Resin Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment.

Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. There are numerous applications for resins, ranging from art to polymer production, and many consumers interact with products which contain resin on a daily basis. Natural resin comes from plants. A classic example is pine sap, which has the characteristic sharp odor of terpene compounds. As anyone who has interacted with pine sap knows, the substance is very viscous, but it hardens over time. A number of other plants produce resins, and plant resins have been used by humans for thousands of years. Some plants exude a similar substance called gum or gum resin which does interact with water. Gum tends to be softer and more malleable than resin. Plant resin can be clear to dark brown in color, and it varies in opacity and hardness. Some plant resin is also extremely volatile, since it contains unstable compounds. Misidentification of resinous trees can sometimes lead to unfortunate accidents, since some resins contain heptanes, flammable and potentially explosive hydrocarbons. The popular decorative material amber is fossilized plant resin. The rich golden color of amber is a common shade for plant resins, but amber can also be found in more rare colors, like blue. Humans have been using natural resins for thousands of years. Pine pitch has been used to seal boats, mummies, food containers, and an assortment of other things. It has also been used as a component in varnish, lacquer, inks, perfumes, jewelry, and many other objects. With human technological advances came the realization that resins could be formulated into polymers, and the discovery of synthetic resins followed shortly after .For the most part, polymers made with resins are actually made with synthetic resin, which is cheaper and easier to refine. Synthetic resin is much more stable, predictable, and uniform than natural resin as well, since it is made under controlled conditions without the possibility of the introduction of impurities. These resins are made by combining chemicals in a laboratory to stimulate a reaction which results in the formulation of a resinous compound. Once formed, the resin can be used in the production of plastics, paints, and many of the same substances that natural resin is used in. Liquid Resin Thus resin casting is not generally suitable for wide-scale production. Casting supplies and liquid resins are widely available from hardware and craft shops as well as hobbyist websites and catalogs. The resulting polymer is strong and transparent, which allows acrylic resins to be used for manufacturing aquariums, cell phone displays, taillights for cars, and bathtub liners. Liquid resin material is used in a process called resin casting. Polyester Resin Although these products have several distinct disadvantages when compared to other commonly used composite resins, they still offer an attractive balance of ease of use, low cost, and positive physical characteristics. Most commonly used polyester resins are pale colored, fairly viscous liquids consisting of a polyester and styrene solution. The different types of resin material are plastic resin, polyester resin, polycarbonate resin, casting resin, polymer resin, acrylic resin, chemical resin, and dry resin. Urethane Resin The clear and more durable epoxy is probably better for artists working at home, although epoxy tends to be more expensive. Silicone and urethane resins are prized for their flexibility, although urethanes odor during the casting process can be particularly unpleasant and will always remain detectable on the finished work. Improper urethane molding practices can lead to less-than-desirable results, but there are a few tips that may help improve the process. All urethane resin components should be mixed thoroughly before they are poured into the mold. Air bubbles must be completely removed from the mixture before the curing

process begins. TYPES OF RESIN FAMILIES Introduction Composites are a combination of fiber reinforcement and a resin matrix. The resin system holds everything together, and transfers mechanical loads through the fibers to the rest of the structure. In addition to binding the composite structure together, it protects from impact, abrasion, corrosion, other environmental factors and rough handling. Resin systems come in a variety of chemical families, each designed and designated to serve industries providing certain advantages like economic, structural performance, resistance to various factors, legislation compliance, etc. Only the most common resins of the thermoset family and the ones mostly used in composite construction are described below. Those are Polyester (orthophthalic and isophthalic), vinyl ester, epoxy, and phenolic. Polyesters Unsaturated polyester resins are the simplest, most economical resin systems that are easiest to prepare and show good performance. Millions of tons of this material is used annually around the world. They are manufactured by the condensation polymerization of various diols (alcohols) and dibasic acids (e.g. maleic anhydride or fumaric acid) to give esters, a very viscous liquid that is then dissolved in styrene, a reactive monomer. Styrene lowers the viscosity to a level suitable for impregnation or lamination. Generally, polyesters exhibit somewhat limited thermal stability, chemical resistance, and processability characteristics. Applications include transportation markets (large body parts for automobiles, trucks, trailers, buses), marine (small and large boat hulls and other marine equipment), building (panels, bathtub and shower shells), appliances etc. Orthophthalic Is also refered to as ortho or General Purpose Polyester (GP) was the original polyester developed. It has the lowest cost and is still very widely used in FRP industry. It is commonly used in applications where high mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and thermal stability are not required. Although the upper temperature limit is only 50o C, it performs satisfactory in water and sea water. It is normally not recommended for use in contact with chemicals. Isophthalic Often referred to as Iso, it is improved polyester. It has a slightly higher cost, improved strength, thermal stability(55o C) and mild resistance to corrosion conditions. Improved resistance to water permeation has prompted its use as a gel barrier coat in marine applications. Improved chemical resistance has led them to extensive use in underground petroleum tanks (in gas stations) with satisfactory service life. They are also used in salts and mild acids. Vinyl ester Even further improved polyester, it is bisphenol chlorinated, or a combination of polyester and epoxy. Its curing, handling and processing characteristics are those of polyester, and it exhibits higher test results in corrosion temperature resistance and strength and has higher cost. Modifications of the molecule have produced even higher properties. Phenolic Phenolic resin is a reaction of phenol and formaldehyde. It can be cured via heat and pressure, without the use of catalysts or curing agents. It is one of the oldest thermosetting resins available and sells at a very reasonable cost. Cured phenolic resins are fire resistant without the use of mineral fillers or fire retardant additives. Phenolic composites have excellent high-temperature properties and if properly formulated and cured, they can form carbon to carbon composites with outstanding temperature resistance. Phenolics are also unique in their chemical resistance. Disadvantages of these resins include high curing temperatures and pressures, longer curing times than polyesters, and limited color range. The use of phenolic resins in composites is growing, primarily due to regulative legislation on flame spread, smoke generation, and smoke toxicity. It is used extensively in automobiles, appliances, electronics, and as an industrial adhesive both in higher and lower temperature applications. Epoxy Epoxy resins are a broad family of materials. The most common ones are prepared from the reaction of bis-phenol A and epichlorohydrin and contain a reactive functional group in their molecular structure.

