisincre,lsing towhatwould ultimatelyhecome
Fascism. Consider Michels's discllssion in "La guerra Europea al lume del matcrialismo
storico."
36. Perhaps the most importantofGentile's works in defenseofFascism is his
mously published Clne,i e stmffura della societa; the most importantofPanunzio's
worksis his7'eoria generale; seeCosta magna,Dotfrina del jiJ.(cimlO.
37. On the intluence ofelites, see, e.g., Camillo Pe11izzi, Fa,cimlO-AnJtocrazia (Milan:
'925);Michels,DerPatr;otlJ'mus, chap. I, esp.,pp.50-53;3ndGentile,Origin; edottr;11a
Pp9-- I I.
224 NOTES TO PAGES 1'54-1';7
Mussolini,"LaCartadel Lavoro,"inDotlrinadelfa.fciJmo, p. 278.
39.Thisargumentcan betraced hack to the first revolutionarysyndicalistdiscussionsof
lawand society.SeePanunzio,"Prefazione,"inPet'sistenzadeldiritto.
40. See Panunzio, Teoria generale, p. 27, and idem, Lo statofaJciJta, p. 49. "Without the
state,thereis no nation"(Costagmagna,Dot(rinadelfaJcismo, p. ,83),
4" Panunzio,Teoriagenerale, p. 40; see, e.g., Rossoni,Leideedella Ricostruzione,esp. pp.
'7, 32, and 20. See, e.g., Costamagna, Dott/'ina delfascismo, pp. [0<;-'[I. Panunzio, in this
context, refers to the pedagogical obligations ofthe modern state. See Teoria generale, p. 59;
Gentilespeaksof "Fascisteducation"as"nationaleducation"intendedtogeneratea"common
fundamental nationalconscience"(GiovanniGentile,Fasc-imlO t'cu/tul'a IMilan:Treves,
PI"
42. Mussolini, "Direttive," omnia, vol. 9, p. 2')9 See A. James Gregor,
MUJsoliniandtheIntellectual Universityof CaliforniaPress, 1979),
PI' 21'5- 220.
43. SeeMichels, :irnnnia/ismoitaliano,pp.56-57
L'economia di domani (Rome: Giornale d'ltalia, (941), esp. pp"
23, 24, 2H, 40,82,H3. Thiswasa constantthemein Fascistliteratureand hecameamajor
argument in the rationale ril!' Italy's participation in the Second World War. For the earlier
see Celestino Arena,L'eJpansioneeconomica in regimecorporativo (Rome: "Dirirtodel
lavoro," I<j29), 1'1. I.
44. See
45. See Arthur Livingston's "Introduction" to Gaetano Mosca, The Ruling Class (New
York: McGraw-Hill, (939). Mosca regularly alludesto the fact that individualsare
hy boththeir"passionsand [their!needs"(p. 287),a convictionc('ntral to Fascist
governance. Fascist theoreticians always argued that the appeal to "passions" was critical to
the ruleofpopulations.Thisis not,in andofitself, "irrational."
Pareto regularlyalluded to the sourcesofindividualandcollective
action. See,e.g., Dino Fiorot,Polifica esClenza in Parf'to (Milan: Cornmunita, (975),
pI.2, I,and I,uigiMontini,Vilfredo Paretoe (Rome:
(;ustavLeBon,PsychologyoftheCrowd(London: Renn, '9')2)repeatsthesameviews. All
Italiansyndicalistswereinfluencedbysuchviews,andsomeofthem,likePaoloOrano,passed
intotheFascist ranksaftertheconclusionoftheFirstWorld War. Inthiscontext,sec
Orano,La sociale.
See thediscussion in Guido Bortolotto,Massen undFuehrl'/' in derfaschistirchen I_ehre
(Berlin: H<lnseatische Verlaganstalt, 1934).
47.Thereis av,IrietyofFascistaccountsof charismaticleadership,hutRortolotlo'sMas.fen
und Fuehrer ill del' faJchi.rtischen Lehrt' is among the better ones. Michels's comments are
instructive and provide insights into the Fascist notions ofelite and charismatic
See Michels,FirJt LectureJ,chap.6.
4H. Panunzio,It .rentimentodellostato, pp. 05-'00,73 n.29,anel leonagenerate, p. 34
49. Benito Mussolini,"Discorsodi Bologna," in omnia,vol. I(), pp.240,24,)
50. Mussolini, "La politica interna al Senato," in ibid., vol. 21, p. 201;idem, "11 venticin-
qllenniodel di Vittorio Emanuele 111," in ibid., p. idem, "Discorsoa Genoa," in
ibid.,vol. 22, p.
'5 I. See RobertoMichels,Lavoroerazza(Milan:Vallardi, 1924),p. Ix; cf. p. I, n. I.
52. Seethediscussionill Gregor,IdeologyofFascism, 6.
'53. SeeCorradoGini,Na.rcita el'oluzioneemortedellenazioni(Rome: Littorio, 1930), esp.
p. 100, n. 31; G. Acerbo, Ifondamenti della dow"ina dt'lla razza (Rome: Unione Edi-
toriale d'ltalia, 1940), p. 25; and N. Timofeeff-Ressowsky, "Genetica cd evoluzione" and
"Sullaquestionedell'isolamcntoterritorialeentropopolazione "Scientiagenetica, 1
(1939)
54 See the discussion in the "Introduction" to Mario E Canella, Razze umanee.ftinte e
t'iverlti(Florence:Sansoni,1942);idem,LiT/eamentl
I: alldidem, dipsicologiarazziale(Florence:Sansoni, 1941),map. I.
5'5. Aldo Idee chiare sui razzismo (Rome: Augustea, p. 21; see Guido
Landra,"I,a razza Italiananellateoriadell'ologenesi,"Difesadellarazza,2 (,Apr. H)39): 10.
56.Theauthorsoftheofficial"ManifestoofFascistRacism"referred,therefore,toan"ital-
ian race." While there wasa clear insistence that the "race" notbe "contaminated" by "mis-
cegenation"with"alien"types,theseauthorsrefusedtoattribute"superiority"toanygivenrace
orraces.Theyurgedthe"Italianrace"toentenainan"Aryan-Nordic"ideal,soastoprovidea
"normativemodel"that would circumventanyextra-Europeanattachments.See "TheMan"
ifestnofFascistRacism,"trans.in Gregor,IdeologyofFaJclsm, paras.5- [0,pp.384-
57. Antonio Banzi insisted that Fascist racism specifIcally rejected the "theories ofDe
Gohineau, ]Houston S.I Chambelain, IMadison[ Grant, ILudwigl Woltmann and [Alfred]
Rosenberg" fa.rcista IPakrmo: Agate, 19391, p. I3). Banzi was a
mentmadeby Mllssolini in hiscareer.See Mussolini'sdiSCUSSIOn of"Pan-German racial
theories" in "II trentinovedutoda un socialista,"in Opera omnia,vol. "33, Pl'. 1'>3-161. Seethe
treatment in I_cone Franzi, Fast' attuale del razzismo tedesco (Rome: Istitnto nazionale di
commentswere spec.hc and
racismand itsdeterminism(Dottnna pp.
commentshy Ideechiare, p. 21.
There were, of course, some minor theoreticians who accepted the National Socialist
ofrace; see, e"g., Enzo I_coni, M':ftica del razzismofascista (Padua: CEDAM,
5K. This is one of the major thrusts ofthe curious volume by Julius Evola, Sintcsi di
doftrina della razza (Milan: Hocpli, l<)4 I),and probahlyexplains Mussolim'srecommend,Ition.
59.See Banzi,Razzismofascista, p. 66,andCosta magna,DourinadelfaJcismo,pp.
60. Panunzio'stheoreticalcontributiontothedevelopmentofFascistracism wascomp,lt-
ible with thegeneral accounttbat received official sanction. PaoloOrano,ontheotherhand,
became notable f()r his anti-Semitic posturing. See his "Introduction"toInchiesta sulla razza
(Rome:Pinciana, 19.W) and hisGliebreiin Italia (Rome: Pinciana, I
(n. See "Introduction" by Auguste Cornu and Wolfgang Moenke (eds.) in Moses Hess,
Philo.wphische und.fOzialistische Schriften 1850 (Berlin: Akademie 19(1),p. Ixvii.
62. In themid-1840S Hesscollaborated with Marxand Engelsonthe ofThe
German Ideolopv. and in he the League ofCommunists. See Shlomo Avineri,
ofCommuniJm and Zionism (New York: New York Press,
19K,),pp. 15-- 1 6.
See tbe discussion in I-less, "Die Folgell einer Revolution des Proletariats," in Philo.ro"
undsozialislische pp.427-433;idem, "Dritter Artikel," in ibid., PI" 438-441;
idem, "Schluss von Nr. 89," in ihid., PI'. 441 444; and idem, "Rother Kathechismus fuer das
deutscheYolk," ill ibid.,pp.447-457. .
63Theprimarysourceis MosesHess,"Romund Jerusalem,"in HorstLademacher(ed.),
Au.rgewaehiteSchriften (Cologne: AkademischeVerlag, 19(2), which I have usedas a guideto
retranslateMosesHess,RomeandJerusalem(NewYork:PhilosophicalLibrary, ref-
erenceswillbegiventotheEnglishedition.SeeHess,RomeandJemsalem, p.31;d. "Romeand
Jerusalem,"in ArthurHerzberg(ed.),TheZioni.!"tIdea (NewYork: Atheneum, p. '19.
Ibid.,p. 123.
65. Hess,
volumeDieheiligeGesdllc},tedel' Menschheit was
writtentoconvincehis readersthatSDinozawas the"heraldof the New Al2e." See
Avineri,"'losesHess, 2 andp. 125,Cf.Hess,Romeandlerusalem,p.61.
66. The
67. Hess,Die Geschichtedel' Menschheit, inPhilosoPhischeundsozialistische::'chnften.
pn
68. Hess,Romeandleru.ralem, pp. 80 ill, and idem,"Romeand Jerusalem,"pp. 130'-137.
69. Hess, "Romeand Jerusalem," pp. 124, 126-127, 13(), and idem, Romeandlel'ltJalem,
p.80.
