UNIT II CONVECTION

Concepts of heat transfer by convection - Natural and forced convection, analogies between
transfer of momentum and heat - Reynold’s analogy, Prandtl and Coulburn analogy.
Dimensional analysis in heat transfer, heat transfer coefficient for flow through a pipe, flow past
flat plate, flow through packed beds.
CONCEPT OF HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

CONVECTION

i. Convection means “the transport of heat energy by way of displacement of fluid elements
from one point to another point at a different temperature”.
ii. It is due to up and down movement of gases and liquids presence of temperature difference.
iii. As a gas or liquid is heated it warms, expands, and rises because it is less dense.
iv. When the gas or liquid cools, it becomes denser and falls.
v. As the gas or liquid warms and rises, or cools and falls, it creates convection current.
vi. Convection is the primary method by which heat moves through gases and liquids.
vii. Energy transfer due to both
1. Molecular motion ( diffusion like conduction)
2. Bulk motion of fluid (motion of gas or liquid)-advection
So convection=diffusion + advection
viii. Three kinds of convection can occur
1. Forced convection- motion of heat due to external force
2. Natural or free convection-motion of heat due to density gradient
3. Latent heat exchange – Phase change
LAW OF CONVECTION
Newton's law of cooling
It states “that the rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the difference in temperatures between
the body and its surroundings and to the surface area of the object.”
Q = -hA ∆T
Q = -hA (Tlower temp –Thigher temp)
Where,
Q - Heat flux in W/m2
h- Convective heat transfer co-efficient in W/m2k
A- Area in m2
∆T- Temperature difference in K
This means that if the difference in temperature is great, the change in temperature will be fast, if the
difference is small, the change in temperature will be slow
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
i. “The amount of heat which passes through a unit area of a medium or system in a unit
time when the temperature difference between the boundaries of the system is 1 degree.”
ii. A coefficient which indicates the amount of heat flow that is exchanged across a unit area
of a medium or system in a unit amount of time with a unit of temperature difference
between the boundaries of the system.
Unit 2; Page 1
iii. Heat transfer coefficient is denoted as h and it unit is W m-2 K-1 (J s-1 m-2 K-1).
iv. The overall heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of the overall resistance to heat
transfer, which is the sum of the individual resistances.

TYPES OF CONVECTION
1. Natural Convection
Free (or) Natural convection occurs in the medium by density gradient as a result of
temperature difference
Examples
1. Heating of a vessel containing liquid by means of a gas flame situated underneath
2. Heating of a room by means of a steam radiator
2. Forced Convection
Forced convection occurs in the medium by an external mechanical agency such as
pump, blower and agitator.
Examples
 Heating of water using an immersed heating coil
 Transfer of heat from the surface of a pipe to ambient air
 Heat flow to a fluid pumped through a heated pipe
 Fan is used to reduce heat in a room.
Thermal Boundary layer:
When a fluid flows over a solid surface, a velocity gradient is set up in a layer close to the
surface and this layer is called as hydrodynamic or velocity boundary layer.
Whenever there is a difference in temperature between the surface and the fluid, heat transfer
will occur and a temperature gradient will set up in a manner similar to velocity gradient.
This temperature gradient is considered to be exists within a layer close the surface.
A layer of fluid close to the surface within which the temperature gradient exists is called as
the thermal boundary layer.
We shell denote the thickness of the boundary layer by the symbol a thermal boundary
layer develops when a fluid at a specified temperature flows over a surface that is at a
different temperature
Assuming thickness of the boundary layer to be small relative to the dimension of the solid
surface.
Consider the flow of a fluid at a uniform temperature of T∞ over an isothermal flat plate at
temperature Ts.
The fluid particles in the layer adjacent to the surface will reach thermal equilibrium with the
plate and assume the surface temperature Ts.
As a result, a temperature profile will develop in the flow field that ranges from Ts at the
surface to T∞ sufficiently far from the surface.
Unit 2; Page 2
 The flow region over the surface in which the temperature variation in the direction normal to
the surface is significant is the thermal boundary layer.
The thickness of the thermal boundary layer at any location along the surface is defined as
the distance from the surface at which the temperature difference (T-Ts) equals 0.99(T∞ -
Ts).
Note that for the special case of Ts = 0, we have T= 0.99T∞ at the outer edge of the thermal
boundary layer, which is analogous to u = 0.99u∞ for the velocity boundary layer.
The thickness of the thermal boundary layer increases in the flow direction, since the effects
of heat transfer are felt at greater distances from the surface further downstream.
The convection heat transfer rate anywhere along the surface is directly related to the
temperature gradient at that location.
Therefore, the shape of the temperature profile in the thermal boundary layer dictates the
convection heat transfer between a solid surface and the fluid flowing over it.
In flow over a heated (or cooled) surface, both velocity and thermal boundary layers will
develop simultaneously.
Noting that the fluid velocity will have a strong influence on the temperature profile, the
development of the velocity boundary layer relative to the thermal boundary layer will
have a strong effect on the convection heat transfer.