Epoxy resin systems show extremely high three dimensional crosslink density which results to the best mechanical performance characteristics of all the resins. The most demanding strength/weight applications use epoxy almost exclusively. It has excellent strength and hardness, very good chemical heat and electrical resistance. Disadvantages include higher cost, processing difficulty (quantities of resin and hardener need to be measured precisely. Also, often heat curing is required.) Epoxy systems are used in applications like aerospace, defense, marine, sports equipment, adhesives, sealants, coatings, architectural, flooring and many others. Epoxy resins are created by transforming liquid polyethers into infusible solids through a special curing process. In most cases, resins are the result of a chemical reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A. Overall, the creation of epoxy resin is part of an industry that generates over $15 billion US Dollars annually. Epoxy resins have many different uses. For example, resins that are cured through exposure to ultraviolet light are commonly used in fiber optics, optoelectronics, and dentistry. Industrial tooling applications use epoxy resins to make laminates, castings, fixtures, and molds. In the electronics industry, epoxy resins can be used to make insulators, transformers, generators, and switchgear. Around your home, epoxy resin can be valuable for repairing china, pottery, glass, wood, metal, and leather objects. It has a very strong and highly durable bond after it has set properly. Epoxy resins can be used as repair material for marine applications, but they should not be applied on the outer layer of a boat because UV light exposure will eventually cause the resin to deteriorate. Additionally, epoxy resin is valuable as a crafting supply. People who enjoy making miniatures sometimes use epoxy resin to simulate water when creating beach and ocean scenes, although smaller amounts of resin can be used to design replicas of soups, liquid drinks, and fishbowls to be used in a child's dollhouse. Jewelry makers use epoxy resin to create necklaces, pins, bangles, bracelets, earrings, and rings that feature embedded glitter for a fun effect. Epoxy resin can be purchased from most craft stores, hobby shops, hardware stores, and marine supply outlets. Most types of epoxy resins are clear, but you can tint the mixture with oil paints if desired. When using epoxy resin, it's important to follow certain safety precautions. You should work in a wellventilated area and avoid inhaling the product's fumes. You should also wear goggles and gloves to protect your eyes and skin. Rubbing alcohol can be used to clean up spills or wipe excess resin from your tools when your project is complete. Vinegar is also safe to use as a solvent to clean epoxy from your tools, brushes, or skin. Epoxy Resin Composite Epoxy resin (bisphenol-A type) reinforced with silica flour and milled glass fibres with an Aromatic Amine Hardener A Thermoset resin. GRE, similar to popular materials used for GRE pipe, but the glass is in powder form. Resin is cast by a pressure gellation process. Very light compared to metals Typical Properties Tensile 90 N/mm2 Elongation 1% Density 1.85 g/cm3 P/T rating depends on valve and fluid. Max temperature 110 degC, pressures between 10 to 20 bar Corrosion Properties Good in nearly all waters and alkalis, reasonable for mild acids Special testing required for chemical applications

