Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 1: Born Global Firms: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Chapter 2: Facilitating Factors in the Emergence of

Born Global Firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Chapter 3: Literature Review on Born Global Firms. . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Chapter 4: Theoretical Explanations and Frameworks

on Born Global Firms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Chapter 5: A New Field: International Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . 67

Chapter 6: Implications for Managers: Successful

Born Global Firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Chapter 7: Born Globals: The Future of International Trade . . . . . . 91

Appendix A: Case Studies of Born Global Firms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Appendix B: Developing an International Business Plan. . . . . . . . . 109

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
 Introduction
The born global firm is defined as “a business organization that, from
inception, seeks to derive significant competitive advantage from the use of
resources and the sale of outputs in multiple countries” (Oviatt & McDou-
gall, 1994, p. 49). In due course, these distinctive firms are gradually
becoming the norm among companies that do international business. The
distinguishing feature of born global firms is that their origins are interna-
tional, as demonstrated by management’s global focus and the commitment
of certain types of resources to international activities. Here we emphasize
not the size but rather the age by which the firm ventures into foreign mar-
kets. In contrast to the traditional pattern of businesses that operate in the
home country for many years and gradually evolve into international trade,
born globals begin with a “borderless” view of the world and develop the
strategies needed to expand abroad at or near the firm’s founding. The focus
is on the phenomenon of early internationalization and the approaches that
companies leverage for achieving superior performance in international
business from the inception of the firm.
In this book, we aim to make several contributions. First, we under-
take a comprehensive investigation of a unique breed of international
organization, the born global firm. Second, in the process of describing
born globals, we highlight the importance of key organizational elements
that engender international success in born globals and small internation-
alizing firms in general. We highlight the need to understand the interac-
tion between organizational orientations and strategies. Third, we also
examine the linkage between key orientations and strategies and interna-
tional performance in born global firms.
Specifically, in chapter 1 we introduce born global firms and pres-
ent evidence on how they are emerging in large numbers worldwide. We
summarize conditions for, and distinctive features of, born globals and
describe factors that help explain why such firms internationalize early.
We also discuss born globals as a distinctive category of international
small and medium-sized enterprise.
2 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS

In chapter 2, we describe factors that facilitate the emergence of born

global firms. The most important of these factors are globalization and
technological advances. We discuss the implications of these trends.
In chapter 3, we summarize major extant literature on born global
firms. The literature review is partly intended to support scholars in con-
ducting research.
In chapter 4, we summarize major theoretical explanations and frame-
works on born globals. We also discuss how the born global phenomenon
might challenge traditional views on the internationalization of the firm.
Next, we review major orientations and strategies associated with born
global firms, particularly as these relate to their performance in interna-
tional business. In addition to aiding scholars, the chapter is intended
to guide managers and others in how to make born globals and interna-
tional small and medium-sized firms succeed.
In chapter 5, we introduce the field of “international entrepreneur-
ship,” which describes the process of creatively discovering and exploiting
opportunities that lie outside a firm’s domestic markets in the pursuit of
competitive advantages. The new field offers rich opportunities to employ
and integrate perspectives that enrich knowledge development on born
globals. In this chapter, we also highlight the critical role of entrepreneur-
ial orientation in early internationalizing firms.
We devote chapter 6 to describing the implications for company
managers and how they might devise strategies and other approaches
to ensuring international business success. Given that born globals suc-
ceed despite scarce resources and other organizational shortcomings, even
managers of large established companies can learn much from the success
of these remarkable young firms.
In chapter 7, we highlight how born global firms in many ways repre-
sent the future of international business. We also lay out future research
directions, to aid scholars and students in conducting research on born
global firms. We close the chapter by discussing practical considerations
for scholars conducting research on born globals.
In appendix A, we summarize case studies on numerous born global
firms. In appendix B, we outline a method for developing an interna-
tional business plan that can be used by managers in new or young com-
panies seeking to become born global firms.
 INTRODUCTION 3

This book describes the emergence of a distinct breed of international

firm, more capable than ever of succeeding in foreign markets via the
application of a specific constellation of orientations and strategies. Born
global firms herald a new era of enormous benefits that will flow from
ideas, goods, and people as countless small firms trade with each other
around a world that is becoming an economic global village.
 CHAPTER 1

