TRADE BARRIERS

Diamond will not glitter without going through tedious process; Vessels cannot sail all the time without resistance; And even on fertile soils the plant has to out grow the harmful weeds to give yields.
Learning Value: After completing the chapter one will understand: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The importance of barriers Types of trade barriers Impact of barriers in international business Benefits to home and host countries Relevance of trade barriers in the current decade

A trade barrier is defined as any hurdle, impediment or road block that hampers the smooth flow of goods, services and payments from one destination to another. They arise from the rules and regulations governing trade either from home country or host country or intermediary. Trade barriers are man-made obstacles to the free movement of goods between different countries, and impose artificial restrictions on trading activities between countries. Despite the fact that all international organisations such as GATT, WTO and UNCTAD advocate reduction or elimination of barriers, they still continue in different forms. Free and fair international trade is an ideal situation as it is beneficial to all countries. However, different countries impose various types of barriers. The contribution of GATT in removing such trade barriers has not been satisfactory as even now, both developed and developing countries, present such trade barriers. Such barriers are usually imposed by the country that imports the goods, but they adversely affect the volumes of both imports and exports. The volume of exports is reduced due to such trade restrictions and the tariff results in an escalation in prices. OBJECTIVES OF TRADE BARRIERS 1. To protect domestic industries from foreign goods. 2. To promote new industries and research and development activities by providing a home market for domestic industries.

3. To maintain favourable balance of payment, by restricting imports from foreign countries. 4. To conserve foreign exchange reserves of the country by restricting imports from foreign countries. 5. To protect the national economy from dumping by other countries with surplus production. 6. To mobilize additional revenue by imposing heavy duties on imports. This also restricts conspicuous consumption within the country. 7. To counteract trade barriers imposed by other countries. 8. To encourage domestic production in the domestic market and thereby make the country strong and self-sufficient. Since trade barriers are harmful for the growth of free trade, efforts were made to reduce such trade barriers, and international organisations initiated collective efforts of all countries involved in trade.WTO ministerial conferences held in concern or Doha Qatar or Hong Kong are focused on breaking barriers of trading in different forms. TYPES OF TRADE BARRIERS Broadly, Trade barriers are classified as tariff barriers and non-tariff barriers. They are now an inseparable part of global business and the location of a business operation and pricing decisions are determined by tariffs. A country may use both tariff and non-tariff barriers order to restrict the entry of foreign goods.

Tariff Barriers A tariff barrier is a levy collected on goods when they enter a domestic tariff area (DTA) through customs. Tariff refers to the duties imposed on internationally traded commodities when they cross national boundaries and may be in the form of heavy taxes or custom duties (operated through a price mechanism) on imports, so as to discourage their entry into the home country for marketing purposes. Tariffs enhance the price of the imported goods, thereby restricting their sales as well as their import. Governments impose tariffs only on imports and not on exports as they are interested in export promotion. Only a few exported items of any country are taxed. The aim of a tariff is thus to raise the prices of imported goods in domestic markets, reduce their demand and thereby discourage their imports. Tariff barriers are major determinant factor to build or get away from the business. In India, over the past ten years the prime import duty has been reduced to 15% from 100% on many consumer durables and electrical items. Classification of Tariffs