Ideal match to most cases where GRE / GRP pipe is used Comments & Cautions Installation and tightening procedures of flanges is important P/T rating depends on valve and medium Firesafe valves can be provided Low weight a specific advantage Gel coat Gel coats are prepared from a base resin and additives. The base resin can be polyester, vinyl ester, phenolic or epoxy. Additives are thixotropic agents, fillers, pigments and other. The gel coat, as the name implies, has a gel texture. This makes the gel coat capable to stay on vertical surfaces of molds without draping. It is placed first in the mold, so it becomes the outer surface of the construction. It is used to replace paint, for cosmetic purposes, and to protect from the environment. ABOUT COMPOSITES Definition: A composite is a solid material, made out of two or more constituent, different and distinct substances that retain their physical characteristics, while contributing desirable properties to the whole. Composites and composite fabricating is not new. Actually, it is one of mans oldest engineering methods. Composites, like straw reinforced mud, were used for construction in prehistoric times. Today, composites are everywhere around us. For example, most buildings are composites, made out of newer materials like steel reinforced concrete or various kinds of panels. Likewise, glass fiber reinforced polyester is used extensively for the construction of many products like boats and yachts, tanks or piping. Composite materials are the constituent materials that are used to fabricate composite products. Three types of materials are mostly used, or overwhelm the industry today: The matrix is a form of glue that surrounds supports and keeps together in position the reinforcement. The reinforcement is usually some type fiber material in the form of fabric that exhibits some special physical characteristics (like mechanical or electrical). The core is usually some type of solid lightweight material used in-between the layers of fiber reinforced matrix forming a type of sandwich structure. When matrix and reinforcement are combined in a laminate to form a new material, the imparting special characteristics of each are combined and enhanced by synergism (=working together.) Moreover, core can be utilized to improve the stiffness and strength of the product even further, resembling the effect of steel I beam at a very low weight. Growing demand for better performance on products and materials has led to continuous developments on the field of composites. Advanced, special fibers (like carbon or aramid) or resins (like epoxy) and cores (like PVC foam or honeycomb), and new fabricating methods were developed and utilized to construct other materials or products that have outstanding mechanical properties thought to be exotic a few decades ago. Those advanced composites are used in many industries like aerospace, automotive, energy, important sports/recreation and just about everywhere low weight and other special properties are needed. THE BENEFITS OF COMPOSITES Year by year, more and more designers and engineers recognize the values of composites over other traditional materials like metal alloys, plastics etc. This is because composite material systems result in performance unattainable by their individual constituents. Fiber reinforced (FRP) products are more reliable, more durable, easy and safe to use, more economic to produce, and individually solve many problems and offer many benefits. As a result, manufacturers are abandoning old materials and fabricating methods and turn to composites. Composites are no longer just the privilege of aerospace, defence and high priced products. They are rapidly becoming a way of achieving high structural performance at a low cost. They are found in most of the cars we drive, in all busses and trains, boats, and recreation and sports equipment such as skis or canoes we use on the weekends.

Composites offer many advantages: - Higher mechanical properties like Strength and stiffness - Lighter weight, higher performance - Energy savings - Durability, fatigue resistance and longer service life - Impact resistance - Dimensional stability - Anisotropic properties - Good chemical properties, corrosion resistance - Fire retardance - High temperature service - Sevier environment outdoor service - Low maintenance requirements - Low thermal conductivity - Low or custom thermal expansion - Tailored energy conductivity, (e.g. can be used to amplify or dump vibration) - Tailored transparency to radio frequency (reflection or dumping properties) - Tailored electric properties (insulation or conduction capability) - Tailored electromagnetic transparency - Tailored properties make composite products irreplaceable for both telecommunication and stealth technologies - Flexible, tailor design, part consolidation and freedom of shape - Combination of many materials and inserts - Lower capital investment for FRP manufacturing facilities - FRP products are simpler, having fewer and larger parts

- Relatively low energy consumption to produce raw materials MAJOR MARKETS SERVED Over the last forty years composites have been the dominant emerging materials. With versatility being their greatest asset, the volume and number of Fiber Reinforced Products applications have grown steadily, creating new solutions that improve product quality and penetrate new markets relentlessly. Composites are nolonger the privilege of aerospace, defense and high priced products. They are rapidly becoming a way of achieving high structural performance at a low cost and they are found everywhere around us. The major market segments of composites are listed here. However many other very important applications exist, and new products are being launched every year. For this reason, continuing renewal of this list to include the new market segments is essential. Marine Composites have made good inroads to the marine industry, to deliver high strength, safety, reduced weigh, durability, reliability, corrosion resistance and low maintenance costs. Applications of composites for marine use include construction of boat and ship hulls, stringers, decks, deckhouses, hatch covers, masts and booms, and countless other components. Fibermax Composites offers a wide variety of quality products for the marine industrys composite needs including reinforcement fabrics, core and resin systems for marine construction and osmosis protection. Automotive Composites are capable to offer valuable solutions to replace metallic structures in cars, by improving structural performance, safety, handling, durability, molding processes, and offering higher performance, lower costs, weight reduction and compliance with environmental and safety regulations. They are extensively used infrastructure, body panels and most other parts. The extent of their use is stll dependant on quality and price of the vehicle. Of all automotive industry, F1 racing receives the largest proportional investment and todays F1 cars are made almost exclusively by FRPs. Fibermax Composites high end materials are used in many of every years award winning race cars. Heavy transportation Composite materials are widely used in the construction of heavy trucks, truck trailers, buses, trains and railcars. Some of the key features of composite materials in this market are light weight, high strength, corrosion resistance and design flexibility. The benefits in turn include fuel efficiency, dimentional stability, greater cargo-passenger capacity, corrosion resistance, lower maintenance cost and flexibility of design. They are used for fabricating cabinets, bodyshells and large panels used for trailer/rail walls, floors and interiors. Fibermax Composites offers many products suitable for all the major processes used in the heavy transportation market. Buildings/construction br<> Composite reinforced structures exhibit excellent seismic resistance. The use of composite materials not only decreases inertia (dead load) and weight, but also absorbs the shock and vibration of earthquakes and other mechanical sources. Composites are being extensively used for building restoration and upgrade, strengthening old structures that have to be rehabilitated, or to repair damage caused by seismic activity (column-wrapping and jacketing systems.) Other applications include domes, bridges, tunnel supports, acrylic bathtubs and sinks, framework, various kinds of panels, natural composite stone, anticorrosive aand anti moisture coating and modular cabins. Fibermax Composites name is offering economic, trusted material solutions and experience to the building restoration and building industries. Sports and recreation