Born Global Firms:

An Introduction
History and Heraldry is a company in England that specializes in gifts
for history buffs and those with English ancestry. Within a few years after
the firm’s founding, History and Heraldry was selling its products in 60
countries, with exports generating about 70% of total production. The
firm’s biggest markets include France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the
United States (Coleman, 2005). Cosmos Corporation, Inc., is a young
company in the United States that makes binoculars, telescopes, and vari-
ous other optical devices. Within a few years of its founding, Cosmos
began selling its products in Europe and Japan. Soon after that, the firm
had expanded its sales to some 28 countries around the world.
This book describes companies that conduct international business at
or near their founding. International business refers to the performance
of trade and investment activities by companies across national borders.
When they engage in international business, companies organize, source,
manufacture, market, and generally conduct value-adding activities in
two or more countries. Companies have engaged in international busi-
ness throughout history. In the modern era, countless firms operate in
multiple countries and undertake a variety of international trade and
investment activities. Companies seek customers and engage in collab-
orative relationships with foreign business partners. They leverage foreign
sites to produce products and services. They seek comparative advantages
by seeking a wide range of resources located around the world.
Since the early 1980s, international business has gained speed and com-
plexity. It is facilitated by the globalization of markets, modern information
and communications technologies, and globe-spanning transportation sys-
tems that have made conducting international business easier for all firms.
6 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS

Companies seek international market opportunities today more than ever

before, touching the lives of billions of people around the world.
Much of this activity has been stimulated by “globalization,” the grow-
ing economic integration and interdependency of countries worldwide.
Globalization has coincided with massive growth in international transac-
tions. For example, in 1960 international trade worldwide was modest—
about $100 billion per year. Today it accounts for a huge proportion of
the world economy, amounting to over $10 trillion annually. There are
more opportunities to market products internationally than ever before.
Going international has also gotten easier. A few decades ago, interna-
tional business was dominated by large, multinational companies. Today,
largely thanks to various facilitating factors, companies of all sizes regu-
larly market their offerings around the world. The number of firms doing
international business has grown enormously.
Companies undertake international business for a variety of reasons,
including the ability to

• seek growth via market diversification,

• earn higher profits from lucrative foreign markets,
• better serve existing customers who have located abroad,
• gain economies of scale in production and marketing,
• amortize the costs of product development and marketing across
many markets,
• obtain new product ideas from foreign settings, and
• confront competitors more effectively in competitors’ home
markets.

Historically, the most popular markets for international business were

advanced-economy countries in North America and Europe, as well as Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, and Japan. Today firms increasingly target “emerging
markets,” such as Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and Saudi Arabia. There are
substantial market opportunities even in developing economies in Africa,
Latin America, and Southeast Asia. The attractiveness of emerging markets
arises primarily from growing affluence in these countries.
Within this contemporary environment, companies that conduct
international business at or near their founding are emerging in sizable
numbers worldwide. Despite the scarce financial, human, and tangible
 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS: AN INTRODUCTION 7

resources that characterize most new businesses, most born global

firms achieve considerable success in international business early in
their development. They progress from one stage of internationaliza-
tion to the next relatively rapidly. For example, the period from estab-
lishing the firm to initial foreign market entry is often three or fewer
years (Autio, Sapienza, & Almeida, 2000; McDougall & Oviatt, 2000;
OECD, 1997; Rennie, 1993). Born globals achieve substantial inter-
national sales from an early stage, selling a wide range of products and
services in markets around the world.
In this book, we employ the term born global to describe such compa-
nies (McKinsey, 1994; Rennie, 1993). In recent decades, various trends
have converged that encourage the emergence of this relatively new class
of global firm. In the international business literature, born globals have
been called “global start-ups” (e.g., Oviatt & McDougall, 1995), “instant
internationals” (e.g., Fillis, 2001), and “international new ventures” (e.g.,
Oviatt & McDougall, 1994). The term born global was originally used
by McKinsey & Co. (1993) to describe early internationalizing firms in
Australia. In reality, few of the companies were “global” from inception—
most internationalized within one or two years of their founding. Born
global, however, is a descriptive term and we will use it throughout this
book. These companies are leading exemplars of successful international
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs, which we define in this book
as firms with 500 or fewer employees). Born globals have been observed
and described in virtually all major trading countries (e.g., OECD,
1997), across industry sectors (e.g., Knight & Cavusgil, 2004), and in
both high- and low-tech industries (e.g., Madsen & Servais, 1997; Ren-
nie, 1993).
Historically, in most countries, international business was the domain
of large multinational enterprises (MNEs). Companies such as IBM, Sie-
mens, and Toyota have existed for many decades and employ thousands
of employees who established subsidiaries and affiliates in nations around
the world. In recent years, however, trends such as globalization and the
appearance of various technologies have facilitated the emergence of born
global firms. The appearance of large numbers of born globals is revolu-
tionizing the traditional character of international business, and helping
to reshape the global economy. The box presents an extended example of
a typical born global firm.
8 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS

An Example: Vellus Products, Inc.

Vellus is a small company based in the United States that makes cus-
tomized shampoos, conditioners, sprays, and accessories for grooming
pets. Vellus started doing international business within a few years of
its founding in order to increase sales and diversify its customer base
(Judy, 1998; Pavilkey, 2001). The firm sells its products in numerous
countries, including grooming aids formulated for the distinctive skin
and hair of dogs and horses. For example, stable owners in the United
Arab Emirates regularly buy Vellus horse grooming products. Vellus’s
first foreign sale was to a Taiwanese importer who purchased $25,000
worth of product to sell at Taiwan dog shows. As word spread about
the uniqueness and superior quality of Vellus’s offerings, the firm
expanded into multiple country markets. Vellus leverages the support
of distributors and other intermediaries abroad. Vellus’s management
attends trade fairs in target markets to find customers and sign up
distributors.
Vellus’s management does regular market research to learn how
to do business abroad. Managers had to adapt the firm’s marketing
and other activities to meet conditions in various markets. In Eng-
land, for example, dog show exhibitors prefer pooches with modest
topknots, while those in the United States prefer exotic hair styles. In
England, dog exhibitors prefer shih tzus with a big head that are some-
what lower to the ground, while U.S. exhibitors prefer more leg and
a shorter back. These preferences determine the types of brushes and
shampoos that each country needs. Today, Vellus sells its products in
over 28 countries. Roughly half the firm’s revenues come from inter-
national sales.

Born global firms can be found in advanced economies—such as

Australia, Denmark, Japan, and the United States—and in emerging
markets—such as China and India. While born globals have always
existed, especially in countries with small domestic markets, such busi-
nesses are now appearing in markedly large numbers around the world.
The upswing in the emergence of born globals began to be reported in
the popular press in the late 1980s and early 1990s (e.g., Luostarinen et
 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS: AN INTRODUCTION 9

al., 1994; Nakamura, 1992; Rennie, 1993; Wall Street Journal, 1989).
Pioneering global start-ups account for a substantial portion of growth in
national merchandise exports in many countries (e.g., Economist, 1993;
Luostarinen et al., 1994; McKinsey & Co., 1993; OECD, 1997). The
born global phenomenon is occurring literally throughout the world in a
wide range of business environments and industries (e.g., Nikkei Sangyoo
Shimbun, 1995; OECD, 1997; Simon, 1996).
In the business academic field, the born global phenomenon has been
investigated in the management literature (e.g., Knight & Cavusgil, 1997;
Oviatt & McDougall, 1994), in the business and textbook press (e.g., Cavus-
gil, Knight, & Riesenberger, 2008; Nikkei Sangyoo Shimbun, 1995), by
leading business consulting firms (e.g., McKinsey & Co., 1993; Rennie,
1993), and by the OECD and United Nations (e.g., 1993). These develop-
ments underscore how born globals have assumed greater prominence and
become a distinctive category of enterprise in the world economy.
Born globals have various characteristics, summarized in Exhibit 1.1.
These firms exist in most industries and tend to be formed by entrepre-
neurs with a strong international outlook. Managers tend to see the world
as their marketplace, often emphasizing strong international marketing
skills. To the extent this breed of enterprise can be an engine of growth
for global product-market innovations and economic development, the
emergence of born global firms is an important trend.
Historically, it was believed that companies had to build a strong
domestic base before venturing into foreign markets. One reason was the
high fixed costs of entering a new market at a distance, including the costs
of gaining market information and of managing agents or representatives
to establish effective sales organizations. However, dramatic changes in
recent years are facilitating the ability of companies to compete in inter-
national business from the earliest days after the founding of the firm.