70. Hess,Romeandjerusalem,pp. 28,44,')1-'i2,'if), 79
71. Ibid., p. 8').
72.Ibid.,p. 59.
n Ibid.,pp.85-8H.
74- Ibid.,p. 20; see p. 63 f(lr referencesto races...
75. Ibid.,pp. 10,44
76. Sec ihid.,pp. 10,24,41,44,62,6H-{K}.
77. BalbinoGiuliano,Element!di Zanichelli, 1',}2',}), I'p. 120, 122.
Mussolini himselfspokeofan ultimateworld at peace, the"realand radical
abolition ofarmies ..., with national boundanesof
tariff restrictions, with a free How oftrade hetween them" (Benito Mussolini, Testamento
politicoIi Mussolini 1Rome: Pedanesi,194HI, p. 3'i)
7',}. Lenin recommended Woltmann'sDerhistoris},e Materia/i...mus(Duesseldorf: Michels,
1899) in the bibliographyappended to bis expositoryarticle011 Karl Marx (Y. L Lenin,"Karl
Marx,"in Collected Works IMoscow: Foreigll Languagcs, 1',}6ol, vol. 21,p. il7).
80. See LudwigWoltmallo,DieGermcwt"fl in Frankrcich (Leipzig:Doerner, 1',}36), andDie
Germant"1l unddie Nenaissancein Italien (Leipzig: Doerner, l<}l6),originally publishedin IlJo7
and I',}o5 respectively.
HI. I)ocrner,1(36),cbap.2,esp.p.8l.
ofhuman races is the real and fundamental historyofstates"
Wo\tmann,HDie sozialistischen Parteien,"in ibid.,p. )'):see thediscussion concern-
ingMarXIsm in ibid.,pp. - 3',}3).
Marx's reference to race as a conditionofdevelopment can be found in Karl Marx,
Capital(Moscow: Languages, 1(54), vo\. 1, p. 512. See Wo1tmann'scomment in De,.
Materialismus, PI" .P7, See the disCllssion in Woltmallll, Die Dar-
winl.cche Theorieundder Sozialismtu(Duesseldorf:Michels,
H4. See OttoRecbe', biographical introduction toWoltmann,Polltische!lnthropotogle,I'p.
7-2j, and the disCllssion in A. lames Gregor, Contemporary Radiwl Ideologie...; Totalitarian
Thoughtin the Twentieth Century(NewYork: Random House, 19(8),pp. 181189.
85. See thediscussion in Bogdan Denitch,EthniCNationaliJm: The 71ag,c Death ofYugo-
.dama(Minneapolis: UniversityofMinnesota Press, 1()94)'
86. See Patricia Golden Steinhoff, "Tcnko: Ideology and Social Integration in Prewar
(Pb.D.diss.,HarvardUniversity, 1',}69)'
Minzoku translates as people, nation, or race, much as the Italian term.fthpe can be
translatedaseither orrace.Tbediscussion thatfollowsis basedlargelyon GermaineA.
Hoston,"Tenko:Marxismand the NationalQuestionlll PrewarJapan"(unpublished paper).
88. Sec thediscussion in Crowley,"A New Deali')f and Asia: One Road to Pearl
Harhor," in James B. Crowley (ed.), Modern East Asia: n'ssavs in Interpretation (New York:
Harcourt,Brace& World,1970),pp.235-264,andidem,fapan'sQuestforAutonomy(Princeton:
Princeton UniversityPress, 1966).
89 See the discussion in Miles Fletcher, The SI'arch for a New Order: Infl'llectuals and
Fascism in Prewarlapan (Chapel Hill: UniversityofNorthCarolina Press, 1982).
90 . See the Fascist discussion in Carlo Avarna eli Gualtieri, La politica giaponesl' II'!
"NuovoOrdine"(Milan:
(cd.),TheFormation (Princeton:Prince-
are seen as
91. See the discussion in Charles
lJUIlUlll14 as a consequence ofexternal threat. See as well John Dower,
WarwithoutMercy:RaceandPowerinthePacific War(NewYork: Pantheon,1986),p..)29,and
Cullen Hayashida,"Identity, Race andthe Blood ofJapan" (Ph.D.diss.,
ofWashington, 1976).
92. See tbe discussion in Mikhail Agursky, Contemporary RUHian Nationa/i.,m:
Revised(Jerusalem: HebrewUniversity Press, Ian. 19th).
93 See tbeaccount in Poncbaud,Cambodia: Year Zem (New York: Holt, Rine-
hart and Winstoll, 1977); David Hawk,"Tbe KillingofCambodia,"NewRepublic, 15 Nov.
19i12, pp.
94- Sec thecommentaryby AlexanderYanov, Weimar RUJsia andWhat We Can DoAbout
It(NewYork:Siovo- World,
9'). "I was not when I affirmed that the Fascist idea will he the idea ofthe
twentieth (Mussolini,Testamentopolitico,pp.
9: "Fascisms"
1. :>ergloPallunzio,A.().()livelli,and Paolo()ranowereamongthem.Later
by Roberto Michels, a f()rmer Marxist theoretician and one of the major
tbinkers ofthe early twentieth century. See A. James Gregor, "Giovanni Gentile and tbe
PhilosophyoftheYoungKarl Marx,"Journalofthe ofIdea", 24, no. 2
see Y. I. Lenin,"Karl Marx,"in Collective Works (Moscow: Foreign Languages, 19(4),vol. 21,
p. HH. In thiscontext,see UgoSpirito,Lafilo.mfiadelcomunismo(Florence:Sansoni,1948).
2. Sec tbediscussion inGiovanniGenttle,"Lafilosofia eli Marx:studicritici,"inlfimda-
mentidellufilo.mfiadeldintto(Florence:Sansoni, 1955),pp. 16,- 1('4,esp. pp. 226"229,n. 2.
3 In theollicial Dottrina delfascismo thethesis wasexpressedas: "Tbebumanheing1in
theconceptionofl Fascism is nation and Fatherl;lnd,a moral lawthat unites individuals and
In a tradition and in a mission" (Benito Mussolini,Dottnna de/faseismo IMilan:
pt. I, para. 2). See the discussion in A. James Gregor, Contemporary Radical
in the Twentieth Centurv (New York: Random House, J',}68),
2.
4. Seetheins;o-htfol
HHH"nnrlPt?i naturalee storiea del
socialisfl1onostrano,"in
(Florence:Yalkcchi,
pp.381-395:seeesp. pp. 384 and 394-3',}5.
5 It was not forgotten hy many in Fascist Italy, Tbere was a constantcomplaint that
Fascism was moving closer and closer to Marxism and Bolsbevism. See, e.g., Guido Ca-
vallucci, II /asci.'mo e JUlia via Ii Mosca? (Rome: Cremonese, 1933)' In tbis context see tbe
discussionofUgoSpirito,Capitaf,smoecorporativismo (Florence:Sansoni, 19.B).
o. Ernst Nolte,Three Faces o/Fascism:Action Franr;ai.,e, Italian Fascism, NationalSocial-
ism (NewYork: Holt,RinehartandWinston, 1966),pp. 20-21.
7. See the discussion in Domenico Settembrini, Fascismo controrivoluzione
imhf'yff'ttt1 (Florence: Sansoni, 1978), chap. l. Recently Richard Pipes has commented, "No
socialist beforeWorld War rresembled Lenin morecloselv than Benito
Mussolini"(Russia under the Bolshevik Regime INewYork: Vintage, 19951, p.
8. Seetheaccountin FabioGabrielli, "La Verita" e la sua avventura (Milan: n.p.,
9. A. James An Introduction to Metapolitics: A Brief Inquiry into the ConcepTUal
Science (NewYork: FreePress, 1971),pp.
10. SeeGilbert
rept,"American Historical Ret/iew, 84, no. 2
II. Jaroslav Krejci, "Introduction: Concepts of Right and Left," in Luciano Cheles,
Ronnie and Miehalina Vaughan (eds.), Neofascism in Europe (New York: Long-
man,1991),p. 3
12. Apuhlication blurhonthebook jacketofRogerGnffin'sThe Nature of Fascism (New
York: 'U,'UUCU'L!e,
I). Benito Mussolini, "On the Corpor.He State (14 November 19B)," in The Corporatt
State (Florence: Vallecchi, 1938), p. 35.
14. SeetbediscussioninGriffin,Nature ofFascism, pp.36f
15. As as 1914, Enrico Corradini identified nationalism as a reactive response to
collective threatandhumiliation. See "Na7-ionalismoe socialismo," in Disami politici (1902
[923) (Florence: Vallecchi, pp. 216-217. ideas passed directly intoFascism.
16. In 1917, Panunzioreferred to tbe "absurd and iniquitous system ...in which
the minority of powerful states exploit all the others ...who suffer as little more than
servants" (j)intto, forza e tJiolenza: lineame'nti di una teoria della violenza IBologna: Cappelli,
19211, p. xxiv).
17. See R. J. Rummel,Death by Government: Genocide and Masj' Murder since 19()O (New
Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1994), and the comments in Irving Louis HorOWitz,
Litles: Genocide and State Power (New Brunswick,N.J.: Transaction, 19(7),pp.28-29,227
18. Over halfa century ago, Sir Arthur Keith argued thus in A New Theory of Human
Evolution (NewYork: Philosophical Library, 1949).
19. Seetheentirediscussionconcerning''self-transcendence,''nationalism,and fascism in
Griffin,Nature ofFascism, chap.7.
20. The literature on collective life goes hack well into the nineteenth century.
C;umplowicz, e.g., spoke eloquently of the role of"social elements" in the articulation of
personality and their on political behavior. See C;umplowiC7., Der RassenkamPI
bruck: Universitaet, 1883), andidem, Outlines of Sociology
ofSocial and Political Science, 1899). All the majorsocial thinkersofthelate nineteenthand
early twentieth centuries allude to the identification ofindividuals with selected groupsof
"similars"as criticaltotheevolutionofpersonality.Seethediscussionin A. JamesGrelwr,The
Ideology The Rationale of7()talitarianism (NewYork: FreePress,
21. This is not the to rehearse social-scicntific thought concerningethnocentricity
andits relationshiptonationalism.Oneoftheforemost theoreticiansconcernedwith justthis
issuewasthelateSirArthurKeith,whosebooksontherelationshipbetweenhumanheingsas
group animals and nationalism are many and illuminating. See Keith, New The'()IY, which
containsanextensive Foranextensiveand reasonahlydetaileddiscussionofthe
betweengroupconsciousness and nation,llism, see Eugcn Lemberl!.Nationalis-
mllS \t1amtlllrg: Rowohlt, 19(4),vol. l.