Composite products are found in all competitive outdoor, sports and recreation activities because they are stiffer, lighter, impact resistant and more aerodynamic. Traditional materials such as titanium, aluminum and steel are always outperformed and replaced by composites. Applications include surf boards, skis, kayaks, golf shafts, fishing rods, tennis racquets, hockey sticks and bicycle frames. Fibermax Composites products are ideal for all sectors of this market. Wind power In an effort to capture more wind and reduce the cost of energy, wind turbine towers have grown higher, and blades longer. Todays rotors (up to 100 meters long) are made exclusively by composites, and in order to withstand severe damage from gusts of wind, incorporate the most advanced materials. Fibermax offers a wide variety of quality products for blade construction including reinforcement fabrics, core and resin systems. Corrosion-resistant applications Composite materials are ideally suited to meet the demanding challenges of corrosion because of their excellent chemical/environmental resistance. Among others, they are used in piping, tanks, bridges, electrical utilities, electronics, protection from highly corrosive chemicals combined with heat, humidity and sunlight. Aerospace/defense Commercial airplane, space and military applications are major uses of composite materials. A great variety of high end products are used and composite advantages utilized to fly safely, defend boarders, position satellites, and explore the universe. Generally the frontiers of composites are explored by those industries that have very big budgets for research and development. Fibermax Composites is proud to be a part of this research and to supply materials to this industry. TYPES OF FIBER REINFORCEMENT Introduction The fiber reinforcement provides the structural performance required of the final part. The fibers or filaments come in many chemical types and forms and are the primary contributor to the stiffness, strength and other properties of the composite. The dominant chemical types of commercially available fibers are: fiberglass, aramid, carbon, polyester and vectran. Other fiber types may be suitable for special applications. The dominant forms that fibers are sold include: Strands (or roving or tow or yarn. Many fibers or filaments stranded together in a bundle, wound in a spool or reel,) woven fabrics (flattened strands of filaments woven in a variety of weaves to a type of fabric or cloth,) unidirectional (strands laid side by side and stitched or held together by other means, forming a kind of fabric that bares reinforcement only in the fill direction,) multiaxials (unidirectional woven fabrics stitched together in a combination of orientations,) and chopped strand mat (chopped strands held together with some kind of glue or binder in the form of a non-woven fabric.) All fibers designated for use in composites undergo chemical treatments and are coated with some kind of sizing. Sizing is a chemical that binds the filaments together, reduces abrasion, facilitates impregnation and acts like a coupling agent that enhances compatibility with one or more types of resin. Selection of reinforcement type greatly influences costs. This is not only because of the quality and cost of the material itself, but also because higher cost material usually requires highly skilled personnel, more sophisticated production facilities and often more labour hours. Fiberglass Fiberglass was first discovered in 1893 and was firstly made commercially available in 1936 as insulation material. It became popular in the 1950s, when some of the health hazards associated with asbestos were becoming apparent. Due to the similarity in shape between the fiberglass and the asbestos fibers, fiberglass was able to effectively replace asbestos in many applications such as electrical, thermal, and acoustic insulation and structural reinforcement. Today it is the dominant reinforcement fiber in composite construction, accounting for over 90% of worldwide consumption. This is simply because it has good strength to weight characteristics, can be processed easily and sells at a low price. Glass filaments are made relatively easily by extruding molten glass. The diameters of the fibers produced range from 5 to 25 microns. Many different types and qualities of glass sell for significantly different cost. The most

widespread quality is E-glass, E from the word Electric implies that it is an electrical insulator. It is low cost product, used mostly in the marine industry. Others are S glass and S2 glass, the letter S comes from the word Strength implying that it has improved mechanical properties. These types are much more expensive and used mostly in armor applications. S is certified as for the production parameters. AR glass is resistant to alkali chemical attack. C or T Glass is resistant to acid and Corrosion. A glass is glass with more alkali content similar to window glass, and costs a bit less. Generally, when cost is a major driving force in the selection of a reinforcing material, fiberglass is usually preferred. Aramid Aramid was invented by DuPont in 1960s (Kevlar is the registered trade name of Dupont aramid) as a result of research on nylon (polyamide) fibers. It was firstly introduced in the market in the 1970s as tire reinforcement and like fiberglass, as an asbestos substitute. The chemical structure of aramid shows the aromatic benzene rings along the polymeric backbone. The word aramid is a contraction of its chemical descriptionaromatic polyamides. Strength and modulus of aramid are very good, density very low, UV resistance low and compression and shear strength are similar to E glass. Its value comes from excellent toughness and resistance to impact, damage, abrasion and heat (up to 500o C.) The superior toughness of aramid is an outcome of the energy consuming failure mechanism of its fibers. This energy absorbing failure mechanism makes it ideal for use in armor, military and ballistic applications, like helmets and bullet-proof vests. Among many other very important uses, it used for firefighting protection, on the underside of airplanes (protection against stone hits during take off and landing) and the under side of race cars. It is used generally in important structures whenever impact, abrasion and/or heat is anticipated. It also blends very well and works together with other fibers, like glass and carbon. Carbon-aramid hybrid constructions bare the high strength and stiffness of carbon and the impact protection of aramid. Processing aramid in composite fabrication is somewhat more difficult than fiberglass and carbon. Toughness makes fabrics difficult to cut with conventional methods. Fiber wetout is more difficult that fiberglass and carbon. Orthophthalic polyester resin will not adhere well to aramid (isophthalic polyester is much better). Post fabricating aramid components, e.g. trimming off the edges is also difficult. Quality cutting tools are recommended. High modulus polyester (HMP Tendor) HMP Tendor is a high strength diolen fiber. It has been used in industrial applications for many decades, in a wide field of applications like tire reinforcement, safety belts, ropes and nets. Recognition of its value in composite applications for aerospace, defense, marine and transportation has come in the late years. It is used both as primary reinforcement and in hybrid arrangements with fiberglass and aramid. Toughness makes it ideal for use on the outside layers of composite construction for impact protection. Placed on the outside layers it also protects aramid and glass from moisture (and blistering) and being smooth, it reduces print-through. At the same time, its very low density also make it ideal for use in the middle layers, where working as a core material, it adds stiffness to the structure. Other attractive features include good impact and fatigue resistance, and potential for vibration damping. Generally, properties of Tendor resemble the properties of aramid at lower level, but its reasonable price and reliability make it attractive. Tendor performance at elevated temperature falls off. It should not be used in above 200o F applications. Processing is easier than this of aramid, but not as easy as fiberglass and carbon. Carbon Carbon has the highest strength and highest price of all reinforcement fibers used in composites today. It was invented in the UK in early 1960s at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, Hampshire. The most common method of making carbon fiber is the oxidation and thermal pyrolysis of an organic precursor, polyacrylonitrile (a polymer fiber based on acrylonitrile.) When heated in the correct conditions, the non-carbon constituents evaporate away. The resulting fiber is 9395% carbon. Instead of PAN as a precursor, carbon fiber can also be manufactured from pitch or rayon. The size, or thickness of Carbon tows is measured in k or thousands of filaments. A 3k tow has 3,000 filaments and a 12k has 12,000. Carbon fibers exhibit: substantially better strength and stiffness values than all the others, outstanding temperature performance, high electrical and low thermal conductivity. Impact or damage tolerance of pure carbon composite products can be from relatively low to very poor, and greatly depends on processing method. Despite that, when weight on a composite product is important, carbon fiber is the

