Digital Electronics

Digital Signals
Digital Signals have two basic states: 1 (logic high, or H, or on) 0 (logic low, or L, or off) Digital values are in a binary format. Binary means 2 states. A good example of binary is a light (only on or off)

 Strings of binary digits (bits)

One bit can store a number from 0 to 1 n bits can store numbers from 0 to 2n

Positional representation Each digit represents a power of 2 So 101 binary is 1 22 + 0 21 + 1 20 or 14 + 02 + 11=5

Converting Binary to Decimal

multiply digit by power of 2 Just like a decimal number is represented
7 27 128 6 26 64 5 25 32 4 24 16 3 23 8 2 22 4 1 21 2 0 20 1

What is 10011100 in decimal?

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

128 + 0 + 0 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 0 = 156

Binary
In Binary, there are only 0s and 1s. These numbers are called Base-2 ( Example: 010 )
2

Base 2 = Base 10

000 = 0 001 = 1 010 = 2 011 = 3 100 = 4 101 = 5 110 = 6 111 = 7

Binary to Decimal

We count in Base-10 (0 to 9)

Binary as a Voltage
Voltages are used to represent logic values:
A voltage present (called Vcc or Vdd) = 1 Zero Volts or ground (called gnd or Vss) = 0

A simple switch can provide a logic high or a logic low.

A Simple Switch
Here is a simple switch used to provide a logic value:
Vcc Vcc, or 1 Vcc Gnd, or 0

There are other ways to connect a switch.

Digital Logic
Basic Digital logic is based on 3 primary functions (the basic gates):
AND OR NOT

The AND function

The AND function:
If all the inputs are high the output is high If any input is low, the output is low

If this input AND this input are high, the output is high

AND Logic Symbol

Inputs

Output

If both inputs are 1, the output is 1 If any input is 0, the output is 0

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AND Logic Symbol

0 0
Determine the output

Inputs

Output

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AND Logic Symbol

0 1
Determine the output

Inputs

Output

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AND Logic Symbol

1 1
Determine the output

Inputs

Output

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AND Truth Table

To help understand the function of a digital device, a Truth Table is used:
Every possible input combination

Input 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1

Output 0 0 0 1

AND Function
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AND Gates
It is possible to have AND gates with more than 2 inputs. The same logic rules apply if any input

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The OR function
The OR function:
if any input is high, the output is high if all inputs are low, the output is low

If this input OR this input is high, the output is high

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OR Logic Symbol

Inputs

Output

If any input is 1, the output is 1 If all inputs are 0, the output is 0

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OR Logic Symbol
0 0
Determine the output

Inputs

Output

Animated Slide
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OR Logic Symbol
0 1
Determine the output

Inputs

Output

Animated Slide
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OR Logic Symbol
1 1
Determine the output

Inputs

Output

Animated Slide
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OR Truth Table
Truth Table
Input 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 Output 0 1 1 1

OR Function
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The NOT function

The NOT function:
If any input is high, the output is low If any input is low, the output is high

The output is the opposite state of the input The NOT function is often called INVERTER

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NOT Logic Symbol

Input

Output

If the input is 1, the output is 0 If the input is 0, the output is 1

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NOT Logic Symbol

Input

1
Determine the output

Output

Animated Slide
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NOT Logic Symbol

Input

0
Determine the output

Output

Animated Slide
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NOT Truth Table

Truth Table
Input 0 1 Output 1 0

NOT Function

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Combinational Logic
A circuit that utilizes more that 1 logic function has Combinational Logic. As an example, if a circuit has an AND gate connected to an Inverter gate, this circuit has combinational logic.

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Combinational logic
How would your describe the output of this combinational logic circuit?

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NAND Gate
The NAND gate is the combination of an NOT gate with an AND gate.

The Bubble in front of the gate is an inverter.

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Combinational logic
How would your describe the output of this combinational logic circuit?

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NOR gate
The NOR gate is the combination of the NOT gate with the OR gate.

The Bubble in front of the gate is an inverter.

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NAND and NOR gates

The NAND and NOR gates are very popular as they can be connected in more ways that the simple AND and OR gates.

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Basic Digital Chips

Digital Electronics devices are usually in a chip format. The chip is identified with a part number or a model number. A standard series starts with numbers 74, 4, or 14.
7404 is an inverter 7408 is an AND 7432 is an OR 4011B is a NAND
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Chips
Basic logic chips often come in 14-pin packages. Package sizes and styles vary. Pin 1 is indicated with a dot or half-circle Numbers are read counterclockwise from pin 1 (viewed from the top)
Pin 14 Pin 8

Pin 1

Pin 7
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Chips
Chips require a voltage to function Vcc is equal to 5 volts and is typically pin 14 Ground is typically pin 7
Pin 14 Pin 8

Pin 1

Pin 7
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Chips Specification Sheet

Voltage

The voltage and ground pins must be connected for the device to function. Check the specification sheet to make sure.