22. Seethediscussion in Griffin,Nature
and the Last Man (New
York: Free.: i're.:ss, IQQ21. "Introduction"and
23. See the discussion in Francis
NOTES TO PAGES 17j-176
24Griffin,Nature ofFascism, p. 195.
25 Fukuyarna,End ofHistory, p. 270.
26. Griffin,Nature ofFascism, p. 195.
27 Longheforehisadherenceto Fascism (in (914) andearly in theFascist period (19
20
),
Dino Grandi, one ofthe architects ofthe movement, conceive.:d of the world as divided
between"therich and thepoor nations"-adivision which necess.lrily producedconflict. For
Grandi, the entire twentieth century would be beset by wars between "proletarian" and
"plutocratic"nations. See his discussion in "Laguerra non risolvcra nulla"and "Letteraa un
socialista," in GiotJani (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1941), pp. :)9,225. In articulating the position of
the tlrst Fascism, Mussolini outlined his conception ofthe world as a place dominated by
national "egoisms," in which nations were obliged to struggle for a in the sun. See
Mussolini,"Lanuov;! politica estera," in Opera omnia (Florence: La Fenice, vol. 19,
p. IP;seeIdem, "Primehasi dcllostatocorporativo," in ibid.,V'll. 20, p. I.B.Attheendof the
Fascist period,thestrugglebetween poorandrich nationsservedasarationalefortheSecond
World War. Seeth"discllssion in GuidoPuccio,Lotta ji'(J due mondl (Rome:Edizioni Italiane,
(942),chap.2.
28. DomenicoSoprano, Spazio vitale (Milan: Corhaccio, 1(42),p. 23. As earlv as Panun-
7-io'sDlritto, forz(J e t'iolenza in 1921,onefinds thesametheme.
29 This thesis goes hack at least to 1916 in Corradini's "diritti e doveri nazionali dei
(Disami pot/tid, pp. 34If:,and idem, La marda del produttori IRome: "L'ltalia,"
p. (0). This is not to suggest thatonly proto-faSCists recognized the connection. It is
addressed in the writings ofSun Yat-sen ahout the same time and in those ofthe
intellectualsaroundhim.Tracesof theseelementsarefound inthewritingsofChinese
communists"as well.
3
0
. Thishas been understood by Marxist-Leninistsand Fascistsalike. In addressmgthe
First ConkrenceofRussian Industria! Man;lgers in 19V, JosefStalin pointed out that "the
ofold Russiais thehistoryof defeatsduetobackwardness."Seethesamesentimentsin
theFascistaccountof L.FontanaRusso,P"eparazione e condotta economim della gUt'rm (Rome:
Cremonese, esp, p. 21.
3
1
Seethediscussionin ItaloLunelli,Pagine della nostra fede (Milan: Varese, (942),chaps.
9and II.At its verycommencement,MllSsolilli identified the LeagueofNationsas ;1 "sortof
fascista," in
allianceofnlutocratic n;ltions designed to guarantee----theirepisodicconliictsofinterest
ofthemajorpartoftheworld"("Lelineeprogrammatichedd
omnia, vol. 17, pp. 177-- 178).
,p.See,e.g.,thesummarydescriptionofthepoliciesofVargasand Peroninthecontextof
the economicandpolitical conditionsofLatin America in thefirst halfofthetwen-
tieth century by Gullermo A. O'Donnell, Modernization and Bureaucratlc-Authoritanamsm:
Studies in South Ame"ican Politics (Berkeley:InstituteoflnternationalStudies, un3),PI" 'i5-
60
.
33 One ofthe more insightful discussions ofsome ofthese issues is to be found in
Ludovico Garruccio, L'mdllstriatizzazione tra nazionalismo e rivoluzione: Ie ideologie politiche
deipaesi in via di stJilupppo (Bologna:II mulino, 19(9).
34 See Peter F. Sugar,Native FaSCIsm In the Succe.,sor States, 1918-1945 (Santa Barbara,
Calif.: Clio, t971); Nicholas M. Nagy-Talavera, The Green Shirts and the Othe,'s: A
Fascism in Hungary and Rumania (Stanford,Calif.:HooverInstitutionPress, 1970);and Mihai
Fatu and Ion SpiHiitelu, Garda de .tier: O'-ganiza{ie terori,-ta de tip fascist (Bucharest: Editura
politica, 1971).
35 Andrew C. Janos, The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary 1825-1945 (Princeton:
Princeton UniversityPress, 1982), p. 259.
36. See thediscussion in Ion 1. Motza,oneofthe principal ideologuesofthe Romanian
230 231
NOTES TO PAGES 176- 79
"Legionofthe Michael" (L'uomo nuovo [Padua; Edizionidi Ar, 19781; the
Romanian editionwasentitledCranii de Lemn).
37.CorncliuZe1eaCodreanu,Guardia diferro (Padua:Edizionidi Ar, 1972),a translation
ofPentru Legorlari.
38. As quoted in Eugen Weber, "Romania," in Hans Rogger and Eugen Weber (cds.),
The European Right: A Historiwl Profile (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1966),
P504
39.InthiscontextseeMarianoAmbri, Ungheria, Jugoslavia, Romania [9'9-
1945 (Roma: Jouvence, pp.222-223
40. Motza,L'uomo mwvo, p. 247
4I. Weber,"Romania,"p. '5 24.
42.CorneliuZeleaCodreanu,II capo di cuib (padua: Edizionidi Ar, 1974), pp.
43.Codreanumaintained thatFascismwaspredicatedon the"principleofthest;11e," and
National Socialism rested,in the last analysis,on the notion ofbiological racism, whereasthe
legion f(HlI1d its impulse in religious mysticism. See Julius Evola, fl fascismo: Jaggio di tina
anabsi aitica dal pumo d, vista del/a destra (Rome: Volpe, 19(4),p. 32,n. 1.
44. Codreanu, 1/ capo di ntib, p. 21. See in this context the writings ofone ofthe mort'
important ofthelegion,Motza,L'uomo nuovo.
45. Sec Julius Evola, "Nazionabsmoe ascesi: La Guardiadi Ferro,"Corriere Padano, 14
Apr. 193H, PI'. 1 repr. in CarloShurlati(ed.),Codretlnu e la Guardia di Fen'l) (Rome:
1977),pp. 7'-7')
46.SecC,rlo Shurlati,Codreanu il capitano (Rome:Volpe, '(70),p. If)').
47.Sec,e.g.,Motza,"II sensodelnostron:lzionalismo,"in L'uomo muwo, pp. 229-2B;and
endreanu,Guardia di/<,rro, pp. 130-132.
4H. Sec thediscussion in Motza,"La!;Ise precorporativa," inCuomo nuovo, PI"
49. Forahistoryof"fa"ism"in Hungaryand Romania,seeNagy-'I:lbvera,Gre('1l Shirts.
,)0. HortaSimaassuITlcd It'adershipofthelegion uponthedeathofCodreanu.ForSima's
views, see Mauriz;o Cahona (cd.), Horia Sima: Intervista .ittlla GUiJIdUl d, f"('I'ro (palermo:
EdizioniThule,
S1. Mihail Manoilescu, Le "iede du corporatume: doctrine du
(Pans; F<'lix Alcan, esp. pt. 1, chaps. , and 2; see alsoidem, Die
OttoStollbng,1941).
'52. That Manoikscu did not address the Jewish question directly rendered his ideas
fatally Hawedin thejudgmentofthele:ldcrsofthelegion.SeethecommentsofMotza,"Souo
il pesodelle rimanenze," inCuomo nuovo, pp.
'>3. Members ofthe legion would donate their time and efi(xts to assist peasants in the
construction ofroads and bridges in rural areas. would work to heautify tbe rural
Codreanuadmonishedalllegionariestoservetheneedsofthepeasants,becausethey
presentedthe"TrueRomania."SeeErnstNolte.Diefa.<thistischel1 Uetf.'egungm: Die KrisedeJ'
libera/en Systems tlnd die Entwick/ung der (Munich; DTV, 19(6),pp. 220.
54. Stalin's anti-Semitism, unlike Mussoljni's, was not formalized in in the
Soviet Union.Nonetheless,Jews werediscriminatedagainstalmosteverywhere.SeeGennadi
Kostyrchenko,Out ofthe Red ShadoU's: Anti-Semiti.rm itlStalin:; Russia (Amherst,N.Y.: Prome
theus, 1995),and Arkady Vaksberg,Stalin against the JeU's (NewYork: Knopf, 19(4).See the
commentsofRenzo DeFelice,Interpretations of Fmcism (Cambridge,Mass.: HarvardUniver-
sity Press. Pl" 10-11.
55.Theissue ofFascism's Lateran Accords with the Roman CatholicChurch is far too
to review here, but some ofthe principal Fascist ideologues objected to the
NOTES TO PAGES 179182
See, e.g., the discussion in Spirito, La .fine del
p1. 2,esp.pp. '11-1[5.
')6.Stalininsisted tbat"intenyearsatmostwemustmake tbedistancethatseparates
us from the advanced capitalist countries" (,The Tasks ofBllsiness Executives," in
[Moscow:Foreign Languages, 19541, vol. 13,1"
57 I. V. Stalin, "IndustrialisationoftheCountryandthe Right Deviation in thec.P.S.U.
(B.)," in ibid., vol. II,p. 256.
Stalin, Works, vol. II, pp. 296-297, as quoted in Mikb"il Agursky, The Third Rome
(Boulder,Colo.:Westview, 1987), p. 20,).
59Grandi,Giovani, p. 22').