reinforcement to use. Vectran Vectran is the outcome of 30 years research on liquid crystal polymer (LCP) fibers. 100% of world production is now owned by one company, Kuraray Co., Ltd. Annual production is only 600 tons in 2007, but is growing at a rate of about 10% a year. This fiber is formed by melt extrusion of LCP through fine diameter capillaries. It is used in aerospace composites and many other high value industry applications. It exhibits high strength and modulus, excellent creep resistance, high abrasion resistance, excellent flex/fold characteristics, minimal moisture absorption, excellent chemical resistance, high dielectric strength, outstanding cut resistance, high impact resistance, outstanding vibration damping characteristics, very good property retention at high/low temperatures (melting point of 330 C, with progressive strength loss from 220 C.) They have gold color, similar to aramid, but are usually painted in other colors for cosmetic purposes. Vectran also adheres to resins better than aramid. Among others, it should be used in applications where weight and impact resistance are important. Fibres for Reinforcement in Composite Materials Fibre Types Glass By blending quarry products (sand, kaolin, limestone, colemanite) at 1600C, liquid glass is formed. The liquid is passed through micro-fine bushings and simultaneously cooled to produce glass fibre filaments from 5-24mm in diameter. The filaments are drawn together into a strand (closely associated) or roving (loosely associated), and coated with a size to provide filament cohesion and protect the glass from abrasion. By variation of the recipe, different types of glass can be produced. The types used for structural reinforcements are as follows: a. E-glass (electrical) - lower alkali content and stronger than A-glass (alkali). Good tensile and compressive strength and stiffness, good electrical properties and relatively low cost, but impact resistance relatively poor. Depending on the type of E-glass the price ranges from about 1-2/kg. E-glass is the most common form of reinforcing fibre used in polymer matrix composites. b. C-glass (chemical) - best resistance to chemical attack. Mainly used in the form of surface tissue in the outer layer of laminates used in chemical and water pipes and tanks. c. R, S or T-glass manufacturers trade names for equivalent fibres having higher tensile strength and modulus than E-glass, with better wet strength retention. Higher ILSS (interlaminar shear strength) and wet out properties are achieved through smaller filament diameter. S-glass is produced in the USA by OCF, R-glass in Europe by Vetrotex and T-glass by Nittobo in Japan. Developed for aerospace and defence industries, and used in some hard ballistic armour applications. This factor, and low production volumes mean relatively high prices. Depending on the type of R or S-glass the price ranges from about 12-20/kg. E-Glass Fibre Types E-glass fibre is available in the following forms: a. Strand - a compactly associated bundle of filaments. Strands are rarely seen commercially and are usually twisted together to give yarns. b. Yarns - a closely associated bundle of twisted filaments or strands. Each filament diameter in a yarn is the same, and is usually between 4-13mm. Yarns have varying weights described by their tex (the weight in grams of 1000 linear metres) or denier (the weight in lbs of 10 000 yards), with the typical tex range usually being between 5 and 400.

