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    Computer Architecture

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    Computer Architecture

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    Computer Architecture

    Uploaded by

    nurasadiq14

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
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    of 30

    Binary Addition

    Addition of binary numbers is similar to the decimal addition.


    The following points will help in understanding the rules of binary
    addition:
    –0+0=0
    –0+1=1
    –1+0=1
    – 1 + 1 = 0 with a carry of 1 or = 102
    Binary Subtraction

    • It is also performed in a manner similar to that used in decimal


    subtraction.
    • Because binary system has only two digits, binary subtraction
    requires more borrowing operations than decimal subtraction.
    • The four rules for binary subtraction are as under:
    Binary Subtraction

    • 1. 0-0=0
    • 2. 1-0=1
    • 3. 1-1=0
    • 4. 0-1=1 with a borrow of 1 from the next column of the
    minuend or 10-1=1.
    Binary Subtraction
    • Example 1: Subtract 01012 from 11102
    • Solution:
    Complement of a number
    • In digital work, two types of complements of a binary number
    are used for complemental subtraction:
    1’s complement
    • The 1’s complement of a binary number is obtained by changing
    its each 0 into a 1 and each 1 into a 0.
    Example: Find the 1’s complement of 1002 and 11102
    Solution: The 1’s complement of 1002 is 0112 and of 11102 is
    00012.
    Complement of a number
    • 2’s complement
    • The 2’s complement of a binary number is obtained by adding 1 to
    its 1’s complement.
    2’s complement = 1’s complement + 1

    Example 1: Find the 2’s complement of 10112.


    Solution: Its 1’s complement is 01002. Next, add 1 to get 01012.
    Hence 2’s complement of 10112 is 01012.
    LOGIC CIRCUITS

    • Definition of a logic gate:


    • A logic gate is an electronic circuit which makes logic decisions.
    • It has one output and one or more inputs. The output signal appears
    only for certain combinations of input signals.
    • Logic gates serve as the basic building blocks from which most of the digital
    systems are built up.
    • They implement the hardware logic function based on the logical
    algebra developed by George Boole which is called Boolean algebra.
    • Variables used in Boolean algebra can only be one of the two values
    i.e. either 0 or 1.
    LOGIC CIRCUITS

    • Digital circuits called logic gates can be constructed from diodes,


    transistors, and resistors connected, so that the circuit output is
    the result of a basic logic operation (OR, AND, NOT) performed
    on the inputs.
    Types of logic gate

    • The three types of essential logic gate are:


    – AND gate
    – OR gate
    – NOT gate
    • With these three gates, any possible Boolean equation can be
    implemented.
    Truth table

    • A truth table can be defined as a table which gives the output


    state for all possible input combinations.
    • In other words, a truth table is a means for describing how a
    logic circuit’s output depends on the logic levels present at the
    circuit’s inputs.
    • Fig. 6.4 illustrates a truth table for one type of two-input logic
    circuit.
    Truth table
    Truth table

    • Note: There are 4 table entries for the two-input truth tables, 8
    entries for a three-input truth table and 16 entries for the four-
    input truth table.
    • The number of input combinations will equal 2N for an N-input
    truth table.
    The OR gate

    • The truth table for a two-input OR gate is shown in Fig. 6.5 (a)
    and its equivalent symbol in Fig. 6.5 (b).
    • The two inputs have been marked as A and B and the output as
    A+B.
    • The table shows that A+B is logic 1 for every combination of
    input levels where one or more inputs are 1. The only case
    where A+B is a 0 is when both inputs are 0.
    The OR gate

    • The OR gate logic operation


    – The OR gate has an output of 1 when either A or B or both are 1 otherwise it is 0.

    The Boolean expression for the OR operation is F= A+B


    Note: In this expression, the + sign does not stand for ordinary addition, it
    stands for the OR operation and F=A+B is read as “ F equals A OR B”.
    The AND gate

    • The truth table for a two-input AND gate is shown in Fig. 6.6
    (a) and its equivalent symbol in Fig. 6.6 (b).
    • The two inputs have been marked as A and B and the output as
    A●B.
    • The table shows that A●B is a logic 1 only when both A and B
    are at the logic 1 state. For any case where one of the inputs is 0, the
    output is 0.
    The AND gate

    • The AND gate logic operation


    – The AND gate has an output of 1 only if all its inputs are 1. Its output
    would be 0 if any of its inputs is 0.