Distinctive Features Of Born Global Firms

As represented in Exhibit 1.1, born global firms typically possess the fol-
lowing characteristics:
Highly active in international markets from or near founding. Most born
globals rely on exporting as their main foreign market entry mode (e.g.,
10 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS

Exhibit 1.1. Conditions for, and Distinctive Features of, Born Global
Firms

Facilitating Factors:
• Globalization of markets
• Advances in communications and information technologies
• Advances in production technologies
• Global niche markets
• Global networks

Distinctive Features of Born Global Firms:

• Highly active in international markets from or near founding
• Characterized by limited financial and tangible resources
• Found across most industries
• Managers have a strong international outlook and interna-
tional entrepreneurial orientation
• Often emphasize differentiation strategy
• Often emphasize superior product quality
• Leverage advanced communications and information tech-
nologies
• Typically use external, independent intermediaries for distri-
bution in foreign markets

Internationalization Triggers:
• Export pull
• Export push
• Worldwide monopoly position
• Product-market conditions necessitating international involve-
ment
• Superior product offerings
• Global network relationships
• Global niche markets
 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS: AN INTRODUCTION 11

OECD, 1997). Born globals begin exporting their products or services

within a couple of years after their founding and may export a quarter or
more of their total production. Most advance through subsequent stages
of internationalization, collaboration with foreign partners, and even
undertaking of foreign direct investment. Many born globals operate in
dozens of countries throughout the world.
Characterized by limited financial and tangible resources. Given their
youth, born globals tend to be relatively small firms. Most are SMEs. Being
smaller organizations, born globals have far fewer financial, human, and
tangible resources than the large MNEs that have long been the dominant
force in global trade and investment. Historically, international business
was beyond the reach of most smaller firms. However, various trends have
made doing international business a viable option for all firms. As a result,
companies that internationalize at or near their founding—born globals—
have been emerging in substantial numbers worldwide.
Found across most industries. Some scholars believe that the born global
phenomenon is concentrated in high-technology industries. However,
there is substantial evidence to suggest that the phenomenon is more
widespread (e.g., Moen, 2002; Rennie, 1993). For example, in Denmark,
the breadth of represented sectors is far greater, including such industries
as metal fabrication, furniture, processed food, and consumer products
(Madsen & Servais, 1997).
Managers have a strong international outlook and international entre-
preneurial orientation. Top management in born globals tend to view the
world as their marketplace from the outset of the firm’s founding. Unlike
many traditional companies, managers typically do not see foreign mar-
kets as simple adjuncts to the domestic market. Many born globals are
formed by proactive managers with a strongly entrepreneurial mind-
set. An entrepreneurial orientation reflects substantial proactiveness and
aggressiveness in the pursuit of international markets. It is associated
with managerial vision, proclivity for risk taking, and proactive competi-
tive posture. Entrepreneurial orientation can also denote a propensity to
innovation, which reflects the firm’s tendency to pursue new ideas and
develop new products and services.
Often emphasize differentiation strategy. Born globals tend to emphasize
differentiation strategy (Porter, 1980), which implies offering distinctive
12 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS

products of differentiated design. Many born globals target relatively dis-

tinctive products to niche markets that may be too small to interest large
firms. When using differentiation strategy, the firm stimulates customer
loyalty by uniquely meeting a particular need. Differentiation strategy
may be especially appropriate for born globals because their resources
are relatively specialized and they typically target niche markets. People
and firms increasingly demand specialized and customized products, and
niche markets have become an important source of opportunities for
small firms.
Often emphasize superior product quality. Many born globals offer
state-of-the-art products that are better designed and higher quality than
competitors’ offerings. Born globals are often at the leading technological
edge of their industry or product category. Technological prowess confers
significant advantages for pursuing markets around the world. Such firms
do not usually operate in “commodity” markets. Rather, they are likely
to target niche markets, to which they offer superior quality products. In
fact, the founding of born globals is often associated with the develop-
ment of new products or services.
Leverage advanced communications and information technologies. Infor-
mation and communications technologies allow smaller firms to process
information efficiently and communicate with partners and customers
worldwide at practically zero cost. Advances in communications have
practically eliminated boundaries between firms and help companies
of any size manage business systems spread all around the world. Many
born globals leverage the technologies to segment customers into narrow
global market niches and skillfully serve highly specialized buyer needs.
Typically use external, independent intermediaries for distribution in for-
eign markets. Given their smaller size and limited resources, most born glo-
bals expand internationally via exporting (e.g., OECD, 1997). Thus, they
engage in direct international sales or leverage the resources of independent
intermediaries located abroad. Many born globals rely on external facilita-
tors, such as FedEx and DHL, to organize international shipments. Export-
ing and leveraging independent intermediaries helps make born global
international operations “flexible.” This means firms can enter or withdraw
from foreign markets relatively quickly and easily. More experienced born
globals export in combination with other strategies, such as joint ventures
 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS: AN INTRODUCTION 13

and foreign direct investment. The low-cost, low-risk nature of export-

ing, combined with the ability to leverage foreign partners, makes export-
ing especially suitable for young companies.

Evidence On Born Global Firms

Since the widespread appearance of born globals, numerous scholars have
sought to shed light on this fascinating phenomenon. Research suggests
that born globals are emerging throughout the world (e.g., Chuushoo
Kigyoo Cho, 1995; McKinsey & Co., 1993; OECD, 1997; United
Nations, 1993). In Australia, for example, some 25% of newly emerging
exporters are born global, sometimes exporting more than three-quarters
of their total production (e.g., McKinsey & Co., 1993). The box high-
lights the findings of Rennie’s study of born global firms in Australia
(1993). A comprehensive study of manufacturers in Europe revealed that
more than half were global start-ups (Madsen & Servais, 1997). Simon
(1996) investigated 500 “hidden champions,” highly successful interna-
tional niche players from Europe and North America, and found that
more than one-third had begun to sell their products in foreign markets
in their first year of business. The Japanese have reported in various pub-
lications on the widespread emergence of born globals (e.g., Chuushoo
Kigyoo Cho, 1995; Nikkei Sangyoo Shimbun, 1995). In Taiwan, Chang
and Grub (1992) described how most of the companies in their sample
of firms in the information technology industry had expanded abroad
by pursuing narrow market niches. The Taiwanese firms began selling to
foreign markets shortly after their founding to target markets as diverse as
Spain, Scandinavia, and the former Soviet Union.
In our research on born globals in Europe, we found that such com-
panies often are less “global” than comparable firms in the United States
(Knight, Madsen, & Servais, 2004). For example, born globals in Den-
mark often confine themselves to other countries in the European Union.
Many of these firms are regionally based, while their competitors in Japan
and the United States often build up substantial global operations. As the
feasibility of protecting their competitiveness and regional performance is
eroded by economic integration and worldwide globalization, the competi-
tive position of regionally based firms can deteriorate over time. In order to
14 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS

Born Global Firms in Australia

The term “born global” was coined by Michael Rennie in an article
written in the McKinsey Quarterly (1993). Rennie described “a new
breed of [firm that] shows that it is possible to succeed in world mar-
kets without an established domestic base.” Rennie investigated the
rise of numerous young SMEs in Australia that successfully compete
against large, established players in global markets. The young firms
did not slowly build their way into international business; rather, they
internationalized at or near their founding. Rennie cited the example
of Cochlear, a $40 million (annual sales) firm that generated 95% of
its sales from abroad. Cochlear specializes in high-tech ear implants
for the deaf. The firm owes much of its success to strong links with
hospitals and research units around the world, as well as collaborative
research with a network of institutions worldwide.
In his study of 300 firms, Rennie (1993) found that Australian born
globals began exporting, on average, only two years after founding
and obtained about three-quarters of their revenues from export sales.
Despite their small size (total average sales of $16 million), the firms
successfully competed against larger established players worldwide.
Born globals represent about 20% of Australia’s high-value-added
manufacturing exports. Rennie (1993) argued that the emergence of
born globals reveals how SMEs can power a nation’s economic growth.
He noted that born globals account for a growing share of exports in
other countries as well.

reap all the benefits of the global marketplace, some European born globals
are expanding their international reach to markets outside Europe.