c. Rovings - a loosely associated bundle of untwisted filaments or strands. Each filament diameter in a roving is the same, and is usually between 13-24mm. Rovings also have varying weights and the tex range is usually between 300 and 4800. Where filaments are gathered together directly after the melting process, the resultant fibre bundle is known as a direct roving. Several strands can also be brought together separately after manufacture of the glass, to give what is known as an assembled roving. Assembled rovings usually have smaller filament diameters than direct rovings, giving better wet-out and mechanical properties, but they can suffer from catenary problems (unequal strand tension), and are usually higher in cost because of the more involved manufacturing processes. It is also possible to obtain long fibres of glass from short fibres by spinning them. These spun yarn fibres have higher surface areas and are more able to absorb resin, but they have lower structural properties than the equivalent continuously drawn fibres. Glass Fibre Designation Glass fibres are designated by the following internationally recognised terminology: Table 1 Table 1. Demonstrates the internationally recognised terminology for glass fibre designation. Glass Type Yarn Type Filament Diameter (m) Strand Weight (tex) Single Strand Twist No. of Strands Multi-strand Twist No. Turns/metre E C 9 34 Z X2 S 150 E = Electrical

S = High Strength C = Continuous

Z = Clockwise S = Anti-Clockwise

Aramid Aramid fibre is a man-made organic polymer (an aromatic polyamide) produced by spinning a solid fibre from a liquid chemical blend. The bright golden yellow filaments produced can have a range of properties, but all have high strength and low density giving very high specific strength. All grades have good resistance to impact, and lower modulus grades are used extensively in ballistic applications. Compressive strength, however, is only similar to that of E-glass. Although most commonly known under its Dupont trade name Kevlar, there are now a number of suppliers of the fibre, most notably Akzo Nobel with Twaron. Each supplier offers several grades of aramid with various combinations of modulus and surface finish to suit various applications. As well as the high strength properties, the fibres also offer good resistance to abrasion, and chemical and thermal degradation. However, the fibre can degrade slowly when exposed to ultraviolet light. Aramid fibres are usually available in the form of rovings, with texes ranging from about 20 to 800. Typically the price of the high modulus type ranges from 15-to 25 per kg. Carbon Carbon fibre is produced by the controlled oxidation, carbonisation and graphitisation of carbon-rich organic precursors, which are already in fibre form. The most common precursor is polyacrylonitrile (PAN), because it gives the best carbon fibre properties, but fibres can also be made from pitch or cellulose. Variation of the graphitisation process produces either high strength fibres (at ~2600C) or high modulus fibres (at ~3000C) with other types in between. Once formed, the carbon fibre has a surface treatment applied to improve matrix bonding and chemical sizing which serves to protect it during handling. When carbon fibre was first produced in the late sixties the price for the basic high strength grade was about 200/kg. By 1996 the annual worldwide capacity had increased to about 7,000 tonnes and the price for the equivalent (high strength) grade was 15-40/kg. Carbon fibres are usually grouped according to the modulus band in which their properties fall. These bands are commonly referred to as: high strength (HS), intermediate modulus (IM), high modulus (HM) and ultra high modulus (UHM). The filament diameter of most types is about 5-7mm. Carbon fibre has the highest specific stiffness of any commercially available fibre, very high strength in both tension and compression and a high resistance to corrosion, creep and fatigue. Their impact strength, however, is lower than either glass or aramid, with particularly brittle characteristics being exhibited by HM and UHM fibres.

Polyester A low density, high tenacity fibre with good impact resistance but low modulus. Its lack of stiffness usually precludes it from inclusion in a composite component, but it is useful where low weight, high impact or abrasion resistance, and low cost is required. It is mainly used as a surfacing material, as it can be very smooth, keeps weight down and works well with most resin types. Polyethylene In random orientation, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) molecules give very low mechanical properties. However, if dissolved and drawn from solution into a filament by a process called gel spinning, the molecules become disentangled and aligned in the direction of the filament. The molecular alignment promotes very high tensile strength to the filament and the resulting fibre. Coupled with their low S.G. (<1.0), these fibres have the highest specific strength of the fibres described here. However, the fibres tensile modulus and ultimate strength are only slightly better than E-glass and less than that of aramid or carbon. The fibre also demonstrates very low compressive strength in laminate form. These factors, coupled with high price, and more importantly, the difficulty in creating a good fibre/matrix bond means that polyethylene fibres are not often used in isolation for composite components. Quartz A very high silica version of glass with much higher mechanical properties and excellent resistance to high temperatures (+1000C). However, the manufacturing process and low volume production lead to a very high price (14mm - 74/kg, 9mm - 120/kg). Boron Carbon or metal fibres are coated with a layer of boron to improve the overall fibre properties. The extremely high cost of this fibre restricts it use to high temperature aerospace applications and in specialised sporting equipment. A boron/carbon hybrid, composed of carbon fibres interspersed among 80-100mm boron fibres, in an epoxy matrix, can achieve properties greater than either fibre alone, with flexural strength and stiffness twice that of HS carbon and 1.4 times that of boron, and shear strength exceeding that of either fibre. Ceramics Ceramic fibres, usually in the form of very short whiskers are mainly used in areas requiring high temperature resistance. They are more frequently associated with non-polymer matrices such as metal alloys. Natural At the other end of the scale it is possible to use fibrous plant materials such as jute and sisal as reinforcements in low-tech applications. In these applications, the fibres low S.G. (typically 0.5-0.6) mean that fairly high specific strengths can be achieved. Polymer Matrix Composites According to the Classification of composites: Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) is the material consisting of a polymer (resin) matrix combined with a fibrous reinforcing dispersed phase. Polymer Matrix Composites are very popular due to their low cost and simple fabrication methods. Use of non-reinforced polymers as structure materials is limited by low level of their mechanical properties: tensile strength of one of the strongest polymers - epoxy resin is 20000 psi (140 MPa). In addition to relatively low strength, polymer materials possess low impact resistance. Reinforcement of polymers by strong fibrous network permits fabrication of Polymer Matrix Composites

