The Managerial Accounting Collection

Kenneth A. Merchant, Editor

Setting Performance Targets

Carolyn Stringer Paul Shantapriyan

www.businessexpertpress.com

Contents
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Setting Performance Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Budget Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Target Setting in Changing Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Performance Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Target Difculty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Multiple Performance Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Innovations in Target Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Conclusion: Target Setting, the Lost Art . . . . . . . . . . 107

AppendixUnderstanding Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

CHAPTER 1

Setting Performance Targets

Introduction
When an archer aims at the bulls-eye, the target, the focus is on getting the arrow from the bow to the red circle in the center of target. This focus requires strength in pulling back the bow string, coordination between the dominant eye and arm with a judgment call as to the wind direction, and angle of the release. We can use the science of physicsthe tensile strength of the bow, the aerodynamics of the arrow, and compensation for wind and gravity. Robin Hood knew little of this science but relied on the art and judgment of his craft. Clearly, even in archery, hitting the target is more than just will and effort, it is rather judgment, ability, and the likelihood of hitting the target under environmental conditions. This book discusses not only the science but also the art of target setting.

Figure 1.1. Hitting the target.

SETTING PERFORMANCE TARGETS

Target setting is pivotal to managing performance in an organization. Targets focus the mind of the manager to know what to aim for. The manager then works out how to move the business from where it is to achieve the future expectations. However, no single target perfectly captures all aspects of a business. Therefore, multiple targets are often used. Virtually all companies set targets, which include multiple short-term targets as well as longer-term strategic targets. To optimize the use of targets, important choices need to be made: How do you set targets in light of changing conditions? Should you set targets using a top-down or a participative bottom-up approach? How difcult should performance targets be? How many targets should be set and how do you weight them? Target setting is more an art than a science. 1 The art in target setting is in making a balanced decision between competing choices. The following example highlights the serious consequences when organizations make the wrong choices. Consider Sears, Roebuck and Co.s experience with target setting in the early 1990s. Sears set a sales target for its auto repair staff of $147 per hour. This specic, challenging goal prompted staff to overcharge for work and to complete unnecessary repairs.2 Ultimately, Sears Chairman Edward Brennan acknowledged that this target had motivated employees to deceive customers. From the Sears, Roebuck and Co.s experience, obviously maximizing the sales target per hour had a downside. The result was a fall in credibility from a customer perspective, with a falling reputation, a risk not anticipated when setting a single target. Nordstrom, the fashion retailer known for its exceptional customer service, is another example where performance targets have caused signicant problems. Employees were held accountable for difcult performance goals (sales-per-hour). Nordstrom was taken to court because some supervisors were pressuring sales employees to underreport the time they spent on the job to boost their performance to target. The cost for Nordstrom was over $15 million.3

SETTING PERFORMANCE TARGETS

Choosing the TargetStrategic or Operational

How do you choose the target? What is relevant? How frequently do you evaluate performance to target? These are some of the difcult issues you need to consider in setting targets. As this book unfolds, you will see that certain targets or key performance indicators have operational importance, others have tactical importance, and still other targets will have strategic importance. While targets that address operational efciency are important in generating prots, it is essential to ensure that these cost-cutting targets do not result in loosing protable customers. For example, a water company in the United Kingdom tried to nd ways of reducing costs and one way was to outsource the call center. This would reduce costs by $10 million and therefore would increase valuable cash ows by $10 million. Unfortunately, this cost control target did not endear the water company to the customer. Customers balked that the overseas call center struggled with their regional accents. Customers were now switching away from the water company, and the likely loss was in excess of $75 million. Clearly, exceeding the operational target of cost reduction had a strategic consequence that needed to be addressed. The call center was then in-sourced back into the United Kingdom, and there was no longer a cost saving but rather a cost increase in the call center as the water company listened to the customers. The moral of the story is the importance of identifying core and noncore activities. The core activities and processes should not be targeted for cost reduction as they provide value to the customer. The key issue is to know what is strategically important and what to target at an operational level. This process requires a series of conversations between managers, support functions and the CEO to determine the right level for performance targets. It becomes more difcult to understand what the relevant target is. You can paint red dots on every aspect of a business and expect the employees to hit the bulls-eye on every target. However, each numerical target does not always generate incremental value to the business. Take Mike, a marketing manager for a our mill. He has been set a sales target of 200 tons of our per annum. The regular customers are taking 175 tons a year at the normal retail price of $375 per ton. He knows that the cost of manufacturing the our at the mill is $220 a ton. He thinks he can easily win new customers

SETTING PERFORMANCE TARGETS

if the price is dropped. After all, the sales volume of 200 tons is the target. So when a rural township has a new fast food outlet that needs our, Mike contacts them. As the cost of making the our is $220 (or so Mike thinks), he sells the our at $300 a ton delivered. He gets a three-year contract with them for 100 tons a year. Now clearly Mike has exceeded his target, but there is a downside. He has set the price without having a complete set of information. The cost of shipping the our to the rural client is $100 a ton. This means that the our now costs $320 to arrive at the rural township and the contract price is $300. The more that Mike sells, the greater the loss. This is an example of a target that gets the manager distracted from generating value to the business. What may have been more useful to Mike is information sharing between the manufacturing depots, the logistics (transport), and the accounting function so that he had a more relevant target and the means to achieve that target. If Mike had been set a target that captured value generation, then he would have negotiated a price higher than $320. A valid target is not just something that is easy to measure. There are several thousands of operational measures that are important to the manufacturing manager that, if frequently measured, analyzed, and reported, would pose problems. It is not uncommon to nd that many operational measures used in organizations do not get reported. As budgets are commonly used, this book draws on insights from target setting for budgets to draw implications for setting all performance targets.