A) On the basis of origin and destination of the goods crossing national boundaries 1. Export duty: An export duty is a tax levied by the country of origin, on a commodity designated for use in other countries. The majority of finished goods do not attract export duty. Such duties are normally imposed on the primary products in order to conserve them for domestic industries. In India, export duty is levied on oilseeds, coffee and onions. 2. Import duty: An import duty is a tax imposed on a commodity originating in another country by the country for which the product is designated. The purpose of heavy import duties is to earn revenue, to make imports costly and to provide protection to domestic industries. Countries impose heavy import duties to restrict imports and thereby remove the deficit in the balance of trade and balance of payment. 3. Transit duty: A transit duty is a tax imposed on a commodity when it crosses the national frontier between the originating country and the country which it is cosigned to. African and Latin American nations impose such transit duties at any point of time. Sri Lanka is another country enjoying such benefits from Indian companies. B) On the basis of quantification of tariffs 1. Specific duty: A specific duty is a flat sum collected on physical unit of the commodity imported. Here, the rate of the duty is fixed and is collected on each unit imported. For example, Rs. 800 on each TV set or washing machine or Rs. 3000 per metric ton on cold rolled steel coils. 2. Ad-valorem duty: This duty is imposed at a fixed percentage on the value of a commodity imported. Here the value of the commodity on the invoice is taken as the base for calculation of the duty, e.g., 3% ad-valorem duty on the C&F value of the goods imported. In the ad-valorem duty, the percentage of the duty is decided but the actual amount of the duty changes as per the FOB value of a product. 3. Compound duty: A tariff is referred to as compound duty when the commodity is subject to both specific and ad-valorem duty. C) On the basis of the purpose they serve 1. Revenue tariff: It aims at collecting substantial revenue for the government, but does not really obstruct the flow of imported goods. Here, the duty is imposed on items of mass consumption, but the rate of duty is low. 2. Protective tariff: Protective tariff aims at giving protection to home industries by restricting or eliminating competition. Protective tariffs are usually high so as to reduce imports. However, if the protective duties are too high, it may hurt consumers, as imports will stop, leading to shortages in the consumer market. 3. Anti-dumping duty: Dumping is the commercial practice of selling goods in foreign markets at a price below their normal cost or even below their marginal cost so as to capture foreign markets. Many countries follow dumping practices. It is international

practice which has a do or die instinct associated with the companys policy. It is harmful to less developed countries where the cost of production is high. 4. Countervailing duty: Such duties are similar to anti-dumping duties but are not so severe. Countervailing duties are imposed to nullify the benefits offered, through cash assistance or subsidies, by the foreign country to its manufacturers. The rate of such duty will be proportional to the extent of cash assistance or subsidy granted. D) On the basis of trade relations 1. Single column tariff: Under this system tariff rates are fixed for various commodities and the same rates are made applicable to imports from all other countries. 2. Double column tariff: Under this system two rates of duty are fixed on all or some commodities. The lower rate is made applicable to a friendly country or to a country with which the importing country has a bilateral trade agreement. The higher rate is applicable to all other countries. 3. Triple column tariff: Here, three different rates of duties are fixed. They are general tariff, international tariff and preferential tariff. The first two categories have minimum variance but the preferential tariff is substantially lower than the general tariff and is applicable to friendly countries where there is a bilateral relationship. Mutual understanding of products and tariffs is concluded through a cartel. It is also called preferential tariff. Benefits of tariff to the home country 1. Imports from abroad are discourage or even eliminated to a considerable extent. 2. Protection is given to the home industries and manufacturing sector. This facilitates an increase in domestic production. 3. Consumption of foreign goods is reduced to a minimum and the attraction for imported goods is brought down. 4. Tariff brings in substantial revenue to the government. In addition it also creates employment opportunities within the country, by promoting domestic industries. 5. Tariffs aim to reduce the deficit in the balance of trade and balance of payment of a country.

Trade Barriers

Tariff Barriers

Non-Tariff Barriers

On the basis of origin 1. Export Duty 2. Import Duty 3. Transit Duty

On the basis of
Quantification 1. Specific Duty 2. Ad-Valorem Duty 3. Compound Duty

On the basis of purpose 1. Revenue tariff 2. Protective tariff 3. Anti Dumping 4. Counterveiling

On the basis of relations 1. Single column 2. Double column 3. Triple column

1. Quota 2. Licensing 3. Consular formalities 4. Trade blocs 5. Customs Regulations 6. State Trading 7. Forex Regulations 8. Health & Safety 9. Miscellaneous