60. Stalin,"LettertoChugunov,"in Works, vol. 9, p. 206.
61. "It would he mostdifficult to support theclear distinction .. hetween nationalism
andCommunism. Does theevidence ofthe newstates suggest that whoevergains power in
these countries be they nationalistorCommunist-arerequired by theoverwhelmingdiffi-
cultiesofmaintainingtheirOWfl power whilecreatinga newand viablenation toadoptthose
policies which best !:Icilitatc that task: nationalisteconomicand political policies?"(RobertF
Ikrnherger,"TbeRole ofN:ltiollalism in the Rise and DevelopmentofCommunistChina,"
in Harry n. lohnson 'd.), f;C()f1omic NiltionaliJ'm in Old and New State." 1London: Ccorge
Allen and Unwin, ly6HI, p. 70).
(,2.SecA. lames(;regor,l'vtarxiJm, China and Development (New Brunswick, N.J.: Tr:lllS-
action, ly6'5),chaps.4and').
63 St'c the discussion in Chen Xi, 'The Nationalism ofCbinese Intellectuals,"
zhichun (Bt',!ing Sprinf!., published in New York), flO. 39 (Aug. 1(96): l; "China Prints
Hook to EducateFarmers,"Satl Francisco Chronicle, 2H Nov. 199'),p. All.
('4. Sec Wang Shan, DiJanzhi
This hook, Looking at China
Republic;IS thoughit werea tramlatiollof a work hy aCermanauthor,wasrecommendedby
theleadershipin Heijing. In the last chaptertheauthorspeaksof internationalcomperillon in
termsof a Darwinianstrugglefor existence;sec pp. 267-2<),),esp. pp. 274-2Ho.
6<;. (;eorgc Wehfritz, "China: Springtime Perennial," Newsweek, 10 June lyy6, p. 17;
Marcus W. Brauchliand KathyChen,"NatiollalistFervor," Wall Street Journal, June 1995,
pp. ;\1 and A5.
()(l. Amongintellectualsintbe "fChinatherehasheenalllllcreasmgem-
the" reactioll-
Marxist-Leninist present, the
among t he increasingly nationalistic Chinese is to celebrate Cbinese culture in its historic
entIrety.
117 Sec, e.g., G. B. Marziali, Fa.;c':,mo educato/'(' (Palermo: Palumbo, 1939); Augusto
Turati,Nagioni idea Ii di zlita jilJci,ta (Rome: Bcrlutti,n.d.); G. A. Fanelli,Idee e polemiche per la
(Rome:Crcmoncse. !()41).
Kccentlv. theChineseCommunist published "instructional pamphlets" for the
that them to"lovetheir and never [()[getthe
See "China Prints Book to Ed\lcate
Farmers,"p. A1I.
69' In thiscontextsecFeliceCuarneri,Rattaglie ewnomiche tra eI due grandi guerre (Milan:
Garzanti, I(53), vol. I, chaps. <)-11; Gianni Toniolo, i-'ecof1omia dell'ltalia jilJClsta (Rome:
Laterza, 1(80),ehaps. 4.6.
70 . TbusOtto-ErnstSchueddekupf affirmsthat"ifwetaketheconceptof'fascism'in its
232 TO PAGES 182-184
strictest sense, it can be applied to (Revolutions o(OurTime: Fasci_im [New York:
1973], p.
71. One of De Felice's clearest statements of this position is found in "II fenomeno
fascista," whichservesasan introductionto Ambn,Ffalsifaseisml_
72. See Walter Liqueur'scritiqueofSovietology in TheDream that Failed: Reflectionson
the Soviet Union (NewYork; Oxford University Press, 1994),chaps. ') and 6.
73. Pipes, Nussia urlder the Bolshevik Negime, p. 253- "Between us and the Communists
therearenopoliticalaffinitiesbutthereareintellectualones. Likeyou, weconsidernecessary
a centralizedand unitary state which imposes iron disciplineonall persons, with thisdiffer-
ence, that you reach this conclusion hy way ofthe concept ofclass, and we by way ofthe
concept ofnation" (Mussolini. "Per Ia vera pacificazione," in Opera omnia, vol. 17. p. 29'))
Mussolini that"in fact, hoth [theRussianandtheFascist[ revolutionssupercedeall the
and, in a certain sense, the liberal and democratic. illStitutions that f'lUnd their
origin in theFrcnch revolution" ("La riformaelettoralc," in Opera omnia,vol. 19,p.
i4- The postrevolutionary United States displayed many ofthe properties ofreactive,
arises ofwhether
was a memberof subspecies "fascism" or not,since Sun Yat-
sen's ultimate intention was democratic. There is no simple answer to slIch questions. The
claSSificationof political ideologies,[loliticall1lovemcnts,and political regimesis reasoned,hut
not"obiective." Forthe periodafterSun'sdeath in 192') until the introductionofdemocratic
the ruleofthe Kuomint;ll1gonTaiwancould heclaSSI-
fied either as "fascism" or, should that irritate the sensihililles ofdemocratic Chinese. as a
authoritarianism,"
7'). (i. Lowell Fidd, Comparatl Political (London: & Kegan
Paul, Iq(7),p_ I).
76. David E. Apter,"AComparativeMethod for theStudyofPolitics,"in H.Eksteinand
D.E. Apter(cds.),Comparatitlt,Politics(New York: Free Press, IQb3), p. Ih.
Index
Africa,Il3, 1 'II,
!\gmsky,Mikhail,'1-')
!\latri. 4'-). '''I.,)1).60, ,ilX
Albania,202!J,)
All-Russian Social-Chrislia" Unionfi,r the Liher-
alion ofthe People:and nationali:,m,{)<i. 1II-
ll,2711 and People',>; Revolutionary (:har-
tCf. 207!lf'); asSocialChristian,()
:\nti-Scmilisrn, 7, I L2-14. r()f, 17B 7Q,
SecaL;o Jews
!\quila, 2('-- 30. I -x()
Argentina, '75
Asiad)iI(l,I,H, 14 1, I().l
21,40, 14 I
Austro-l-lungarianEmpire, 17)-jl)
Banzl.Antonio,22)ni)7
Baran,Paul,51,
Barbsh"v,Alex,lOder, Ir3.21"Jll,2IjTl59
Bauer,Ouo,3'1-44.54, I H7
Beijing-,6X, 70,7h, t)2, I Ht;. St:euL,o Peopk's
Repuhlicof China
Herdiaev, Nikolai,94
Berlin,'10, 9()
Belldheim,Charles,56. 190
Bolsheviksand Bolshevism:"spirationsof, '0,25,
91,95--9(', lOS, 126, and LlScism, 16.42.
12H-48,17'), 182,209"51.227"51:anrl Lenin,
137; Lysenkoon t I13; anJ1Vlarxlsm, 11). 17; r('V-
olution x, 2-3,71, IO,) I I2, 128-4H,
I79- 8o,1941111,217",5
Honlbacci,Nicola} 168
Ronapartism,40-4r
Rorkenau,Franz,3',1-40,42 44, I87
Bourgeoisie;andbureaucracy, 85, 142;and
class \trugg)e,27.h4. '.,2, 13)\ 1HS, tH9; "Uillll
nal bourgeoisie," I Engelson,
"i,n,:and ["cism,25-2(),,l9, 6(,. 71,
11")7(J, I X'), ,H7;Galkinon.47:"grandorhig
bourgeoisie,"27. Guerinon, H}l)lJ62; and
Italian Fascism,2()- 16, in Italy, 26-29.
47,-1'1-,)2, '5'), '-)2--33, 1HI" ,8)!: l'vbrxon,'7.
i4.10, (),), It I, 12q, [+1;and Mussolint, 27.
H)l.)n(l2, perty bourgcoisie.27,
politicalcontrolof,') ,.')Y-{HJ. privikgn.of,
15, :-12, ,i!y.2()'n4;:and prolt-l.lIia!.3'-.I'),
LU:and S()vin (}2, 7b 77. 7t), 102-- ,.
Va'ittlon,'i0. alw strughle
Il, aunthal, Julius,'-1,1\')
Bra?.il, '7')
Brczhnev,Leonid,6" '!-I-'ll>, '90
Bukharin, \i'ikolai:OIi cnmomil'St31 32, '.i7-- 3X,
1'11, 217fl)S; EcotlotYrY Pt'riod (l'J;U1HiliorJ
h}', I_it); Li:nru, T38.218n73;on soriaiisl1l,
'39,andSoviet Union. '.,8, 14'-44,qH:on
\Vorld War I, '-l')
Bureaucrats.,Set' Hierarchical
Capitalism: Haller1)11, 41: Bllkharinon. 137-3i1;
crisis01',28, lI-V,)4, 138, I86-H7: Engel,on,
21,65;Galkinnn,46;andirnpcrialisrn, 04;
and industrializatIOn, Ill, 35,41''51, 65.XH,
'.lO, 1i19, 197"27:;\nd Italy,27,49,O,129-3',
139, 1()8rJ')o:and Khrushchev,6 7i" So, '00;
Marxon,21-- 23, V -- 3+(,5, IB,"138, 169, 186-
87,217"'52;PalmcDutton,33-.l5,liloHI,186,
199"(,2;and People's Republic"fehin",82-8;,
180- 8" 202"'5:Poulanrzason,54-55,57-58;
andSovIetUnion,76-80, I08.202rJ); State
monopolycapitalism,69,77-78,81--82,85-86,
233
235 234 INDEX
Capitalism(continued) CommunistParcyofGermanyI
91,202n5;andWorld War1,3' .B,46, T3 H-,1"
CommunistPartyor Japan, til,
Set' also EconomyandeconOlnics
Cornmunlsr Partyofthe Russian PceJeration, JO(l,
Carr,F.H.,2 116,119.122, IsH, !91,2I4n87
Communist Partyofthl'Soviet Union:alterna-
CatholicChurch.See RomanCatholicChurch tives to,9()-97\ 112\ 122;CentralCommittee
CCJuscct]. Nit'olae,I)
11.); and(}orh<lchev, r11, 1 and
Castro,Fidel,2, 3,6, g, 17), 221"15
I't;andprivateproperty,77;andSwlin,By-yo,
Chen Eriin,8,)--R(, T\rvcnticth PartyCongressoC SR, 69-
Chcrncnko,Konstantin. 190 7.92;Twenty-Seventh PartyCongressoL 108.