Born Globals as International Small-

and Medium-Sized Enterprises
Born globals are a type of small and medium-sized enterprise (SME).
Usually classified as firms with 500 or fewer employees, SMEs make up
over 95% of all companies and create about 50% of value added world-
wide (OECD, 1997). In a study of 18 countries, the Organisation for
 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS: AN INTRODUCTION 15

Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) reported that inter-

national SMEs now make up a very substantial contribution to the world
economy. SMEs account for more than one-third of world manufactured
exports, and over one million of these firms are very active in interna-
tional trade (OECD, 1997). In fact, SMEs now comprise the majority of
firms doing international business. Many of these SMEs are born globals.
Most are young firms that are internationalizing earlier than ever before.
In the United States, SMEs account for a great proportion of all U.S.
exporters. From 1992 to 2004, they represented nearly 100% of the
growth in the U.S. exporter population, swelling from about 108,000 firms
in 1992 to over 225,000 firms by 2004. SMEs were responsible for nearly a
third of merchandise exports from the United States in 2006. A great pro-
portion were wholesalers, distributors, and other nonmanufacturing firms
(Neupert, Baughn, & Dao, 2006; World Bank, 2005).
SMEs are more active in international business than ever before (e.g.,
OECD, 1997). They are often the backbone for entrepreneurship and
innovation in national economies. In Eastern Europe, the development
of emerging market countries is driven increasingly by the rise of small
and midsize fast-growth firms. These firms range from Latvian coffee
shop chain Double Coffee to Hungarian employment recruiter CVO
Group. Many of Eastern Europe’s small firms are not in manufacturing,
but in intellectual, knowledge-intensive industries, such as software and
consulting (Matlack, 2006).
In recent years, the national governments of Australia, Britain, Canada,
China, New Zealand, and the United States have undertaken aggressive
campaigns to help more SMEs become exporters. Governments sponsor
trade fairs and trade missions that connect SMEs with distributors and
other facilitators in promising foreign markets. The World Bank assists
SME exporters from emerging markets by increasing access to capital and
developing their international business skills. While most SMEs export
to advanced economies, an increasing number target emerging markets,
such as China and Mexico.
For example, Pharmed Group, based in Florida, is a full-line distributor
of medical, surgical, and pharmaceutical supplies. Hoping to expand export
sales, the firm signed a deal with Drogao, a major drug store chain in Bra-
zil. Export sales have contributed significantly to Pharmed’s growth. Another
16 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS

SME, Optical Xport, exports optical lenses and frames to customers in West
and Central Africa from its low-cost manufacturing base in Senegal. These
efforts increase the flow of medical supplies and eyeglasses to the poor in
Latin America and Africa (Neupert et al., 2006; World Bank, 2005).

Why Born Globals Internationalize Early

Exhibit 1.1 highlights key internationalization triggers, factors internal to
the firm that drive it into international markets from or near its found-
ing. Why and how do born globals internationalize early, with some
going international within the first year of their operations? We describe
several explanatory factors below.
Export pull. In most countries, there exists substantial demand for a
broad mix of products and services. In the absence of competent local
suppliers, export pull describes how local buyers satisfy their prod-
uct needs by sourcing from abroad. In response to this demand, many
born globals market products that occupy narrow, cross-national market
niches. The pull effect may be initiated by local intermediaries who per-
ceive a specific product-market opportunity, or it may be initiated by end
users themselves who become aware of a given foreign supplier.
Export push. Many born globals are managed by internationally ori-
ented entrepreneurs who possess a powerful drive to sell their products
abroad. As demonstrated by early commitment of financial, human, and
other resources to generating foreign sales, such managers may view much
of the world as their marketplace. They apply a push strategy of actively
promoting their offerings to foreign intermediaries, who in turn promote
the products to final buyers (e.g., Oviatt & McDougall, 1995). Alterna-
tively, many born globals undertake extensive advertising and develop their
own sales organizations to promote products directly to foreign buyers.
Modern business infrastructure and advanced technologies in commu-
nications and transportation facilitate the ability of any firm to target
markets outside the home country. For example, AntiTox Corporation, a
manufacturer of products that kill toxins in stored grains and other crops,
found numerous markets in Latin America. Within the first five years of
operations, the firm’s founders perceived a strong need in the markets
that was not adequately addressed by competitors’ products.
 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS: AN INTRODUCTION 17