(PMC) characterized by the following properties: High tensile strength; High stiffness; High Fracture Toughness; Good abrasion resistance; Good puncture resistance; Good corrosion resistance; Low cost. The main disadvantages of Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) are: Low thermal resistance; High coefficient of thermal expansion. Two types of polymers are used as matrix materials for fabrication composites: Thermosets (epoxies, phenolics) and Thermoplastics (Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene, nylon, acrylics). According to the reinforcement material the following groups of Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) are used: Fiberglasses Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers; Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites; Kevlar (aramid) fiber reinforced polymers. Reinforcing fibers may be arranged in different forms: Unidirectional fibers; Rovings; Veil mat: thin pile of randomly orientated and looped continuous fibers; Chopped strands: thin pile of randomly orientated and looped short (3-4 inches) fibers; Woven fabric. Properties of Polymer Matrix Composites are determined by: Properties of the fibers; Orientation of the fibers; Concentration of the fibers; Properties of the matrix. Properties of Polymer Matrix Composites may be estimated by the Rule of Mixtures. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) are used for manufacturing: secondary load-bearing aerospace structures, boat bodies, canoes, kayaks, automotive parts, radio controlled vehicles, sport goods (golf clubs, skis, tennis racquets, fishing rods), bullet-proof vests and other armor parts, brake and clutch linings. Ceramic Matrix Composites (introduction) According to the classification of composite materials: Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) is a material consisting of a ceramic matrix combined with a ceramic (oxides, carbides) dispersed phase. Ceramic Matrix Composites are designed to improve toughness of conventional ceramics, the main disadvantage of which is brittleness.

Ceramic Matrix Composites are reinforced by either continuous (long) fibers or discontinuous (short) fibers. Short-fiber (discontinuous) composites are produced by conventional ceramic processes from an oxide (alumina) or non-oxide (silicon carbide) ceramic matrix reinforced by whiskers of silicon carbide (SiC), titanium boride (TiB2), aluminum nitride (AlN), zirconium oxide (ZrO2) and other ceramic fibers. Most of CMC are reinforced by silicon carbide fibers due to their high strength and stiffness (modulus of elasticity). Whiskers incorporated in a short-fiber Ceramic Matrix Composite improve its toughness resisting to cracks propagation. However a character of failure of short-fiber reinforced materials is catastrophic. Long-fiber (continuous) composites are reinforced either by long monofilament of long multifilament fibers. The best strengthening effect is provided by dispersed phase in form of continuous monofilament fibers, which are fabricated by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of silicon carbide on a substrate made of tungsten (W) or carbon (C) fibers. Monofilament fibers produce stronger interfacial bonding with the matrix material improving its toughness. Failure of long-fiber Ceramic Matrix Composites is not catastrophic. Typical properties of long-fiber Ceramic Matrix Composites: High mechanical strength even at high temperatures; High thermal shock resistance; High stiffness; High toughness; High thermal stability; Low density; High corrosion resistance even at high temperatures. Ceramic composites may be produced by traditional ceramic fabrication methods including mixing the powdered matrix material with the reinforcing phase followed by processing at elevated temperature: hot pressing, sintering. Such fabrication routs are successfully employed for preparing composites reinforced with a discontinuous phase (particulate or short fibers). However the composites reinforced with continuous or long fibers are rarely fabricated by conventional sintering methods due to mechanical damage of the fibers and their degradation caused by chemical reactions between the fiber and matrix materials at high sintering temperature. Additionally sintering techniques result in high porosity of the fiber reinforced composites. Ceramic matrix composites reinforced with long fibers are commonly fabricated by infiltration methods. In this group of fabrication techniques the ceramic matrix is formed from a fluid (gaseous or liquid) infiltrated into the fiber structure (either woven or non-woven). Prior to the infiltration with a ceramic derived fluid the reinforcing fibers surface is coated with a debonding interphase providing weak bonding at the interface between the fiber and matrix materials. Weak bonding allows the fiber to slide in the matrix and prevents brittle fracture. Matrix material for long-fiber (continuous fiber) composite may be silicon carbide ceramic, alumina (alumina-silica) ceramic or carbon. Silicon carbide matrix composites are fabricated by chemical vapor infiltration or liquid phase Infiltration methods of a matrix material into a preform prepared from silicon carbide fibers. Silicon carbide matrix composites are used for manufacturing combustion liners of gas turbine engines,