Chi"n);Chin);ku(j,2J2"74
Chalmac\',Viktor,95
Set' alro Cnrnmunist
Ch,angKai-shek.74
International
China.Set' Cml1mullist Partyof People's. Corradini,Enrico, 10)-4,I)l\ IH'-Y5.21(m47,
RcpuhlicofChina 221JJI7, 22HlJI5, 22')f12ij
Christ.Sec jesusChrist Corridoui,Filip!,o, IV-l.l
Christianity, '5\1, 17KSee "L,,, Rom,'" (:athnlic Costilm'lg:na.Carlo! 154
(:hl1rcl1; Russi:rn ()rth"dox(:hurch Cuba,2, .{, (.(,. '7'i
Churchill,Win.stoll, 128
Cultural Revolution.Scc Grt';1t Prokt.lI"ian
struggle:andhourgeoisie,27.(14, !32, I3C), tural RC\'tllutioTl
IHi), IHy; (;orhachc\'on, I [ H('sson, ((lO; i\iao 7f), H)O
'Zcdongon, 72. 75,Ri. J Ho: M:lfX on, 23.
F,,,)4-,)8,bo,64-()'), 7n,H7, '20, I2Y, In-,'); Danilcvsky, Nikolai,9'i
Marxismon71,H(1-rl7, 120, [U-,));and k Felice, Renzo, ,H2, 214"<), 2pll71
ktari,ll,35,III ('2,7Y, 'F,'.,7, '52, '(1\, ,Ho- IkCaulk,Chark." "4
SJ; andSoviet Unton,()Z. 79, 10H, 122, I()I 1)C Man,Henri, '2K
\Volrmann on, l(n..S(Ya/5u Bourgeoisie; Ikat,MartTI, 12K
I>fl)lctarial DCII10(f,\CY,x. 47, 98-111). 1oq-II, 1IH,
(;ockcruft,J:lmes,Il4 .q.- 2")
(;odre.ullI,CnrneiillZelia, '76 '77, ,H2. 210114."
lkmocr.ltl( Pvoplc\Rcpuhllc ofKorea. (l, 17:;;,
,HK
ColdWar,;, '7' ,H IkngXi;lOl'ing, Sf), XH, ''1()
{:()I{miali\IIl, Ikut,ch,Jlllius, 2'), IH'j
{:omintfrn Inf()rmatlOn 1)('partnwfH,74, IH61 I )illlilroff.(;eorgi,,',IH7
IHS I)",toyevsky,Fyodor,94
<lnd anti-Scrnitilim,5; :lIldCOll111111' Dumacleclions, 1I()
nj'tPartyof(icrrn;lIlY, ,H; (On1p:1rn\ to fas-
cism, 1-2;and East (;('rmdIl)\90,202flS
Lenin,20; and l\1ussoiini, 10, 2H, "/1112, EaMern Europe, j(l,40. 10;. 1m), 137, Sec
dod I'copk's l{qlUblicofChill a, 2";,(ll, '71, aiw spcfificcounrrlt.'s
progressivccommunism, F,aslInan,I.loyd.202ftr
Soviet Union, f5\ bO-(JI,64,77. loR; theories
23011")j
Ecnnmnyand{'(onomics: Bukharln 3r- ,2,
of, ,-,H,'ll, "4,,i'2, '94"'4,2P"71,2\'1illl; 'l7--lH, '4',21711 ')'i;andcapitalism, 17,10,
"\vhitcnmunUniSrYl," nq,St'caho Lenin,V. L; 46-47,1'0;;lIlt! fa,ci,m'.14 -40,49--,)H,6H, 7l,
"Nlarxistl.tninis.t Stalin, 172" 7,,;of 37- ,8;and
Josef; and hc:admgs beginning\vith Communist national product,3')'.IS;growth,30,3'), 18 "
CmnmunistInternational:and FourthWorld I 97tJ,l2; andimperiali,m.66;ofItaly.37'40,
Congressof ThirdIntcrnational,25-30 , 3S.4(1, 4'!--'il, ,oi, '29.>3,1')1-')2, IKH, 2091l4H; Marx
48-44,54'')5,57,('4; intellectualcontrolof.
on, 2' '2l,,'),4',')('-'i/,i,o, 6,), Il,);and Marx-
46; meetingsor, 29--.)1, ISlyn64; Second Inter- ism,41. 77-78,8T, rnodcrnization,47,
national oC 24; Seventh\\;forld Congressof.31, 1l('-l7,1')1;ofPeople's Republicof China,71--
I andStalin.., I, 4H, Ht}-C)o, I(l,),219nHo
74.HI! Hl) -H6, IHo-- HJ, 140;of
CommunistPanyofChin<ll()O-{H.71 -72,Ho-82, 1,,-36,'42-4,;of socialism,(,')-(,(J,;I), 'I(),
i:l5-S7, Il:Io-H1, 205!11}2, 23tn6K See "l,() Mao '3H;ofSo,ictlJnion,6, 43-44,'i', 94- 10j,
Zedong;People's Republicof China [07- II, '43-46, 1,)0'-91;U.s.report'on,37
INDEX
Engels,Friedrich:onhourgcoisieandproletariat,
')2-')l,6Y-71,73,78 '79.,91;andSovietUnion,I,
65, on 2I,65; de3th 14;
3,107-27, '46,149-65, 179, IH7,20\l"5!,217n50;
doctrineof, H-9, 19,90.129, '\2,1l5,143, andtotalitarianism)68,22,n3S; Westernatti-
206tJ88;on 21 5tl19;and1-less, ISH, tudcstowards,10;andWorldWarII,ix,2,45-
onsocialchange,22, 2Isnl(), 2I;t122,
66,72,125,I4H, IH7 RH,1l)8"48,20m' See allo
2I7n52;on J) Gent'rlCfascisn1; ItalianFascisrn
England,See United Kingdom Fa,t,Howard,2
Ethiopia,37 FCIninisnl, Ii.,l
Ethnogenesis, 15-')1, '58, Iy1 FirstWorld War.Sec World War I
Eura,ia, 12.l-2(J,St'(' aLm Asia;Eurupe;andspe, Flanders, t18
rifie('ountric\
France:economyof,37 EII);d,on,215"1<);
Europe:EasternFuropt\ lb.yo, 107, 109, 1 11)0,
and hlscisrn,21; andFrench Revolution,
I?3;andEuropean Parliament,1; and
andItalian Fascism,i- J; Lenin
r(), 21) 21), 7"), J73, IHy; industrialJJ;ation 2rM116ij; andncohlscisnl,3; Woltmannon, I(}2;
of, IlO, '14;andMarxism,2426,J2,('l, I4l; and World War I,138
and P"ol'le's Rel'ublicof China,7'), 20(Jf'42;and Franco,Francisco. '14. 12I,20U!2
prolet;rriat, t)t), 174;andsocialism,2'). 31,7'), Frank,AndreGunder,64
1H6; and World War1,20;and World WarII,
Futu rism. 130 135
Set' aim .'pccihccountries
(;alkin,Alexander,4()-4H, ,)0, 53-'54,(lO, 18S
Fascism:Alatrion,()o;<ltld Bolshcvistn,[C), 42. J 2H- {hlng(lFtHlr,Ho, Iyo,20iJt1cl2
'lX, I,227tll);audbourgeoisie, (;("!H'ric f;lSris.m: comparedtot:olnllllmi.,Ill, tHo;
2(), 19,')3,/1(1, 7',,H,), IX7; asGlpitalisrn"alter-
tidinitio!] " ,8, I i,X, 17'5, ,H7-8'J;idl'ology
nati\"('.3J -32;Chenon\ of
of, ro); in Soviet Union Western lOter
Marxi.'\t"theories"l)t:IHl) ""(}1;cornparcdto('orn- pre(ationof,M5
rnunisrn,I-IH,H}<)t170.21 In2<j,231-32!17o;
(;iovanlli,)'5, '(l(lt 222f}21, 22.Vttl,{4
toitalian H);definitions
1'5
of,1-1,4()-47,'i,!,6'1,,6K,(,'I, ''13''2,",rm" Borkenauon,41;C(HUflllltlist Partyof,
2221121 anddemocracy.47;destructive )H; and bscist 21; of,
dknsolW'ncr:rIly,i'd,IYln,;;Deutschon,2'); of Hussia, andMarxism,
andeconomics,14-40, 4<), ')7' 'i H, 68,7." IjlJ-40' I H(), 2I 5f1 It);1lC<){:lscislll 3; Poulantzason,
172-73;and Europe,11',21,2'),,'- l2,7'), '7l, ,)4; Social DClIlocrati( Parryin. I(n;andsonal
I Hy;first Marxl:,:tthet)rie,>()f, 19-44;alHi France, revolution, Q2,21Hn()(). 227n<P; Woltl11ann 011,
21;andl{)rcignpolicy,34.4I, I)),2[7n61;(;alkin 16,-(12;and World War1,41.Set' "lso Haler,
on,4(j.()O;and 17l)-76;idt'o\ogies Adolf; NationalSoeiallSll1
of,,-,H,2'),'i2-'il,12('-27,1")4-'5,),164-('), (;ide,Andd,2
11,(,- 84,219"H6,22l"3,);Kuehnlon,4\1, ,)3; (;iuiiano,Jblhino, r(H
Klirginianon,97-106;and Zedong,'34.h[- (,'la.)IIO.'!, 1)2. S,'c "lso (;()rhachl'v, Mikhail
(',,72,7'),Ho--H2, H),87, 187;andMarxism,x, Gorh"c1wv, Mikhail,!)1-y2, 100-102, '7-12,
'9-44,')2'54,10),'3',14'),''14, 187,2Ill,,)6, 1[7-18,It)O, 2.07'122, 2JOfJIO
227n'); Marxi,tlhcoryof,aftcrWorldWar11,45- Gramsci.Antunio.'i)
Marxist-l.ellini,rtheories inSoviet Grandi,Dino.2291127
Union,H(}-IOO; lviarxlst-Lcninisttheory in Great Depression,35,.Ii), 186
Peopk'sRcpuhlieofChina,6H-SH;;rndMus- ProletarianCultural Revolution: clas....