= Boundary layer thickness.

MOMENTUM AND HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS

A fluid in laminar motion through a circular pipe the wall of the pipe is maintained at
higher temperature and fluids get heated flow through the pipe. Also radiant transport of
momentum in the pipe acquires in a faster moving layer to slower moving layer according to the
Newton’s law of viscosity.
The τ is also called shear stress (momentum flux), u is the velocity and u(y) is the radial
distribution of velocity in the pipe (u is the axial velocity and is function of the radial position)
Unit 2; Page 3
X is the axis line of the pipe.
Momentum transfer =
The radial heat flux at Fourier’s law

Now we consider the case of heat transfer to the fluid from the wall (Negative sign is not
used on right hand side because T increases with y)
REYNOLDS ANALOGY:
Reynolds was the first to develop the similarity between heat and momentum transfer for
turbulent flow conditions.
For the molecular momentum transfer, the Newton’s law can be written as

----------------1
Similarly, the momentum flux for the turbulent flow is written as

----------------2

τt = turbulent momentum flux

µt = eddy viscosity, property of flow conditions and not the fluid property
ux = time smoothed average velocity in the x- direction
εt = momentum eddy diffusivity
Combining equation 1 & 2

------------------3

Similar equations can also be written for heat transfer. For molecular heat transfer, the Fourier’s
law of heat conduction can be written as

For constant density and specific heat, we can write

-----------------4

α= thermal diffusivity

for turbulent conditions

Unit 2; Page 4
 --------------------5

αt =turbulent thermal diffusivity

Combining equation 4 & 5

----------------6

The following assumptions are made

1. In turbulent flow, the molecular momentum and heat transfer are negligible, i.e.µ/ρ and α
are small.
2. αt = εt i.e momentum eddy diffusivity and thermal eddy diffusivity are equal.
Now dividing equation 3 & 6 and simplifying with normal notations for Temperature T and
velocity u we get

----------------7

Let us consider a circular pipe through which the fluid is flowing.

The heat flux q/A is analogous to the momentum flux τ which is considered constant in
the turbulent flow condition.
Let T = bulk temperature of the fluid
Tw = wall temperature of the pipe
τ = shear stress at the wall
uav = average fluid bulk velocity.
Integrating equation 7 between the limits, where the velocity at the wall is zero
Boundary conditions
u= 0; u= uav;
T= T; T= Tw

-----------------------------8

From the heat transfer coefficient h, the heat transfer is given by the Newton’s law of cooling
--------------------------9

Unit 2; Page 5
From the fluid flow, we can evaluate the shear stress at the wall from the fanning friction factor
concepts, i.e.
f = shear stress at the wall/ kinetic energy

-------------------------------10
Substituting the value of q/A from eqn 9 and that of τs from eqn 10 in Equation 8

= Stanton number -----------------11

Where G=ρuav = mass velocity

The Reynolds analogy assumes that eqn 11 holds good only when the prandtl number is
equal to 1.0. This is limitation of Reynolds analogy.
Eqn 11

PRANDTL ANALOGY
In 1910, prandtl modified the Reynolds analogy by considering the velocity distribution in the
laminar sub layer and the turbulent core region. The prandtl analogy considered momentum and
heat transfer.
When a flowing fluid comes in contact with solid surface, its velocity is zero at the surface. For
example if the fluid is flowing in a circular pipe, the velocity of the fluid at the wall is zero and at
the centre of the pipe, it is maximum. Near the wall, the velocity is very small and as we go away
from the wall, the velocity of the fluid increases. so the fluid characteristics of flow vary in the
vicinity of the solid surface.