Worldwide monopoly position. Some companies are lucky enough to

have developed a monopoly or near-monopoly position in a given product,
and this advantage, even in the face of small size, translates into competi-
tive advantages in international business. Monopoly power can derive from
tacitly owned knowledge, proprietary products or processes, or other assets
that are relatively inseparable from the controlling firm. Moreover, some
degree of monopoly power accrues, in the short-term at least, to market-
ers whose products are substantially differentiated from and/or superior to
those of competitors. Finally, companies can obtain a degree of monopoly
power to the extent they can convince buyers, through marketing and other
means, that theirs is the only product of its kind (Porter, 1980).
Product-market conditions necessitating international involvement.
Young firms may produce products, components, or parts so specialized
that domestic demand proves insufficient. The small size of the domes-
tic market forces such companies to begin selling in foreign countries. For
example, this is a common driver of early internationalization among firms
founded in small countries in Europe. In other cases, some businesses set
up operations abroad in order to obtain resources that are in short sup-
ply or of inappropriate quality at home (e.g., Cavusgil, Knight, & Riesen-
berger, 2008). Management at many born globals are driven to amortize
quickly the development costs associated with new and improved products.
This is accomplished by selling these goods into as many markets as pos-
sible, an approach that necessitates internationalization. In Japan, capital
markets for young companies are not as well developed as they are in other
countries, and consequently, some born globals establish a presence in the
United States to access funding from such sources. Other companies move
offshore to access cheap factors of production such as labor.
Superior product offerings. Many born globals emerge initially as
product-process based firms that subsequently emerge as international
marketers, based on the strength of a superior product that gains accep-
tance worldwide. Many born globals internationalize on the strength of an
innovative, unique, and/or high quality product. Early internationalization
may be associated with a significant product breakthrough or innova-
tion. The products may feature advanced technology, substantial added
value, superior quality, or unique characteristics. Many of the products
offered by born globals have universal appeal. Some born globals possess
18 BORN GLOBAL FIRMS

an internationally recognized technical eminence in a given product cat-

egory. These attributes are conducive to expanding into foreign markets
shortly after company founding.
Global network relationships. The existence of significant global network
relationships is another early internationalization trigger. An industrial net-
work is an organizational structure in which a large number of intercon-
nected actors (firms and individuals) are involved in economic activities
(production and marketing) that convert resources (inputs) to finished
goods, semi-finished goods, and services for consumption by end-users
(retails consumers, intermediaries, and other firms). Scholars highlight
the critical role played by network relationships in born global interna-
tionalization (e.g., Bell, 1995; Coviello & Munro, 1995; Rasmussen,
Madsen, & Evangelista, 2001). Early foreign expansion may be facili-
tated through network linkages with foreign distributors, trading com-
panies, strategic alliance partners, as well as more traditional buyers and
sellers and other entities located abroad. Networks develop through for-
eign business activities, government intervention, or personal contacts
of management and comprise inward (e.g., sourcing) as well as outward
(e.g., exporting) interactions. Such relations also provide invaluable
knowledge to the born global regarding international business methods
and opportunities (e.g., Welch & Luostarinen, 1993). Network relation-
ships allow born globals to obtain advantages abroad that are relatively
unattainable in the absence of such linkages.
Global niche markets. Narrow market segments that occur in numerous
countries simultaneously are also a factor driving the internationalization
of born global firms. The globalization of markets has helped stimu-
late demand in many industries for customized products and services
(Dalgic & Leeuw, 1994; Oviatt & McDougall, 1995). Technology facili-
tates greater specialization and the emergence of small firms that supply
products that occupy narrow, cross-national niches. Indeed, with height-
ened competition in many industries and advances in production tech-
nologies, small entrepreneurs are able to leverage specialized knowledge
bases to define and serve market segments small enough to go unnoticed
by larger rivals. Such knowledge can be applied to generating “niche
thinking” in the identification of global niche markets that the small
player can own.