soJini,"), 10,I -20,24-26,)03-05,120.130, struggle,60 (l>, 6(), andGangofFour,
146-.'4<),182, H)<)tl4, Ho, 1(,)0; Poulantzason, dig;and revolutIOn,x,
origins x,5, 21,124-12,I'J9f14, 22fJn27;and 205,,67;:lndSovietUnion,58, 71, 74, 92
People',RcpuhlicofChina,IHI ,H4, IRS; and
Grotius,Hugo, 109
po,l-SovietRussia,107-27, 148,184,2'.j1l6o;
Guerin, Daniel,31-3.!,56,187,1991162
Poulantz<lson,46,60;prohlemsofacaderniClans
GUlIlilev, Nikolaevich Lev, '24, ',)0-,)1, ,,)g, 1\1'
understanding.166-84;protu-b:sci!inlinRus-
(;umplowicz, Ludwig,22Rn2o
sia. I I 1 r 2,2IIn2C.);andracisrn, 5, 149.-65,
175,22')nn')6-57;andright-wingpolitics,ix, "
Hegel,GeorgWilhelm,8, 11"12,2',166, 22l" 34
75;andRumania, 76;Soviettheorieson,46,
Moses, IS8-.(n,2251162, 2261166
236
INDEX
,89, J9X"40, 22on99,22m17;and \Vorld War II,
lIilferding,Rudolf,6
36-37,43-44,157,22<w99, 224nHSeealso
Hiller,Adolf: Raueron,41;compared to Mao
Hierarchicalsystem,4-5,H5-8(" 137,1,1',143,IS,
Mussolini, Benito;and headingsbeginning
Zcdon",7.3; comparedto Mussolini,45,49, IB2, with Italian
186:and NationalSocialism,3', 4'),86,114,
121,151,157,162,1116,21In33:regimeof,8<), Japan, 16,-('4,227n91
120, 19yn62; right-wingextremismof,'),62 Jefferson,Thomas, 109
Holland,I32
JeslIs Cbrist, 176, 178
HuaGuofeng, lyO
Jews, I, 1'2-lj,15H-flo, 17X-79,2,0f152,2,(ln'54'
Hungary,50, 70. ()6, [7(), rH9, 190,202n2
Seeai:H) Anti-Sclnitlstn
JiangVing,8K
llin, Ivan Alexandrov.ch, 125
JiangZenlin1 J HI
19. HI -82, 1 J I J 14, Johnson,Dale,(J4
r()41 1 90
India,75, 182
Kautsky, Karl,56
I ndusrriali"Jtion, .8, "),43,Ih, y.--,'),'7'1'75,
Keith,SirArthur,228n21
178,IH6
Khmer Rouge, x
I70 Khnrshrhev, Nikit,I:andcapitalism,6" ]fl, Xn,
100;andMarxism,tJO-Y4,97 -qH;
J 139-41,
hlam, '5,17'5
Iscad, 15<1--1",. Seealso Jews
hy, 201'-7"10; onSt:llin,')X, 69-70,76, 18H, ")2,
ItalianCOInmunis{ Party,20,28-29,186.
2()(m2
Kim II SlIng,2,6,175
Italian Fascism: Altan011, 49, .88: Baueron,4';
2o()n7
Koestler, Arthur,2
Borkcflauon,')2, [H7; andhourgcoisic, 3(),
Ko[(',r.See J)etIlo(f;ltic People's RcpublicofKorea
47;compared to National SocialistGCrJnany. Korean War, 18H
compared toSovi<:t Unton.77, f IlJ; (0111- Kremlin, Il,')4-')'),74, <)2, 97, '4')-4(',"eealso
p'llcdtoStalinideology,y-.o,'2, Soviet Union
I)Clltsci. on,25;cndof, financing of, Kuelml, Rcinbard,49-50,')3
l6--l7:and France,4';(;alkinnn,47--4H; idt'Dl- Kuomintang,74,2021l1,
"gyof,2H--jo,,)l,73,125, 'l7,.66-71, IH2;
Kurashvili, It l'., .10
Marxism, J7,20--21,2() 37, 12H--2{)) Ij7,
Kurginian,Scrg('i,47-IO(), 111, Id)-21.12(" Hil,
157; and Mussolini,5, II>, 22,3(,-,8,87, 20I)nn27-38,20<jnn42-'54, 2IOn'56
227n'l);origins01',2,)-27,.lY, ')0 ')1,73;Palme
Dun :); Poulantza:iOIl. S4 SC); and racism, L;I Rochelle,Drieu, 144
15')-57;Trotskyon,42, l(!7n29: Vadia on, 1St), Lahriola,Arturo, 131
20m][6;Zctkinon,29 Bon,Gustavt
Italian NalionalSymbcalists.See Syndicalism Leagul'of 21 7n61.229'131
Italian Nationalism, I 133-l'5, ,68,
Left-wingpoli'ics:comparedtoright.wingpoli.
tics, 3-8,'05, I<)4n!(); extremismof,ix, 6j--64,
!tabnSocialist Party, 1<)-20,36,HI>, '27,13', .67
21611.r2,2211117
146;and [.cninism,x; and Mao 84;and
Iwly:agriculturein, 19Hfl50; Borkenauon,W; and
Marxism,3; NewLeft,(li,208njH.Seealso spe-
bourgeoisie,26-29,46, 55, 132 1H6,
rihc political movements
188;andcapitalism,27,49-50 , 129-V,139,
Lenin,V L: and liolsheviks, '37;onbourgeoisie,
[{)8nSO; toSovietUnion, econ- 1l; Bukharinon,1,)8,218n73;compared toMao
omyof,37-40,49-53,I04, 33, lSI 52,
Zcdong,78; comparedtoMussolini. 10\ 42, 129.
188,209n48; ideologicalconflictsin, 19,20,127, '41-42,216n39;comparedtoStalin,7',
I 29"V, induslri"lization of,30,36-37,
deathof, '42-43;andFourthWorldCongress
49,148,17_" 215n24;and Marxism, 17,20-21,
ofThird Intern,uiooal, 38,40,484'1,
131,166.186;military()f, 20,170;andnlOO- 54'5),57,64;ideologyof,7,9- 10,20,64,7,
archy.'5),2001126;and Mussolinias leader,6,
92,96, ,6" I(iii, 218n69; Kurginianon,208"35,
25-28,40,47 48,53,I 146-48,156,17'1'
208n38; and Marxism,2,30, 142;revolutionof:
and nariOll:lJism, 20,1,)2,156;andneo- 25, !O8, 110,133;asRussian ruler,7,1_,-,,142--
fascism, 3; and Renaissance, 162;andWorld
45;StateandRevolutIOn by, 138,216"40,Seealso
War1,1'1-22,39,51,127,130-34, '55-57, ,67,
Marxist-Leninisttheories
INDEX
Liberal Democratic Party, "4-I6,2ll12n35 B4-85, 12<), 135-39;andSoviel Union,2-3,15,
Lin Iliao,66,82 24, 44,57, lO', 1'3;alld technology,57,186;
LiuSha()(]i, theories of,i' 24,34,48,52-65,89- 106, Il9,
Lysenko,Nikolai, I '53,166--6<), 19,)n45,21<jn84; andtotalitarian-
ism, 11); Vajdaun, as variantoffa;scism,
Mailer,Norman,2 [8; Westernscholarson, 1 I-l2, t4, 17-r8,
MaoZcdong:andclassstruggle,6n-Il2,72, 75, 68-69;afterWorld War1[,,15-67;Zetkinon,
H4, IH,O; cornpared to Hitler,73;compared to 30;Zluganovon,123-21.SeerlLm Communism;
Lcnin,7H; compared to Mussolinl,58, 73. Hf1; Marx,Karl; Marxist-Leninistthcorles
eornparcd to Stalin,HI!; deathof,85,87-88, 180, Marxist-Leninisttheories:analysisof,x,3-9,Ij-
'90: andI,,,cism,')4, (lll'l,72, 7'), 80-82,85, 14,35,45 49, 70, 148, .66-84; andcensor-
87, 187; f,"cign policyof,66, 7j,75:ideologyoC ship, 120;declineof.6,92-97. 104"-"8, l I I, r14.