Assumptions
1. Eddy transport is negligible in the laminar sub layer α t = 0 and εt=0 i.e. momentum
eddy diffusivity and thermal eddy diffusivity are zero.
Unit 2; Page 6
2. Steady – state conditions prevail.
3. Temperature and velocity profiles in the laminar sub layer are linear.
4. The thermal diffusivity is equal to the momentum diffusivity in the turbulent core
region.
The Newton’s law of viscosity for momentum transfer and the Fourier’s law of heat
conduction for heat transfer for laminar sub layer as follows
Momentum transfer:

----------------1
Heat transfer

----------2

For turbulent flow conditions, these equations are modified to include eddy terms
Momentum transfer:

-------------------------------3

Heat transfer

-----------------------------4

Condition1 εt =0; αt=0

Integrating eqn 3 & eqn 4 with limits 0 to δ for y and 0 to u for u we obtain

-------------------------------5

------------------------6
Unit 2; Page 7
qw = heat flux at the wall
τw= momentum flux at the wall
uδ = velocity of the fluid at edge of the laminar sub layer
Tδ = Temperature of the fluid at edge of the laminar sub layer
Case (i) Eliminating δ on eqn 5 and eqn 6

-------------------------7

------------------------8

Case (ii) Now dividing equation 5 & 6 we get

Where α = thermal diffusivity so

--------------------------9

Eqn 8 is rearranged and Put u = um-us

The temperature is rearranged

-------------------------10

-------------11

Eliminating Tδ from eqn 8 and eqn 11 we get

-----------------12

------------13

Equating 12 and 13 we get

Unit 2; Page 8
 ------------14

In a sub layer we define the dimensionless velocity u+ and dimensionless distance y+ as

u+ = y+

u+ = 5y+=

sub in above eqn

--------------15

---------------16

Equation 15 & Equation 16 substitute in Equation 14

-----------------------------17

Unit 2; Page 9
 This relationship is called the prandtl analogy. Also it gives a relationship between the
Stanton number and the fanning friction factor as above.
CHILTON – COLBURN ANALOGY
In fluid flow or momentum transfer, we learnt close relationship between the fanning
friction factor f and Reynolds number.
Laminar flow

Turbulent flow

Heat transfer
The heat transfer coefficient is correlated by nusselt number, the Reynolds number and
the Prandtl number
Laminar flow

Turbulent flow

Chilton and Colburn observed that there is a relationship between the heat transfer
coefficient and the friction factor. This analogy is based upon experimental data for gases
and liquids for laminar flow conditions and turbulent flow.
Here

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS IN HEAT TRANSFER

 A method of correlating a number of variables into a single equation.
 An equation for predicting the film coefficient or the surface coefficient in any particular case
must include all properties of a fluid and conditions of its flow that affect the problem
 In a particular case, the factors that might be considered are diameter of pipe, the velocity of
flowing fluid density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, specific heat of fluid, etc.,
 The dimensional analysis is one of most useful methods to assemble these factors into an
equation
Unit 2; Page 10
  Dimensional analysis shows in what relation to each other certain of these variables should
appear, and results in arranging them into various dimensionless groups.
 It is found that an equation for the film coefficient for heat transfer to or from a flowing fluid
without phase change will probably of the form:

NNu = ----------------------- (1)

 Dimensional analysis is a method of correlating a number of variables into a single equation

expressing an effect.
 When a particular physical quantity is influenced by a number of factors, then it is impossible to
determine their effects by the experimental methods
 In such cases, a problem can be more manageable by adopting the method of dimensional
analysis wherein the variables are arranged in dimensionless groups which are significantly less
than the number of factors.
The rate of heat transfer per unit area is dependent on viscosity , density , specific heat capacity
Cp, thermal conductivity of fluid k, a linear dimension of surface l, velocity of flowing fluid u, the
temperature difference ∆T, and the product of thermal expansion β and the acceleration due to
gravity g.
Basic concepts
Mass = kg = M
Length = m= L
Time = seconds = t
Temperature = K = T
Thermal conductivity (w/m.K)
w/m.K (or) J/s.m.K
Joule = Newton. Meter (J=N.m)
Newton = mass x acceleration = N = kg x m/s2

Thermal conductivity = kg.m / K.s3 = MLt-3T-1

Specific heat (J/kg.K)

CP = L 2t-2T-1
Heat transfer coefficient (w/m2.K)