hot gas re-circulating fans, heat exchangers, rocket propulsion components, filters for hot liquids, gasfired burner parts, furnace pipe hangers, immersion burner tubes. Alumina and alumina-silica (mullite) matrix composites are produced by sol-gel method, direct metal oxidation or chemical bonding. Alumina and alumina-silica (mullite) matrix composites are used for manufacturing heat exchangers, filters for hot liquids, thermo-photovoltaic burners, burner stabilizers, combustion liners of gas turbine engines. Carbon-Carbon Composites are fabricated by chemical vapor infiltration or Liquid phase infiltration methods of a matrix material into a preform prepared from carbon fibers. Carbon-Carbon Composites are used for manufacturing high performance braking systems, refractory components, hot-pressed dies, heating elements, turbojet engine components. Basics of Metal Matrix Composites Introduction Metal composite materials have found application in many areas of daily life for quite some time. Often it is not realized that the application makes use of composite materials. These materials are produced in situ from the conventional production and processing of metals. Here, the Dalmatian sword with its meander structure, which results from welding two types of steel by repeated forging, can be mentioned. Materials like cast iron with graphite or steel with a high carbide content, as well as tungsten carbides, consisting of carbides and metallic binders, also belong to this group of composite materials. For many researchers the term metal matrix composites is often equated with the term light metal matrix composites (MMCs). Substantial progress in the development of light metal matrix composites has been achieved in recent decades, so that they could be introduced into the most important applications. In traffic engineering, especially in the automotive industry, MMCs have been used commercially in fiber reinforced pistons and aluminum crank cases with strengthened cylinder surfaces as well as particle-strengthened brake disks. These innovative materials open up unlimited possibilities for modern material science and development; the characteristics of MMCs can be designed into the material, custom-made, dependent on the application. From this potential, metal matrix composites fulfill all the desired conceptions of the designer. This material group becomes interesting for use as constructional and functional materials, if the property profile of conventional materials either does not reach the increased standards of specific demands, or is the solution of the problem. However, the technology of MMCs is in competition with other modern material technologies, for example powder metallurgy. The advantages of the composite materials are only realized when there is a reasonable cost performance relationship in the component production. The use of a composite material is obligatory if a special property profile can only be achieved by application of these materials. The possibility of combining various material systems (metal ceramic nonmetal) gives the opportunity for unlimited variation. The properties of these new 1 Metal Matrix Composites. Custom-made Materials for Automotive and Aerospace Engineering. Edited by Karl U. Kainer. Copyright 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-31360-5materials are basically determined by the properties of their single components. Figure 1.1 shows the allocation of the composite materials into groups of various types of materials. The reinforcement of metals can have many different objectives. The reinforcement of light metals opens up the possibility of application of these materials in areas where weight reduction has first priority. The precondition here is the improvement of the component properties. The development objectives for light metal composite materials are: Increase in yield strength and tensile strength at room temperature and above while maintaining the minimum ductility or rather toughness,

 Increase in creep resistance at higher temperatures compared to that of conventional alloys, Increase in fatigue strength, especially at higher temperatures, Improvement of thermal shock resistance, Improvement of corrosion resistance, Increase in Youngs modulus, Reduction of thermal elongation. To summarize, an improvement in the weight specific properties can result, offering the possibilities of extending the application area, substitution of common materials and optimisation of component properties. With functional materials there is another objective, the precondition of maintaining the appropriate function of the material. Objectives are for example: Increase in strength of conducting materials while maintaining the high conductivity, Improvement in low temperature creep resistance (reactionless materials), Improvement of burnout behavior (switching contact), Improvement of wear behavior (sliding contact), Increase in operating time of spot welding electrodes by reduction of burn outs, Production of layer composite materials for electronic components, Production of ductile composite superconductors, Production of magnetic materials with special properties. For other applications different development objectives are given, which differ from those mentioned before. For example, in medical technology, mechanical properties, like extreme corrosion resistance and low degradation as well as biocompatibility are expected. Although increasing development activities have led to system solutions using metal composite materials, the use of especially innovative systems, particularly in the area of light metals, has not been realised. The reason for this is insufficient process stability and reliability, combined with production and processing problems and inadequate economic efficiency. Application areas, like traffic engineering, are very cost orientated and conservative and the industry is not willing to pay additional costs for the use of such materials. For all these reasons metal matrix composites are only at the beginning of the evolution curve of modern materials Glass Fiber Reinforcements Definition: A family of reinforcing materials for reinforced plastics based on single filaments of glass ranging in diameter from 3 to 19 micrometers (0.00012 inch to 0.00075 inch). Single filaments are produced by mechanically drawing molten glass streams. Next, the filaments are usually gathered into bundles called strands or rovings. The strands may be used in continuous form for filament winding; chopped into short lengths for incorporation into molding compounds or use in spray-up processes; or formed into fabrics and mats of various types for use in hand coatings with a material known as a coupling agent, which serves to promote adhesion of the glass to the specific resin being used. Glass fiber reinforcements are classified according to their properties. At present there are five major types of glass used to make fibers. The letter designation is taken from a characteristic property: 1) A-glass is a high-alkali glass containing 25% soda and lime, which offers very good resistance to chemicals, but lower electrical properties. 2) C-glass is chemical glass, a special mixture with extremely high chemical resistance. 3) E-glass is electrical grade with low alkali content. It manifests better electrical insulation and strongly resists attack by water. More than 50% of the glass fibers used for reinforcement is E-glass. 4) Sglass is a high-strength glass with a 33% higher tensile strength than E-glass. 5) D-glass has a low dielectric constant with superior electrical properties. However, its mechanical properties are not so good as E-or S-glass. It is available in limited quantities. Glass fibers coated with nickel, by the electron beam deposition process, are used in molding compounds and as reinforcements for electrically conductive parts. The major disadvantage of glass fiber is its unidirectional reinforcement which leads to uneven shrinkage and warpage. See also GLASS.