H, 62-63,71,75,HI -8'), ISO, 204n36;onindus- 122, Jil,---6,), .85-92,209n4'5;oneducation,8)
trialization.70, 72- onkft wiI1g politics.H4; 84;off'lS<:ism, .l5 .lX, 43-44,50 -('7,76,82,
w
on f\,1arxist--I.tninist theories,56.,H,(HJ-62. Ho- HH, '21, 12X, Il7;Mao1',,,<10111' on,
rHo, ;;:\23113"); and nationalisfn,71, (,2,Ho--8'), ,Xo, 201n37,22l".)5;on Mussoli"i,
opponentsof, HI.; and People'sRepuhlicof 20,,H-19,2,(m37:and Pcople's Republicof
Chllla,ixx,I,-H,5X-61,72-75,8" 87,91,18S; China,6H-88; Poulantz:I on,54-,)6,62--('l, IX,):
POldantzason,'ifl-')H, (.2-6,;and proletari,.t, andSino-Sovietdispute,()H; andSoviet Union,
IX x, 2,6, (>1; and racisJu,71; right-wingpolitics 49,60,HiI, 8y--.06, 112,161;andStalin,2, H--y,
01',5,6;alld socialism,80--85,'P;and Third <)2, '4.3,2"lnS(,:;llId tow[il:1rianisll1, '),8'5:
World Theory,(}(), 75, 7H. 5'eealso Commu- andTrotsky,p, ,)6, '44 45, .il7;writingson,
niSI Partyorehina;People's RepublicofChina 19-44,')5--56, 108, "ii, '2').Set'"L", CO!l1I11U-
Marrhon Rome,20,24 2!), I.{O, JI)(li '58,22InIt) niSIn; Marx, Karl;
Mari nelli, F. T,185 Michels, Roberto, 1>', ',)2-')5,
Karl:on hourgeoisie.34,40,fl" I I 1\ 12(), 21,)nIl,2'5fl24,22. 22!lIH,22lnll,22,ul'),
134;Oil capitalism,21-2" .l'-34,1'5, '3X, .6y, 227n
rH(>-t\7, 217n52; onclassstruggle, ,7.{)[ -.62. MiddleEast, 175
('4-65,70,120,12<), '-B-l,);dearhof, 1911n,; Mondoifil, gudo)[i),42
doctrineof,H j,It), 77,Xu HI,<)0. 96,12<),16.3, MOfllesquiclJ, B.aron de La Brtodt', JU<j
onccorH)mics, 2I :>1), 41, ()O, Mosca,(;aet.U)o, 103-4, I C;(), 224n4')
6'5, 1l5;and(;umiley, ',)0;on Hegel,2.;and Moscow.Set' Soviet Union
Hess, 1,)8--6(.221)n62; onindnstrialsoclt'ty.32, Mot"",[Oll L, 22y-,<ln36
IP;Kapitalby, 2" ,62,1'17"'3;and national- Muenzcr,TliOlHas, J 3"5
ism,60, '40;on [;]CC, J52- 53, II)H, 22(>nX3; and Benito: Baueron,.41; andbourgeoisie,
Second ontotalitarianism, 27,30, 199f1h2, andcomrnunlStn1 10,
I2l). onutopiansociety. IOO. Seealso Marx- 12X, 96f12, 217"58;comparedto llitler,4'),49,
15n; N1arxist-Leninisttheories IH2, to[.cnin, 10,42,12<), 14l-
Marxistn: Aquibon. 27; and Bolsheviks, 17; 42,2.6n,9;comparedtoMaoZedong,58, 73,
Chennn,X'i; chronologyofMarxist"theories" 85:asDua< ofItaly, IlI-32;andhrscisll1, '), 10,
ofbscism, .8'5--92;andclass strJIggle,7',BI, J )-20,24-2(), 103--05, 120,130, I4()-49,
87, '20, andeconomics,41, 77-78,BI, "19",1, 229"27;Galkinon,47;and Italian Fas-
87;'Illd Europe,24-26,,32,6j,143; 1:,;I11re of,3, cism,5, 1l-16, '9,22,36-,8,87,227"95:as
9-10,24;andfascism generally, x, lOS, 131, 145, Italianleader,6,25-28,40,47-48,53, 119, '46
'54, ,87,2Ion,)6,227"5;first Marxisttheories of 48, '56, 179, 19(mI;andMarxist-Leninisttheo-
fascism, andGorbachev, 110-11;and ries, 20, 38 39,216n.,7;on peace,226n78; politi-
Guerin,32:and Iralian Fascism, 17, 26- ea) influencesof,20, 129-- 166,20<)nS'
27,37,128-29,1.l7, 157;and Japan, 163-()4: 21Hn62, 22on>, 232n73; Rizzi Oil) 42;support-
Khrushchevon,90-94,97-98;and Lenin,2, ersof,,6-37,')'), !OJ;andWorld War I, 10, '4I,
.jO, 142;andnationalism. I61;OlivettI 182, Seealso Italian Fascism
on, IB-34;originsof,9, 2',185, 1961'3; Pal me Mythandmysticism,'52,22InI4
Dutton,33-34,39; on proletariat, I5, 22-23,
134, '45:andracism, '49-65;andrevolulion, Nagy,Imre,92
70,84-85,132-33,137-38;andsocialism,17, NationalPatrioticUnion,I24
238
NDEX
National Republican PartyofRussia. 1Ii
70;ano MaoZedong.ix-x,6-H,'5 K-(ll.72 '7'),
:--Iational SalvationFront.1I
8" X7. '11,188,21'n66;MarXlstLeninist theory
National-Social Union, I LJ.
offascism in,68-88;and RedGuard,S'5; ano
NationalSocialism: Harkashov on, [20,21In33;
socialism. 2-3.66,So-H" 8'), 18 I; <Ind Soviet
(:odreanu comparedto fascism.
Union,')8-()(),(13-7'1, 88-92.115.189.192,
::;-6, (2) 1')1. cotnparedto
202n(l;Stalin 74; Wcstern influenceson,75,
Leninist I comparedtoMussolini's 16i. IHo. 2l1T164. Seealw Communist Partyof
ideology. IH2. 186; MaoZedongon.86;Palme China;MaoZcdong
Dutton.35; Prokhanovon. '2';and Stalin.42; Peron.juaIl, '7')
Woltmannon. ,62;and World War n.45, See Philippines,('4
alw Hitler,Adolf
Pinochet,.Augusto, 121
and internationalism, 140;and Pipes. Richard. 182. 2,,1173
Japan, 16,;and Jews. I'i<i-(10;and Marx.(,0, Plutocracy, '7,66,104, lll.'4'" 4 I. 14H, 1';2.
and Marxisfl1, 1::;2-5,3. 161;lflovemcrHsof, 2oH"IH
18-20.7'.'H"46. 1'5" ''i 8 '7'-72, fl)O,
Pol ix
2lll1(";ori"u"of, l30. [36, 1 ('1' '7), IH 1,H2,
Poland,70,90,c.p. til,U)()
2 21 !,fflHh. 223"31,22Hn I);;:lnd racisrn. Politics:afterWorld W;"II,'4,17.68,89.12,) '2(',
151 '56, I()() (ll. ,H,;and Russia.5,,)l'96, 148. '71, '71:systemsof. 12, IH3-8'1; upheaval
104-0,), 112-[';,12,-24,14,-44,16-;.'7l,I(jI;
in tw,'nticthcentury,ix-x. I-I H. See aho "pccihc
and natureofhumans. [0---11, 11)2 -::)4, countriesandspccific political mO\TUH'nIS
Ill,. '72-7" ,H2, ,H4.2ron')7,222112-;. 22,nlI,
I'oulanlzas, Nicm:oncapitalism.,)4-,)'i.'i7 )H,
2J.HnlI; Woitrnannon, 1(11
on ()(}; F{bCHmanti /)irtator . .-hip

by. S4; on Italian Fascisrn, on Zcdong,
C){l--:;H. ()2-(l3;on l\1arxis{ -Lcnini .... t theories,
Ncow!vbrxism,6)-()(),20K112<)
S4---)C), (}2, onmonanhy inItaly.200n26
New I.eft.('i,loH"iH
Nco-Stalinism.2oHI12l)
i'rcohr,,/,hcoski,Evgcni. 144,2fH1I74
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 10) Pn.:zzulini.(;iust'ppe,42
North Alnerica,(}):. Set' aliO UnitedStates
Pf()khanov.Alexander. lOti, IijI.
Nurrh Korea,Set' I )emo(ratic People's Rqmhhc 2l3fln,)9,60
ofKc)rca Proletariat:aodbourgeoisie. l'',39,H" '41;Chen
on. .1.nd classstruggle,,)),(II 79. I.p,
October Revolution, llH
137. 11)2, and(utl1munist 6, 7t),
(lIIvctti,A, (),. I I, 1,,-34,21 ')n I'5.227"1
13H, IHo,20(,nH5;aori Europe, 1')9, 174;10 Italy,
4'1. ') 1, 21 H1I62; and :Vlao Zeriong.ix x.2, (', (n,
(lrthodox(:hurch,SN' Russian(lrthodoxChurch and Marxism,2, 1".22-21,114, "I'i;political
impcratJvcsof;('(), ')7, '22 1" I l(" 14H, I) I,
(irano.Paolo, I '5H. 224".I'i,22'in6o,227"1
l()l, r(){}-70, and revolution, 14.
Paine,TOOl, t09
Palme Dut!.Rajani: oncapitalism, p,ll-l'i, 79-80. '01, 108, '10, I I, Ill,IN".j2, I(ll;
IHo, H" IH(), 19'1n(U; OIl fascism. IH(); Fas' Woltmannon, ,62,See "l,w (:lassstruggle
anti Revolution by, .3 I;on Prussia. '4l

I 12,21[ - 12n,)') Racism:and Asia, 16i(14; and hlScism, I.'i,
Panunzio,Sergio. T li)L, 1)4, 1)8,2oyn5I. (),), 17'5. 22,)nl1')('-'i7; Gumilevon. ',)0-)',1')8;
21'11182, 222112'), 22l"l5,225noo.227''''
MaoZedongOil, 71; Marxon, ',)2-53, I'5H

22'in6o;Michelson, I')1-'54;and nationalisnl,
Pareto,Vilfrcdo, 103-4,r56,224n4,)
P)I-56, 160---64. Panunzioofl j 1::;1-52
ParisCOffirnunc, :)1
22'inn5()-57; andSovielUnion, I q.'49;
People'sRepuhlIcof China:andcapitalism,82-'
Wolullannun, 162.See aha Anti-Semitism
83,202"1);andcornmunism,2-3,61,173,180- Raclek. Karl,')6
th;compared to Eur<)pe,7'), 2oyn4 T; econorny Reed, John, 2
of,73-74,H" 85,,86, IHo-Hr, 1<10: and fascism,
Religious fundamentalism, 183
18, 84. IHH; andGreat Proletarian Cultural Republican People's PartyofRussia,113
Revolution.58,60-IJ2.66, 71,74,80,84-87.92,
Revolutions; Bolshevik Revolution,x, 2-3.uH-
18<)-90. 20'in67. 23w68; onKhrush"hev.69-
48;definitionof, 193tH;fascist revohltion,x;
INDEX 239
French Revolution. IH.2321173: MaoZedong Silonc,Ignazio.2
on,84;and :Vlarxisrn.70. Ho,H4, '12-lj,'37 Sima,Iloria, 17H, 23on')0
3H; (klohCl' Revolution, IJK; Russian R"volu- Sino,S"vietdispllte,See People's Repuhlicof
tion, 13,1(',91-<)2,149,179-80,21811(,7;of China;Soviet Union
twentiethcentury, I-IH. '2H-29. [,34-,6, 14')' Skvortsov,Sergei, 122
1,)7,IH2 SbvismandSlavophile,. ''3 '4, '22"23
RighHvingpolitics:compared10leCt,wingpoli, Social DemocraticParry, 2'1. 2H
tics, 5---H, 1(1). HJ4t1 r extremism ix, 1,44. Social sciencediscipline, 172, dh,d14,
6H, HI-H4, DC), 1.1(,. '4'1 ',)0. 1'!4n25;lllldfas' :llonS722Rnn2..0-2J
cism. 1,7')'andHitler,'),1>2; and MaoZedong, SocialIsm;analysis01',16,1'1; Bukharinon, 139;
,)-6;and l\1arxisn1, x, 40,60;and l\1ussolini, andclass struggle, andcomolunisrn,
and '); andStalin, Sct.' also economicsof;il') ()b, il;and Europe.2').1',7').
spcC"itlc political movements I H(l; ideologyof.24,,1-32,Ho-H2, 1;0-',6,142,
RiZZI, Bruno.42 MaoZedongon,So -Hi), 91;:lnd i\riarxism,
Rocco, AI fredo, 10;-4. I;0 '7.!l4,H,), '2y,1.1';'-1'); People's Repuhlkof
RomanCatholicChurch.')5, 2l,m,),) China, 3,66,80,,,HI, H'), IHI
Roma,,;a. 17(.-78,202n2.22')-.lo"l(' Solzhenirsyn.Alexander.'H-94,(il-97
ROl11ani'lll I,('gioll ofthe Archangel Michael, 17(, SorcI.