Physical properties symbol unit

Length L m L
Temperature difference T °K T
Fluid density ρ Kg/m3 ML-3
Fluid Viscosity µ Kg/m.s ML-1t-1
Unit 2; Page 11
Fluid Thermal conductivity k w/m. °K MLt-3T-1
Specific heat CP J/kg.°K L 2t-2T-1
Heat transfer coefficient h w/m2. °K Mt-3T-1
Fluid coefficient of thermal β 1/°K T-1
expansion
Acceleration due to gravity g m/s2 Lt-2
(1)Nusselt Number (NNu) = (or)

(2)Reynolds Number (NRe) = (or)

(3)Prandtl Number (NPr) =

(4)Stanton Number (NSt) = =

Physical significance of the above groups:

Reynold’s Number =

Grashof Number =

Prandtl Number =

Nusselt Number =

DIMENSION ANALYSIS FOR FORCED CONVECTION

Let us consider a fluid flowing across a heated tube, the variables with dimensions are given as
follows
S.NO Physical properties symbol unit
1 Tube Dia D m L
2 Fluid velocity v m/s Lt-1
3 Fluid density ρ Kg/m3 ML-3
4 Fluid Viscosity µ Kg/m.s ML-1t-1
5 Fluid Thermal conductivity k w/m. °K MLt-3T-1
6 Specific heat CP J/kg.°K L 2t-2T-1
7 Heat transfer coefficient h w/m2. °K Mt-3T-1
By Buckinghams π theorem, total number of dimensionless group
Π = variables – basic dimension
Π = 7- 4 = 3

Unit 2; Page 12
There are seven variables & four dimensions. so three independent dimensionless parameters
would be required to correlate the experimental data. The three dimensionless group will be
symbolised by Π1, Π2, Π3. So we can write the dimensional group as follows
Π1 = Da ρb µc kd v ----------1

Π2 = De ρf µg kh CP ----------2

Π3 = Di ρj µk kl h -------------3

Starting with Π1 we can write the dimensionless number as follows

Π1 = Da ρb µc kd v

M0L0T0t0 = La (ML-3)b (ML-1t-1)c (MLt-3T-1)d (Lt-1)

M0 = 0 = b + c + d

L0 = 0 = a + (-3b) –c + d + 1

T0 = 0 = -d

t0 = 0 = -c -3d-1

Solving the above equations we get

d = 0, b =1, c = -1, a = 1

the a, b, c, d values are substitute in equation 1

Π1 = Da ρb µc kd v

= D1 ρ1 µ-1 k0 v

= Reynolds number

For Π2 we can write the dimensionless number as follows

Π2 = De ρf µg kh CP

M0L0T0t0 = Le (ML-3)f (ML-1t-1)g (MLt-3T-1)h (L 2t-2T-1)

M0 = 0 = f + g + h

L0 = 0 = e + (-3f) – g + h + 2

T0 = 0 = -h -1

Unit 2; Page 13
t0 = 0 = - g -3h -2

Solving the above equations we get

e = 0, f =0, h = -1, g = 1

the e, f, g, h values are substitute in equation 2

Π2 = De ρf µg kh CP

Π2 = D0 ρ0 µ1 k-1 CP

= prandtl number

For Π3 we can write the dimensionless number as follows

Π3 = Di ρj µk kl h

M0L0T0t0 = Li (ML-3)j (ML-1t-1)k (MLt-3T-1)l (Mt-3T-1)

M0 = 0 = j + k + l + 1

L0 = 0 = i + (-3j) – k + l

T0 = 0 = -l -1

t0 = 0 = - k -3l -3

Solving the above equations we get

i = 1, j =0, k = 0, l = -1

the i, j, k, l values are substitute in equation 3

Π3 = Di ρj µk kl h

Π3 = D1 ρ0 µ0 k-1 h

= Nusselt number

We can relate the three dimensionless number as follows

(NNu) = Φ [NRe . NPr]

Dimension analysis shows a way to reduce the seven significant variables of forced convection
to three dimensionless parameters.

Unit 2; Page 14
For forced convection, the Reynolds number NRe influences the heat transfer characteristics and
the Grashof number NGr may be omitted.