Budgets: What Are They and What Use Do They Have?

A budget is a document that allocates resources for a future period. There can be several budgets in an organization: a sales budget, a production budget, a logistics budget, a capital investment budget, and a purchasing budget, to name a few. Each of these budgets will have targets. Therefore target setting is an integral part of budgeting. The overall purpose will be to estimate and match revenues and expenses for a future period, which can range from a month, a quarter, a year, three years. The longer the time line, the greater the uncertainties in estimating, matching, and arriving at a prot gure.

SETTING PERFORMANCE TARGETS

Let us look again at Mike. He has been given a target of 200 tons of our. He has just won a new customer for 100 tons, boosting the total sales from 175 tons to 275 tons. Well done, Mike. However, that sales budget, a plan, needs to be linked to the purchasing budget. In this way, the purchasing ofcer can order the right type of wheat at the best price to meet and match the planned sales. The production budget, under the control of the production manager, needs to know when these orders are required. Then the logistics manager will include these plans into her budget so that the total delivery schedule is on time to meet and exceed the customers expectations. Now the production manager states that by exceeding the 200 tons limit, the company needs to invest in new technology so that the business can expand its operating capacity. This investment needs to be evaluated quickly so that the new customer of 100 tons is not lost. It is clear from this discussion that a budget is a series of interrelated components. Budgets are used for a range of purposes including planning, coordination, resource allocation, and motivation. A budget is also a plan for the future, it addresses the needs of regular customers, new customers, and strategic initiatives that will ensure the performance targets are reached. A budget coordinates and allocates resource between departments, functional groups, and support staff. The accountants, credit department and the IT department need to provide and maintain the back ofce functions necessary to keep the front line staff in touch with their targets. A budget therefore communicates, be it in nancial terms (dollars and cents) and nonnancial terms (tons, grade of our, time to delivery). Let us revisit Mike and his other senior managers. The production manager is upset that a lot of his time is taken up with writing up his capital budget request for a new machine. His concern is the 9 months taken to process his request for machines to raise the capacity from 200 tons to the required 275 tons. The logistics manager voices another sentiment. The time taken in all this budgeting process does not allow her to focus on her job, which is logistics. The business is likely to lose valuable customers if the budget does not integrate the operational budgets of marketing, manufacturing, and logistics departments. The overall aim is to deliver the our to the new customer. The time in preparing the budget is often up to 6 months. Taking so long to plan and implement a budget that may be out of date

SETTING PERFORMANCE TARGETS

as soon as the managers leave the room is a recipe for confusion and bad decision making. One way to shorten the time frame is to set targets using last years numbers and make adjustment for some changes (e.g., oil, currency). This reduces the time taken to forecast, plan, and coordinate. What can happen is that the coordination needed when the operational activities are integrated is missing because managers have conicting objectives. For example, Mike needs 275 tons of our for his target while the production managers budget target is based on last years budget scaled down by 5%. This common approach to budgeting that uses last years numbers is awed. For example, new machines are needed, which can only increase the production managers costs. It is not surprising that, when results are different from the budget, no one trusts the budget. Another way to shorten the budget time line is to reduce the line items without realizing the impact on value to the customer. Certain activities are strategic necessities to the business. The traditional thinking has been to use last years costs to set future targets. Instead, each manager needs to identify key activities that drive value for customers. The budgets then need to reect the resources required for these key activities. These resources are then forecasted and placed in a budget. Budgets can also be used for motivational purposes. Motivation levels can be high if employees see the targets in a budget as highly achievable. When managers and employees are committed to the targets in a budget, they need to receive regular updates on performance, and believe that the targets can be achieved. In some cases, the quarterly and rolling budgets will provide baselines to measure unit performance. In other words, if a budget is achieved for that quarter, then clearly the signs are that the business is going according to plan. This performance management mechanism is one way in which an organization can control and direct activities within a business unit. Using targets for motivational purposes requires an understanding of the importance of line of sight. Let us go back to the archery example. What happens if the archer, when pulling back the arrow and aiming at a target beyond their normal capability (a stretch target), nds that the target is obstructed because a person is standing in the way? The archer cannot hit the target directly and so aims the arrow above the obstruction, hoping to hit the target board, without any clear line of sight to hit

SETTING PERFORMANCE TARGETS

the bulls-eye. Even Robin Hood would struggle to hit the target without a clear line of sight.