Non -tariff Barriers Along with tariff barriers, non-tariff barriers are imposed by countries in order to restrict free trade at a global level. Non-tariff barriers are quantitative restrictions as they directly restrict the entry of foreign goods over and above a specific limit fixed by the government. Other forms of non-tariff barriers are licenses, exchange control, complicated documentations, technical certifications etc. Non-tariff barriers are useful for reducing the total quantity of goods that are imported from abroad, but they do not affect the price of imported goods. However, the net effects of tariffs and non-tariff barriers are more or less the same. The impact of non-tariff barriers is more direct and faster. Types of non-tariff barriers 1. Quota system: The quota system is an important non-tariff barrier. Under this system, the quantity of a commodity permitted to be imported from various countries during a

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given period is fixed in advance. Such quotas are usually administered by requiring importers to have licenses to import a particular commodity. Imports are not allowed over and above a specific limit. This suggests that tariffs restrict imports indirectly while quotas restrict imports directly. Developing countries may use quotas in place of tariffs. The quota system acts as a barrier to international trade as it restricts the flow of goods in an artificial manner. There are different types of quota and a country can introduce any type of quota as per the need of the situation. The types of quotas are: Tariff quota: A tariff quota combines the features of the tariff as well as the quantity. Here, the imports of a commodity up to a specified volume are allowed duty free or at a special low rate of duty. Imports in excess of this limit are subject to a higher rate of duty. Unilateral quota: In a unilateral quota system, a country fixes its own ceiling on the import of a particular item. Bilateral quota: In a bilateral quota, the quantity to be imported is decided in advance, but it is the result of negotiations between the country importing the goods and the country exporting them. Mixing quota: Under a mixing quota, the producers are obliged to utilise a certain percentage of domestic raw material in manufacturing the finished products. Import Licensing: Import licensing is an alternative to the quota system. It is useful for restricting the total quantity to be imported. In this system, imports are allowed under license. Importers have to approach the licensing authorities for permission to import certain commodities. Foreign exchange for imports is provided against the license. Such import licenses are the practice in many countries. This method is used to control the quantity of imports. Import licensing may be used separately or along with the quota system. Consular formalities: Some importing countries impose strict rules regarding the consular documents necessary to import goods. Such documents include import certificate, certificates of origin and certified consular invoices. Penalties are imposed for non-compliance of such documentation formalities. The purpose of consular formalities to restrict imports to some extent and prevent free imports of commodities that are not necessary. Preferential treatment through trading blocs: Some countries form regional groups and offer special concessions and preference to member countries. As a result trade is developed among the member countries and allows advantages to all member countries. On the other hand, it can cause a considerable loss to non member countries, as a trading bloc acts as a trade barrier. Even trade agreements and joint commissions are used as trade barriers as they restrict free movement of goods at the international level. Customs regulations: Customs regulations and administrative regulations are very complicated in many countries. There are a number of Commodities Act, pertaining to the movement of drugs, medicines, minerals, bullion etc. Restrictions under such acts are useful to curtail imports. Tax administration also acts as barrier to free marketing amongst countries. State trading: State trading refers to import-export activities conducted by the government or a government agency. Stat trading is useful to restrict imports, as the

final decision is taken by the government. Such state trading acts as a barrier, restricting the freedom of private parties. 7. Foreign exchange regulations: Countries impose various restrictions on the use f the foreign exchange earned through exports. Such restrictions have the following objectives. a) To restrict the demand for foreign exchange and to use the foreign exchange reserves in the best possible manner. b) To check the flow of capital. c) To maintain the value of exchange rates. Under such regulations the foreign exchange earned should be surrendered to the government. The government provides foreign exchange to the businessmen as per priorities that are fixed periodically. 8. Health and safety measures: Many countries have specific rules regarding health and safety regulations, which are mainly applicable to raw materials and food items. Imports are not allowed if the regulations are not followed properly. 9. Miscellaneous non-tariff barriers: Such barriers include prior import duties such as deposits, embargoes and import restrictions due to environmental regulations, provision of subsidies to domestic industry, canalization of imports of some commodities and technical and administrative regulations. All such measures act as non-tariff barriers as they restrict the free flow of goods and services between countries.