For Forced convection:

DIMENSION ANALYSIS FOR NATURAL (FREE) CONVECTION

Let us consider a vertical plane adjacent to a fluid and the convection is of natural. Then free
convection heat transfer coefficient (h) shows depend on same variable as in free convection
excluding the velocity.
The fluid circulation is not passed an external agency but it passed by a buoyant force which
comes into play because of a density variation and temperature difference. If density (ρ) is the
bulk density (ρ0) the fluid density inside the heated layer and ΔT the temperature difference
between the heated fluid and bulk value of coefficient of thermal expansion β is defined as
------------------------------1
The buoyant force
--------------------------------------2
Substituting value of ρ in above equation we get

Hence in free convection the variable velocity is replaced by the variables ΔT, β,g
S.NO Physical properties symbol unit
1 Length L m L
2 Temperature difference ΔT °K T
3 Fluid density ρ Kg/m3 ML-3
4 Fluid Viscosity µ Kg/m.s ML-1t-1
5 Fluid Thermal conductivity k w/m. °K MLt-3T-1
6 Specific heat CP J/kg.°K L 2t-2T-1
7 Heat transfer coefficient h w/m2. °K Mt-3T-1
8 Fluid coefficient of thermal β.g m/ s2°K Lt-2T-1
expansion x Acceleration due to
gravity
By Buckinghams π theorem, total number of dimensionless group
Π = variables – basic dimension
Π = 8- 4 = 4
Π1 = La ρb µc kd ΔT ----------1

Π2 = Le ρf µg kh (β.g) ----------2

Π3 = Li ρj µk kl CP -------------3

Π4 = Lm ρn µo kp h ----------------4

Starting with Π1 we can write the dimensionless number as follows

Unit 2; Page 15
Π1 = La ρb µc kd ΔT
M0L0T0t0 = La (ML-3)b (ML-1t-1)c (MLt-3T-1)d (T1)
M0 = 0 = b + c + d
L0 = 0 = a + (-3b) –c + d
T0 = 0 = -d +1
t0 = 0 = -c -3d
Solving the above equations we get
d = 1, b =2, c = -3, a = 2
the a, b, c, d values are substitute in equation 1
Π1 = La ρb µc kd ΔT
= L2 ρ2 µ-3 k1 ΔT

For Π2 we can write the dimensionless number as follows

Π2 = Le ρf µg kh (β.g)
M0L0T0t0 = Le (ML-3)f (ML-1t-1)g (MLt-3T-1)h (L t-2T-1)
M0 = 0 = f + g + h
L0 = 0 = e + (-3f) – g + h + 1
T0 = 0 = -h -1
t0 = 0 = - g -3h -2
Solving the above equations we get
e = 1, f =0, h = -1, g = 1
the e, f, g, h values are substitute in equation 2
Π2 = Le ρf µg kh (β.g)
Π2 = L1 ρ0 µ1 k-1 (β.g)

For Π3 we can write the dimensionless number as follows

Π3 = Li ρj µk kl CP
M0L0T0t0 = Li (ML-3)j (ML-1t-1)k (MLt-3T-1)l (L 2t-2T-1)
M0 = 0 = j + k + l
L0 = 0 = i + (-3j) + k + l +2
T0 = 0 = -l -1
Unit 2; Page 16
t0 = 0 = - k -3l -2
Solving the above equations we get
i = 0, j =0, k = 1, l = -1
the i, j, k, l values are substitute in equation 3
Π3 = Li ρj µk kl CP
Π3 = L0 ρ0 µ1 k-1 CP

= prandtl number

For Π4 we can write the dimensionless number as follows

Π4 = Lm ρn µo kp h
M0L0T0t0 = Lm (ML-3)n (ML-1t-1)o (MLt-3T-1)p (Mt-3T-1)
M0 = 0 = n + o + p + 1
L0 = 0 = m + (-3n) – o + p
T0 = 0 = -p -1
t0 = 0 = - o -3p -3
Solving the above equations we get
m = 1, n =0,o = 0, p = -1
the m, n, o, p values are substitute in equation 4
Π4 = Lm ρn µo kp h
Π4 = L1 ρ0 µ0 k-1 h

= Nusselt number

Grashof number
= Π1 x Π2

= = = Grashof number

We can relate the three dimensionless number as follows

(NNu) = Φ [Ngr . NPr]
For natural convection where there is a buoyancy effect, NGr influences the heat transfer
characteristic more than NRe, so that NNu is a function of NGr and NPr.
For Natural convection:

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR FLAT PLATE

Unit 2; Page 17
 Heat transfer in flow over a flat plate occurs through the boundary layer found on the
plate. A physical description of the boundary layer using laminar, transition, and turbulent zones.
Far Heat transfer in laminar boundary layer flow, the following correlation for local nusset
number can be obtained from an approximate solution of the boundary layer equation of
momentum and energy.
NUx=0.332 (Rex)1/2 (Pr)1/3
0.5 ≤Pr≤50
NUx= local nusset number = xhx/k
Reynolds number = ρvx/µ
X = is the distance from leading edge on the plate
hx = is the local heat transfer coefficient
An average value of the heat transfer coefficient may be at the distance L may be obtained as