Ground
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Chips Specification Sheet

A B C

D
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Wiring a chip
IN Vcc IN OUT

Vcc

Probe

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More Two-Input Logic Gates

XOR
A B Y Y=A+B A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 0 1 1 0 A B Y = AB A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 1 1 1 0

NAND
Y A B

NOR
Y Y=A+B A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 1 0 0 0 A B

XNOR
Y Y=A+B A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 1 0 0 1

Exclusive OR
Exclusive OR What lay people mean by or Symbol is
Plus in a circle

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Others

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Multiple-Input Logic Gates

NOR3
A B C Y Y = A+B+C A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Y 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A B C D

AND4
Y

Y = ABCD A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

NAND is Universal
Can express any Boolean Function Equivalents below

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Using NAND as Invert-OR

Also reverse inverter diagram for clarity

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NOR Also Universal

Dual of NAND

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Representation: Schematic

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Representation: Boolean Algebra

F = X + YZ
2n rows: where n # of variables

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What is Noise?
Anything that degrades the signal
E.g., resistance, power supply noise, coupling to neighboring wires, etc.

Example: a gate (driver) could output a 5 volt signal but, because of resistance in a long wire, the signal could arrive at the receiver with a degraded value, for example, 4.5 volts

Noise Driver 5V
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Receiver 4.5 V

The Static Discipline

Given logically valid inputs, every circuit element must produce logically valid outputs Discipline ourselves to use limited ranges of voltages to represent discrete values

Noise Margins
Driver Receiver

NMH = VOH VIH NML = VIL VOL

Output Characteristics Logic High Output Range VO H

VDD

Input Characteristics Logic High Input Range Forbidden Zone VIH VIL Logic Low Input Range

NMH

Logic Low Output Range

VO L

NML

GND

Logic Family Examples

Logic Family TTL CMOS LVTTL LVCMOS VDD 5 (4.75 - 5.25) 5 (4.5 - 6) 3.3 (3 - 3.6) 3.3 (3 - 3.6) VIL 0.8 1.35 0.8 0.9 VIH 2.0 3.15 2.0 1.8 VOL 0.4 0.33 0.4 0.36 VOH 2.4 3.84 2.4 2.7

Identities
Use identities to manipulate functions You can use distributive law

X + YZ = ( X + Y )( X + Z )
to transform from
to

F = X + YZ

F = ( X + Y )( X + Z )
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Table of Identities

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Duals
Left and right columns are duals Replace AND and OR, 0s and 1s

Single Variable Identities

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Commutativity
Operation is independent of order of variables

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Associativity
Independent of order in which we group

So can also be written as and

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XYZ

X +Y + Z

Distributivity

Can substitute arbitrarily large algebraic expressions for the variables

Distribute an operation over the entire expression

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DeMorgans Theorem
Used a lot NOR invert, then AND

NAND invert, then OR

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Truth Tables for DeMorgans

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Algebraic Manipulation
Consider function

F = XYZ + XYZ + XZ

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Simplify Function
F = XYZ + XYZ + XZ
Apply

F = XY ( Z + Z ) + XZ
Apply

F = XY 1 + XZ
Apply

F = XY + XZ
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F = XY + XZ

Fewer Gates

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Consensus Theorem
XY + XZ + YZ = XY + XZ
The third term is redundant
Can just drop

Proof summary:
For third term to be true, Y & Z both must be 1 Then one of the first two terms is already 1!
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Standard Forms
Definitions:
Product terms AND BZ Sum terms OR X + This is logical product and sum, not arithmetic

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Definition: Minterm
Product term in which all variables appear once (complemented or not)

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Number of Minterms
For n variables, there will be 2n minterms Like binary numbers from 0 to 2n-1 Often numbered same way (with decimal conversion)

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Maxterms
Sum term in which all variables appear once (complemented or not)

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Minterm related to Maxterm

Minterm and maxterm with same subscripts are complements

m j = Mj
Example

m3 = XYZ = X + Y + Z = M 3
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Sum of Minterms
OR all of the minterms of truth table row with a 1
ON-set minterms

F Y X+Z Z = Z YX X X X+ ZY Y Y + + Z
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Sum of Products
Simplifying sum-of-minterms can yield a sum of products Difference is each term need not be a minterm
i.e., terms do not need to have all variables

A bunch of ANDs and one OR

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Two-Level Implementation
Sum of products has 2 levels of gates

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More Levels of Gates?

Whats best?
Hard to answer More gate delays (more on this later) But maybe we only have 2-input gates
So multi-input ANDs and ORs have to be decomposed

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Complement of a Function
Definition: 1s & 0s swapped in truth table Mechanical way to derive algebraic form
Take the dual
Recall: Interchange AND and OR, and 1s & 0s

Complement each literal

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Complement of F
Not surprisingly, just sum of the other minterms
OFF-set minterms

In this case m1 + m3 + m4 + m6

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Product of Maxterms
Recall that maxterm is true except for its own case So M1 is only false for 001

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Product of Maxterms
Can express F as AND of all rows that should evaluate to 0

F = M1 M 3 M 4 M 6
or

F = ( X + Y + Z )( X + Y + Z ) ( X + Y + Z )( X + Y + Z )
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Product of Sums
Result: another standard form ORs followed by AND
Terms do not have to be maxterms

F = X (Y + Z )( X + Y + Z )

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