    The Boolean expression for the AND operation is F = A●B


    Note: In this expression, the sign ● stands for the Boolean AND operation and
    not the multiplication operation. Also note that, the expression F = A●B is read
    as “ F equals A AND B”.
    The NOT gate

    • It is so called because its output is NOT the same as its input.


    • It is also called an inverter because it inverts (compliments) the input
    signal.
    • All it does is to invert the input as shown in its Fig. 6.7 (a).
    • It has one input and one output as shown in Fig. 6.7 (b)
    • For example, if the variable A is subjected to the NOT operation, the
    result F can be expressed as F = Ā
    • Where the over bar represents the NOT operation.
    • This expression is read as “F equals NOT A” or “F equals the inverse
    of A” or “F equals the compliment of A” .
    • Each of these is a common usage and all indicate that the logic value
    F = Ā is opposite to the logic value of A.
    The NOT gate

    • The truth table in Fig. 6.7 (a) clarifies this for the two cases
    and, that is
    • because 0 is not 1
    • because 1 is not 0
    NOR Gates and NAND Gates

    • Two other types of logic gates, NOR gates and NAND gates are widely
    used in digital circuits.
    • These gates actually combine the basic AND, OR, and NOT
    operations, so it is a relatively very simple to write their Boolean
    expressions.
    The NOR Gate

    • It is a NOT-OR gate. It can also be made out of an OR gate by


    combining an inverter in its output.
    • The symbol for a two-input NOR gate is shown in Fig. 6.8.
    • It is the same as the OR gate symbol except that it has a small
    circle on the output.
    • The small circle represents the inversion operation.
    • Thus, the NOR gate operates like an OR gate followed by an
    INVERTER, so that the output expression for the NOR gate is
    The NOR Gate
    The NAND Gate

    • It is a NOT-AND gate. It can be obtained by connecting a NOT


    gate in the output of an AND gate.
    • The symbol for a two-input NAND gate is shown in Fig. 6.9 (a).
    • It is the same as the AND gate symbol except for the small
    circle on its output.
    • Once again, the small circle denotes the inversion operation.
    • Thus, the NAND operates like an AND gate followed by an
    INVERTER, so that the output expression for the NAND gate is
    The NAND Gate
    Types of Logic circuits

    • Logic circuits can be classified into Combinational logic circuits and


    Sequential logic circuits.
    • These are the basic circuits used in most of the digital electronic
    devices like Computers, Calculators, Mobile phones, etc.
    Types of Logic circuits

    • Combinational logic circuits:


    – Combinational logic circuits are basically made up of digital logic gates like
    AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate and universal gates (NAND gate and NOR gate)
    – All these gates are combined together to form a complicated switching
    circuit.
    – In combinational logic circuit, the output at any instant of time depends
    only on present input at that particular time.
    – Combinational logic circuits do not have any memory elements.
    – Combinational circuits are used in microprocessor and microcontroller for
    designing the hardware and software components of a computer .
    Combinational logic circuit
    Types of Logic circuits…..

    • Sequential logic circuits:


    – In sequential circuit the output of the logic device is not only dependent
    on the present inputs to the device, but also on past inputs.
    – Unlike combinational circuits, the sequential circuits have memory devices
    in order to store the past outputs.
    – In fact sequential digital logic circuits are nothing but combinational
    circuit with memory .
    – Examples of sequential logic circuits are counters, flip flops, constructed
    using digital logic gates and memory .
    Sequential logic circuit
    Combinational Logic Circuits

    • Combinational logic circuits are the ones in which the logic level
    at the output depends on the combination of logic levels present at
    the inputs.
    • A combinational circuit has no memory characteristic, so its
    output depends only on the current value of its inputs.
    • To simplify the combinational logic circuits, two methods will be
    used; one uses Boolean algebra theorems; the other uses a mapping
    technique.
    Assignment

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