NUx=0.664 (Rex)1/2 (Pr)1/3

Far Heat transfer in turbulent boundary layer flow, a simple correlation in common use is
NUx=0.0296 (Rex)4/5 (Pr)1/3 --------------------a
5 X 105 ≤ Rex ≤107 0.6 ≤Pr≤60
The correlation eqn a was developed by using experimental friction factor data for turbulent
boundary layer flow past a flat plate in conjunction with the colburn analogy.
Empirical correlations for Natural convection (Equation for Natural convection)
 Many empirical correlations are available for tree convection from bodies of different
geometries and flow conditions.
 The average film heat transfer coefficient in natural convection is generally given by the
correlation of the form,
NNU = c[NGrNpr]m
 For isothermal surfaces, the exponent ‘m’ is 1/4 for laminar flow and 1/3 for turbulent
flow.
 The characteristic dimension ‘L’ to be used in Nusselt or Grashof number depends upon
the geometry of the problem.
 L is the height of the plate (or) cylinder length and for a horizontal cylinder D is the
diameter of the cylinder.
 The fluid properties must be evaluated at the film temperature.
I. Vertical plates and vertical cylinder:
Laminar flow: 104<NGrNpr<109
NNU = 0.59 (NGr. Npr) 1/4
Turbulent flow: 109<NGr. Npr<1013
NNu = 0.10 [NGr.Npr]1/3
III. Horizontal plates:
(i) Heated surface up (or) cooled surface down:
Laminar flow: 2×105<NGr. Npr< 2×107

Unit 2; Page 18
 NNU = 0.54 (NGr. Npr )1/4
Turbulent flow: 2×107<NGr. Npr< 3×1010
NNU = 0.14 (NGr. Npr)1/3
(ii)Heated surface down or cooled surface up:
Laminar flow: 3×105<NGr. Npr< 7×108
NNu = 0.27 (NGr. NPr)1/4
Turbulent flow: 7×108<NGr. NPr< 11×1010
NNu = 0.107 (NGr. NPr)1/3

Characteristic dimension L =

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR FLOW THROUGH PIPE

Condition 1: laminar flow
laminar flow Re < 2100 may occur in industrial equipment for heating and cooling of a
considerably viscous liquid of aliquid are solution sensitive to shear stress. Because it is
possibly to solve the problem of heat transfer to or from the fluid in laminar flow through
a pipe. A large volume of theoretically research work has been published in this area.

A simple correlation was suggested by sider & tate

The average correlation is applicable when

1 0.48 < NPr < 16700
2 The viscosity ratio is within the range 0.0044< µ/µw < 9.75
3 (Npe d/L) ≥ 108
µ = viscosity of the fluid at the bulk temperature
µw = viscosity of the fluid at the wall temperature
The fluid properties have to be known or evaluated at the mean bulk temp of the fluid.
Condition 2 turbulent flow
For fully developed turbulent flow through a pipe the following correlation suggested by
diltus & bolter

n=0.4 for heating

n=0.3 for cooling
The conditions for applicable for this correlation are

Unit 2; Page 19
 1 0.7 < NPr < 160
2 d/L < 0.1
3 Re ≥ 10,000
HEAT TRANSFER IN PACKED BEDS:
Heat transfer to overall from a gas flowing through a packed bed of solids is important
various industrial applications. For example in a gas – solid catalytic reactor heat generated by an
exothermic chemical reaction inside the catalyst pellets is conducted through the pellets and then
converted to the reaction mixture flow through the catalyst bed, while drying a moist solid by
passing a hot gas through it, heat transfer from bulk gas to the surface of the solid occurs by
forced convection through the packed bed or the material to be dried. A packed bed of inert solid
is often used for the recovery of waste heat from a hot gas stream. The heated bed serves as a
storage of thermal energy. The following heat transfer correlation for gas flow through a packed
bed is useful.
Packed bed:
(St) (Pr)2/3 =
90 ≤ (Re)dp ≤4000 Pr ≈ 0.7

NSt = NNu/NRe.Npr = (Stanton Number)