78,2lon,)" SouthAmerica,61, (14
Rome,20,24-2,). Ill. llo, 147, 1')11, I'jH-')'), Su\'inUnion: hourgcoisiein,(u, 7<)" l02-
221!JII) " 20tjn42;hreakupof, x, (1.1'),1(',<)('.107-1),
Rosenberg.Arthur, lH. 'i(' 12-18. '49;Bukharinon. 141 44;andcapi'
Rousseau, Jean. I fH) talisin. 202nl);andclassstruggle,
itn,1 {lem(icf;ltic rct(trm, 'C)-1ft,94,9H, IO(). 7Y, andcommuni.sm. I,), ('4, 77.<)H,
I 171 anddissidents. 21 I"- 2f comparedtoItaly, 42,77;{'con
eCOIH)!IlY of, 1Il'I<), 'B-;(" 142-41,2'7n')o; ornyof, iI,4.144.'JI.'14 - 10 \, 107- 1I. 1 H-46,
fa.s(isn1 and post-Soviet IhTssia, I ()4--27. 14H, I<)0"1)1; on hsri,\Ill, 1,3,46,,)2-'il.()()-7" 7,.
I H4. 21 .3n(,u; tmtoryof, 12, 4l'44, (j4, I12, I14 7X-79,<)I. 107- 27, 146, '49-(,'), 17'1. IH7,
5f' 229n )0; inHtll'ncc democracies loqn')4; foreign policyof109 1 Kurginian
on, 10)-,), 114. f 12); I.cnin;I.... rukrof.7. on, 2oHn32;and Lenin,4I 42;andMarxisrn,2""
Ill,'42-4');as militarv pOWct, I IH. IYI; Moth, I, '')- 1(,.24,41-44,')7, 101. I'i:and Marxi,t,
erlandas symbol,Yl'!4,y(), IOl-),1'1- LI, Leninisl theories,4'), HH, HY--IO(}, I(ll;military
I J J H, 120, (2), I2(), 2oHn27; nationalism, expansionof.it ()Z, lOY, 14); nationalislll of,
'),91-,)(,, 104-'), II2 1'5. '43-44. ,)-6.9.1''}'), 16');and People's Ikpuhlicof
17{, 191; post SOVlct Russia.x,94, China,')H-bo,('7,(,H-7'1. 8,)-92. rI'i. 202716;
proto-biScisfl1 in, 11 J-J2,21In2q; ;lnd racio;H1, revisionism in,77, TOI, lXt); alldStalin
'4'1 'in,See "/,,, (;orhachev, Mikh.,il;Soviet ix, 2,(>, 41--42.()R, 174; Western
Union viewoL r09,207nq,21on2;as world
Russian National Uniont I q,11IlltJ power, 2. 1,)-1(1, IHH; andWorld WarII,4'),C/H,
R""ianOrthodoxChurch, 'ill. 112,117, S'eeaLw C01nmunist Parryof theSoviet Union;
120 (;orbachev,Mikhail:Khrushchev, Nikita;RIIS'
Russian Revolution. ';,,il.91-92,'4'1, 179-Ho. sia;Stalin.losef
21 HII('7' See al,,, Bolsheviksand Bolshevism; Spain,37,147,lOln2
Revolutions
Spinoza.Baruch. '5<), 226116()
RyuShimari, Iil.!, b4
Spirito,Ugo, t.17
Stalin,Josef: AgurskyOil.4-5:anriSelllitisl11 of,
Sabine,C-eoq{c, 12
').7,21011')4:andCommunistInternational.31,
Sakharov, Andrei,'!'i
45.48.H9"I)O. 161,2197180;comparedto Italian
Sano,Manabu,16.1
Fascism,9-10,12,144--"47;(OInparcd toLenin,
Sas.Gjula.See Aquila,Giuli"
71,143;comparedtoMaoZedong,86; deathof,
Savitsky, PeterNikolaevich, [24
76-77,HY-9',cn, 188; ideologyof,6-10,12, ,6,
Sdllleddekol'f,OttoErnst.23'-32117" 42, '48, 17'1 So, 229n,0, 2jfnS6;Khrushchev
Second World War,Sa World WarII
on.58,69-70,76, IH8. '92,2o(m2; Kllrginian
Shaw,GeorgeBernard,2
on,2081127, 208n29, 208n32; and Marxist-
INDEX
240
Stalin,Josef(conlinu<'d)
Leninist 2, 8-9, 90,92.9b, 143,
2l9n86; on People's RepublicofChina,74;Pro-
khanovon. [H), 2 [3n59; regirneof,ix, 2,4T -46,
6X, 90-92,97-102,12 r, 144-47,179,219nSo;
and right-wing 6;andtotalitarian-
ism,7,124; Trotskyon,42,169:andTwentieth
PartyCongressoftheCommunistParty,58,92 ;
Ziuganovon, 12,)-26
Starodubtscv,Vasili, 118
Statenl0nopolycapitalism,69,77-7H,gl -82.tiS-
S6, 91, 202n5
Sterligov, Alexander, 212n;6
Sun Yat-sen, 74, 229n2Q, 23 2n74
Sweezy, Paul,56
Syndicalism;comparedtnMarxism, 143- 4';,1';7-
,S;definitionof, [It;;influenceonEiscisrn.
I iO- ,9,2r(m-F,224n45' Michelson,21'5'lIl,
21")11241 222n.20, 223!1JI
-r;uwan,2l2n74
92
Tasca,Angelo,56
Terhnology,\4-T'i, Ill), 174, 177- 78
Thalll<'imer,Angust ,,8
Theoryinsocial science, [0- T I
ThirdWorldTheory,I,ll, 73, 7'), 78
Tizyakov,Alexander, I I H
cf()ghatti,PaIrniro,29-P,"ii), I X(), 20(>117
Totalitari;lnism:and Eurasia, 124;and (}H,
22.l".l"i;andkft-wing[,olilies,7; MOtK on, 12'1,
14.'" 46; Marxist-Leninisttheories H');
and Romania, '77;WangXizhcon, 20(mH.l.St't'
alit) s.pecific political movements
Trotsky, Leon:Guerinon, OIl ItalianFas.cism,
42. II)7n29;and J'v1arxist-1 ,('ninisttheories, .p.
,6, '44-4'5, IX7: Poulantzaon,')6;on,ocia!.'t
society, ,1-- 16g- 70, 21Hn')7, 2I8n74;on Sw-
lin,42) r69
Trubetskoi, NikolaiS., 124
UnitedKingdom,3, 21, lX, ')2,2'')'''9,218n69
UnitedState,;Engelson,I y, 21,)"19;indu,trial--
izationof,37-JS,'4l;Marxon,I p;military
involvementof,64-ir,), 18B;amIPeoplc',Repub-
li(afChina,75;andSovietUnion,109,117, 125
USSR.See Russia;Soviet Union
Vajda,Mihaly,50-52,60, 189,200n16
Vargas,Getulio, 175
Vasiliev,Dmitri,2I 1- 12n 35
Vietn",n,6,- 64, 18,
Voltaire, Hl9
Vozhd (chairman),,),99-100,144
WangHongwen, t89
WangShan,2lln()4
WongXII,he,86-87, '90-91,20(",83
\Vebb, l-leatrice, 2
Webb,Sydney,2
Wolin,Sheldon,194'''4
Woltmann,Ludwig, l(l[ -()2
World War l: capiI:dism,11-33,46, Ilk-,!,;
and Europe, andFrance, f3X; andGer-
many, and ItalianSocialism., it).20;and
Italy, 1)1, 167, fH9.
li.)Hn40. 22IflI7; and TO, 41,
politicsafter,x, 17, 14, 170-7','7S-76;and
RU5>sia, veterans I S5
World WarII:anrl Asia,'IS;and Europe,4S;
and bscism,ix,2, 4S-(1),72, 125, I4H, I X7- Xil,
198n4X, 202n,;andHilferJingOil,(,; and Italy,
31)-3/,4_,-44,157,220n99, 224"44;andJapan,
Jnd National socialism,4'5; politi(safter,
14, '7,(,X, By, 125-26, '4k, '71, 17,;{'oubntza,
on,'54; andSoviet[Jnion,4'), 9H; andtotalitar;-
anism,7
Yakushev, 112
Yallov, Alexander, 21 tn27,2un,)5
Y:to \Vcnyuan,Ho, I HI}
Boris, I IH, 120-22
Yugoslavia, J ()2
Zctkin,Clara,'7-lo,29, IH6, Sl)
Zhangellllnqiao,Xo, ,89
Zhirinovsky,Vladimir, 1'4"16, 212n.l5
ZhOli Enlai,HI
Zionism. 112.See aim jew.....
Ziugaflov,Gennaui:Beyond ,ht' Horizon by, 122;I
Helieve in RusJr'(j by, f22; on 123-2);
}..-1arxistL.eninist. I06, 15H. and Russian
Federation.122--21'212t; 30, 21 2 on
Stalin, 12,)-26;"Wordtothe People"by, 106,
116---1.0, ]22

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