Line of Sight
Line of sight is important to motivate employees to meet their performance targets. This concept of line of sight came from Vrooms expectancy theory, which states that an employee is more likely to be motivated if they can see a relationship between their actions, the target, and the rewards for reaching the target.4 Employees must have the ability to inuence or control activities to achieve the set target.5 In many organizations, employees and managers are often asked to hit a budget cost target or market share target. Yet, they cannot see clearly how their actions could result in hitting the target. Take the example of a business unit manager who is asked to hit a stretch prot target. This business unit has 35% of the total cost structure being based on head ofce cost allocations. Then upstream business units, still part of the same corporation, are charging a further 28% of the bottom line through transfer pricing arrangements. Clearly, the managers line of sight is obscured by corporate charges as well as transfer pricing. All this manager can see is less than 50% of the target, which is controllable. Sometimes budgets occupy too much time and this distracts managers from what is important (e.g., customers). To perform well you need to know your customers. Targets are important for directing performance. However, focusing solely on the budget can distract managers from what they need to do to perform well. Do you focus your energy on setting targets for photocopying? Are you precise in this photocopying estimate to the nearest cent? If so, do you know who the top 10% of your customers are? Sometimes a business spends too much time on estimating photocopying expenses without knowing from where their wealth and value comes. We elaborate on customer analysis in chapter 6. The key elements of target setting to improve performance include6 making sure employees understand how their performance is being measured; training employees so they understand what they need to do to improve the performance to targets;

SETTING PERFORMANCE TARGETS

recognizing how different levels of performance relate to rewards and punishments; providing them with regular information on performance to targets so they are able to make changes to improve performance; ensuring employees are empowered to make changes necessary to improve their performance.

Outline of the Rest of the Book

Setting targets is a crucial part of the budget process as well as organizational performance management.7 Despite being an important issue, there has been little research and practical guidance on how to set targets.8 This book provides an overview of key issues that executives and other managers need to know about setting targets for budgets and for other key performance indicators (KPIs). Budgeting is conducted across all parts of an organization. The importance of budget targets to ensure nancial performance is achieved is the focus of chapter 2. The design choices made in the responsibility centers of an organization (e.g., prot center) impacts on managers accountability and responsibilities for budget targets. Budgets serve a range of purposes, such as coordinating, providing communication channels, planning, controlling, and motivating. The short-term operational plans must integrate with the future-orientated strategic plans and capital expenditure plans. It is important to understand the way the budgets are used to inuence managers behaviors. Target setting in light of changing conditions is discussed in chapter 3. Traditional xed budgeting, standard costing, and variance analysis processes are explained, along with the option of making the budget more exible by taking into account the impact of volume changes or updating the budget forecasts more regularly (e.g., rolling forecasts). Traditionally, organizations have used objective comparisons to performance targets, primarily nancial measures. To overcome problems with the objective evaluations (e.g., controllability), some organizations are taking a exible approach by allowing more subjectivity in evaluations, such as taking into account events outside a managers control and other factors not included in the objective performance targets.

SETTING PERFORMANCE TARGETS

The different ways to set performance targets is considered in chapter 4. Benchmarking is gaining in popularity. Ideally targets should come from external benchmarks that compare to the best in the industry. If you have no competitors, data is difcult to obtain, or you want to differentiate yourself, you need to develop internal targets. Relative performance targets are growing in popularity but care needs to be taken the benchmarks are fair. Other choices for setting targets include top-down, bottom-up participation, negotiation, and ratcheting. Forecasting and zero-based approaches can be inputs into the target-setting processes. How difcult performance targets should be depends on the purpose of the targets as discussed in chapter 5. Target difculty for motivational targets is very complex. Goal-setting theory shows that specic and challenging targets are better than vague statements like Do your best. Olympian targets can work as directional signals but are not motivating if they are perceived as being unattainable. Setting targets that are perceived as unattainable can result in tension, stress, and game playing. Budget targets are typically highly achievable and offer a number of advantages for organizations and managers (e.g., more commitment, lower control costs, less gaming). Capped targets motivate managers to continue to increase performance when highly achievable targets are set. The purpose of the targets helps to determine how difcult they should be. For example, motivational targets should be highly achievable by the hard-working managers while forecasts should be set at the level of the expected performance for the purposes of planning. Using multiple targets with a combination of nancial and nonnancial measures is examined in chapter 6. The reasons for the growing popularity of multiple performance targets include that they capture more aspects of performance and can include a mix of lead and lag measures. Important choices have to be made in terms of which targets to select, the number of targets and how they should be weighted. Understanding how the choices made inuence peoples behavior is crucial to effective target setting. Targets may not operate independently and there may be diminishing returns. To address long-standing criticisms of traditional xed-budgeting systems, two innovative approaches to change budgets are discussed in chapter 7. Activity-based budgeting may provide the missing link between operations and the balanced scorecard. In contrast, the Beyond

10

SETTING PERFORMANCE TARGETS

Budgeting advocates argue that budgets should be abolished and replaced with a new management philosophy. In practice most organizations are changing their budgeting systems by making regular revisions, including subjectivity in performance evaluations, taking into account only controllable factors, and using rolling forecasts. The nal chapter 8 provides an overview of the key issues in setting performance targets we have discussed in the book.