(Re)dp =

dp= Diameter of Particle

vo= Fluid velocity (or) superficial fluid
= Porosity (or) void fraction.
= 0.3 to 0.5 for uniform – sized spheres
= 0.71 for a bed of cubes.
= 0.79 for a bed of cylinders having length equal to the diameter.
The group of (St) (Pr)2/3 is called the colburn factor.
Fluidized bed:

Problems in Convection:
1. A vertical pipe of 100mm outer diameter and length 3m is in a room. Where, air is at
293K (200C). Calculate the rate of heat loss by free convection per meter length of the
pipe, if the pipe surface temperature is 373K (1000C).
Data given:
O.D = 100mm
Length = 3m
Air temperature = 293K
Unit 2; Page 20
 Surface temperature = 373K
Rate of heat loss?
Film temperature = 293 + 373 = = 333K
From Data:
The properties of air at the film temperature of 333K (600C) are,
= 18.97x10-6 m2/s; k = 28.96x10-3W/mK; NPr = 0.696
Solution:
Film temperature = 333K
For air be having as an ideal gas,

= = = 3.003x10-3K-1

ΔT= Tw-T∞ =373-293=80K.

Here the characteristic dimension is the length of the cylinder and NGr is given by,

NGr =

L=3m.

NGr =

NGr = 1.77
NRa = NGr. NPr =1.77 X 0.696
NRa = 1.23
For NGr. NPr = 1.77 ie,˃104
The average Nusselt number for the vertical cylinder is given by,
NNu = 0.10(NGr X NPr)1/3
NNu = 0.10(1.23 )1/3
NNu =497.3

h= NNu

h=497.3

h=4.8W/m2K
Rate of heat loss per metre length of pipe is,
Q = hAΔT
Q = hπDLΔT
= hπDΔT

=4.8XπX0.10X80

=120.64W/m.

Unit 2; Page 21
 2. A 30cm long glass plate is hung vertically in the air at 300K (27˚C). The plate is
maintained at 350K (77˚C). Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient for natural
convection.
Data given:
Length of glass plate = 30cm
Air temperature = 300K
Surface temperature = 350K
Heat transfer coefficient for natural convection?
From Data:
The properties of air at 325K (520C) are,
= 18.41x10-6 m2/s; k = 28.15x10-3W/mK; NPr = 0.7; = 3.077X10-3K-1;
Take free stream velocity of air = 4m/sec.
Solution:

NGr =

ΔT = = (350-300) = 50K.
L=0.3m.
g = 9.81m/s2

NGr =

NGr = 1.2 X 108

NPr = 0.7
NGr. NPr = 1.2x108x0.7 = 8.4x107
NNu=0.59(Ngr.Npr)1/4
NNu =0.59(8.4x107)1/4
NNu =56.48

h=

h=

h = 5.3W/m2k.
3. Calculate the rate of heat loss from a vertical cylinder 30cm in diameter and 175cm
height while standing in a 30km/hr wind at 15˚C.The surface temperature of the cylinder
is 35˚C.
Data given:
Diameter = 30cm
Velocity = 30km/hr
Temperature = 15˚C
Surface temperature = 35˚C
From Data:

Unit 2; Page 22
 At the mean film temperature, tf = = 25˚C
The thermo-physical properties of air
v = 15.33 10-6m2/s
k = 0.0263W/mK
Pr = 0.7
Solution:
Wind velocity = 30km/hr = = 8.33m/s

Re = = = 163014 (turbulent flow)

Nu = = 0.664(Re)0.5 X (Pr)0.33
= 0.664(163014)0.5 X (0.7)0.33 = 238.33
h = Nu = 238.33 = 20.89W/m2K
Convective heat loss,
Q = hA∆T = h(
= 20.89
= 688.86W.
4. A steam pipe 50mm diameter and 2.5m long has been placed horizontally and exposed to
still air at 250C. If the pipe wall temperature is 295 0C, determine the rate of heat loss. At
the mean temperature of 1600C.
Data Given:
Diameter = 50mm
Temperature = 250C
Wall temperature = 2950C
Mean temperature = 1600C
From data:
The thermo-physical properties of air are:
k = 3.64x10-2W/mK, = 30.09x10-6m2/s, NPr = 0.682 and = = 2.31x10-3
per K
Solution:

Grashof number, NGr = =

= = 0.8447 106

Gr.Pr = (0.8447 0.682 = 0.576 106

For laminar flow over horizontal cylinders within the range 103 < Gr.Pr < 109
NNu = 0.53 (Gr.Pr)

Unit 2; Page 23
 = 0.53(0.576 10 = 14.60
This gives the convective coefficient as

h= W/m2K

Heat loss Q = hA∆T

= 10.63 (
= 1126.5W.
5. A hot square plate 40cm x 40cm at 100 0C is exposed to atmospheric air at 20 0C. Make
calculations for the heat loss from both surfaces of the plate, if a) The plate is kept
vertical b) plate is kept horizontal.
Data given:
a= 40cm
b=40cm
Temperature = 1000C
Air temperature = 200C
From data:
The following empirical correlations have been suggested
NNu = 0.125(Gr.Pr)0.33 for vertical position of plate
NNu = 0.72 (Gr.Pr)0.25 for upper surface
= 0.35(Gr.Pr)0.25 for lower surface
Where the air properties are evaluated at the mean temperature
Solution:
At the mean temperature,
T= =600C
Data:
The thermo-physical properties of air are
= 1.06kg/m3; k = 0.028W/mK; Cp = 1.008KJ/kgK; = 18.97x10-6m2/s
= = 0.003K-1

NPr = =

= = 0.00072

NGr = =

= 4.19x108
NGr. NPr = 4.19x108x0.724

Unit 2; Page 24
 = 3.033x108
(a) When the plate is oriented vertically,
NNu = 0.125 x (3.033x108)0.33 = 78.69

h= NNu = = 5.508W/m2K
This gives a heat transfer of: Q = 2hA∆t
The factor 2 accounts for two sides of the plate,
Q = 2 x 5.508 x (0.4x0.4) x (100-20) = 141W
(b) When the plate is positioned horizontally
(i) For upper surface:
NNu = 0.72(3.003 x 108)0.25 = 95

h= NNu = = 6.65W/m2K
Qu = hA∆t = 6.65 x (0.4x0.4) x (100-20) = 85.12W
(ii) For lower surface:
NNu = 0.35(3.033 x 108)0.25 = 46.19

h= NNu = = 3.23W/m2K
Ql = hA∆t = 3.23 x (0.4x0.4) x (100-20) = 41.35W
Q = Qu + Ql = 85.12 +41.35 = 126.47W.
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. What is Dimensional - Analysis?
2. State the Buckingham’s theorem?
3. Define Hydrodynamic boundary layer (or) velocity boundary layer?
4. Define Thermal boundary layer?
5. What is forced convection?
6. State the influence of boundary layer on convection heat transfer.
7. When thermal and hydrodynamic boundaries are equal? Explain
8. When and where does Dittus-Boelter equation apply?
9. Give four examples for convective heat transfer
10. What is Nusselt Number? What is its significance?
11. What is Reynolds Number &what is its significance?
12. What is Prandtl Number &write its significance?
13. Write the equation for Stanton Number & write its significance?
14. Define Peclet Number and give its significance?
15. What is Graetz Number & write its significance?
15.Write Sieder – Tate equation for laminar flow.
16.State the Reynolds Analogy?
17. State Prandtl Analogy?
18.Chilton -Colburn Analogy – Define?
19. How will you find Thermal layer thickness?
20.How will you find boundary layer thickness?
PART-B
Unit 2; Page 25
1. Derive an expression for forced convection heat transfer under turbulent flow conditions
using dimensional analysis.
2. Derive an expression for free convection heat transfer under turbulent flow conditions
using dimensional analysis.
3. Discuss the influence of boundary layer on heat transfer?
4. Write the significance of the following dimensionless numbers: (i) Nu (ii) Re (iii) Pr (iv)
Gr (v) Gz (vi) St (vii) Pe (viii) Bi
5. Write short notes on the heat transfer in packed and fluidized beds.
6. Problem based on equations for forced convection.
7. Problem based on equations for free convection.
8. Problems based on boundary layer thickness
9. Describe in detail on heat transfer by forced convection under various regimes of flow
with the corresponding equations to find out heat transfer coefficient.
10. Differentiate natural and forced convection in heat transfer with examples.
11. Explain different equations available for the calculation of heat transfer coefficient under
flow conditions.
12. Write a short notes on heat transfer in packed and fluidized bed.
13. What do you mean by thermal boundary layer? Derive the equation for temperature
distribution in terms of y and s+ for thermal boundary layer?
14. Explain the concept of thermal and hydrodynamic boundary layer.
15. Derive the expression for calculating turbulent boundary layer thickness
16. Differentiate between Reynolds analogy and prandtl analogy.

Unit 2; Page 26