ABSTRACT

The experiment was conducted in order to demonstrate Bernoulli`s Theorem to

investigate validity of Bernoulli`s Theorem when applied to the steady flow of water in
tapered duct and to measure the flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a
rigid convergent or divergent tube of geometry for a range of steady flow rates. In fluid
dynamics, Bernoulli principles states that for an viscid flow, an increase in the speed of
the fluid occurs silmutaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid
potential energy . In order to demonstrate Bernoulli`s Theorem , model FM:24 Bernoulli
apparatus test is used in this experiment .The water flow rate is measure by using
volumetric method . The time to collect 3L water in the tank was measured. Lastly ,the
flow rate , velocity , and by using continuity equation to find the velocities and find the
difference of the velocities were calculated using the data of the results and from the data
given .Based on result taken it has been analysed that the velocity of the fluid is increase
when it flowing from wider to narrower tube regardless the type of flow and pressure
different. The velocity is increase as the pressure different is increase for all types of flow.
The velocities different is a positive value that shown this experiment is valid for
bernoulli`s equation.

INTRODUCTION
Bernoullis theorem, in fluid dynamics is the relation among the pressure,
velocity, and elevation in a moving fluid which are liquid or gas, the
compressibility and viscosity which is internal friction of which are negligible
and the flow of which is steady, or laminar. (Daniel Bernoulli ,1738) .
Bernoulli's principle is named after the Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli
who published his principle in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738. In the 1700s,
Daniel Bernoulli investigated the forces present in a moving fluid The British

engineer Osborne Reynolds verify the existence of these laminar , transilation and
turbulent flow regimes by injecting some dye streaks into the flow in a glass pipe .
Laminar flow is characterized by smooth streamlines and highly ordered
motion . When the flows is laminar , the dye streak forms a straight and
smooth line at low velocities and when the flow become turbulent , it has a
burst of fluctuation in the transitional regime and ziq zag rapidly and
randomly. (A.Cengel ,2006)

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli principles states that for an viscid flow, an increase in
the speed of the fluid occurs silmutaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in
the fluid potential energy .( A.Cengel , 2006) .Bernoullis Principle can be
demonstrated by the Bernoulli equation. The Bernoulli equation is an
approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation.While the
Continuity equation relates the speed of a fluid that moving through a pipe to
the cross sectional area of the pipe. It says that as a radius of the pipe
decreases the speed of fluid flow must increase and vice-versa. The theorem

states that the sum of the pressure, the potential, and kinetic energy per unit
volume is equal to a fixed constant at any point of a fluid.
Bernoulli's principle can be explained in terms of the law of conservation
of energy.

The work done by corresponding volumes in the wider and

narrower pipes will be expressed by the product of the pressure and the
volume. Since the speed is greater in the narrower pipe, the kinetic energy of
that volume is greater.Then, by the law of conservation of energy, this
increase in kinetic energy must be balanced by a decrease in the pressurevolume product, or, since the volumes are equal, by a decrease in pressure.
Bernoulli`s Theorem Demonstration Model : FM 24 apparatus consists of a
classical Venturi made of clear acrylic .A series of wall tappings allow
measurement of the static pressure distribution along the converging duct ,
while a total head tube is provided to traverse along the centre line of the
test section . These tappings are connected to a manometer bank
incorporating a manifold with air bleed valve. Pressurization of the
manometers is facilitated by a hand pump.
This unit has been designed to be used with a Hydraulics Bench for
students to study the characteristics of flow through both converging and
diverging sections . During the experiment , water is fed through a hose
connector and students may control the flow rate of the water by adjusting of
a flow regulator valve at the outlet of the test section.
The venturi can be demonstrated as a means of flow measurement and
the discharge coefficient can be determined . This test section can be used to
demonstrate those

circumstances to which Bernoulli`s Theorem may be

applied as well as in other circumstances where the theorem is not sufficient

to describe the fluid behavior.
AIM
The objective of this experiement is to demonstrate Bernoulli`s Theorem.
Beside to investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to
the steady flow of water in a tapered duct and to find the time taken to
collect 3L of water, the volumetric flow rates of the water,the pressure
difference at all manometer tube which is static head, velocity, dynamic head
and also the total head.

THEORY
The bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure ,
velocity , and elevation and is valid in a regions of steady , incompressible
flow , where net frictional forces are negligible.( A.Cengel , 2006 )
The well-known Bernoulli equation is derived under the following
assumptions which are the liquid is incompressible and non-viscous. Beside
the flow is steady and the velocity of the liquid is less than the critical
velocity for the liquid. Also ,there is no loss of energy due to friction. Then ,
this is expressed with the following equation:

Bernoulli's equation shows

that the sum of the three

quantities are constant. Therefore the three terms must be interchangeable so that, for
example, if in a horizontal system the velocity head is increased then the pressure head
must decrease.
p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section
= Density of the flowing fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
h* = Total (stagnation) head

According to the Bernoullis theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, the total head h*
at any cross section is constant. In a real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as
well as measurement uncertainties, the results will deviate from the theoretical ones. In
experimental setup, the centerline of all the cross sections are considering lie on the same
horizontal plane (which may choose as the datum, z = 0, and thus, all the z values are
zeros so that the above equation reduces to:

This represents the total head

at a cross section.
The static pressure is that pressure which would be measured by an instrument moving
with the flow. However, such a measurement is rather difficult to make in a practical
situation. There was no pressure variation normal to straight streamlines. This fact makes
it possible to measure the static pressure in a flowing fluid using a wall pressure tapping,
placed in a region where the flow streamlines are straight, as shown in Figure 4 (a). The

pressure tap is a small hole, drilled carefully in the wall, with its axis perpendicular to the
surface. If the hole is perpendicular to the duct wall and free from burrs, accurate
measurements of static pressure can be made by connecting the tap to a suitable pressure
measuring instrument.

Figure

4:

measurement of
static pressure

In a fluid stream far

from a wall, or
where streamlines are curved, accurate static pressure measurements can be made by
careful use of a static pressure probe, shown in Figure 4(b). Such probes must be
designed so that the measuring holes are place correctly with respect to the probe tip and
stem to avoid erroneous results. In use, the measuring section must be aligned with the
local flow direction. Static pressure probes or any variety of forms are available
commercially in sizes as small as 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in diameter. The stagnation pressure
is obtained when a flowing fluid is decelerated to zero speed by a frictionless process. In
incompressible flow, the Bernoulli Equation can be used to relate changes in speed and
pressure along a streamline for such a process. Neglecting elevation differences, so

If the static pressure is p at a point in the flow where the speed is v, then the stagnation
pressure, Po, where the stagnation speed, Vo, is zero, may be computed from
6

Thus, if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure could be measured at a point, this
would give the local flow speed.

Figure 5 :
silmutaneous
measurement
stagnation

of
and

static pressure

In Figure 5(a), the static pressure corresponding to point A is read from the wall static
pressure tap. The stagnation pressure is measured directly at A by the total head tube, as
shown. The stem of the total head tube is placed downstream from the measurement
location to minimize disturbance of the local flow. Two probes often are combined, as in
the Pitot-static tube shown in Figure 5(b). The inner tube is used to measure the
stagnation pressure at point B, while the static pressure at C is sensed using the tapping
on the wall. In flow fields where the static pressure variation in the streamwise direction
is small, the Pitot-static tube may be used to infer the speed at point B in the flow by
assuming pB =pC .

There are factors can cause for pressure to vary along the pipe such as friction from
the pipes inner surface, the diameter of the pipe; if it is small the pressure is lower
because the velocity is increased there are bernoulli`s theory , density of the fluid in the
pipe, the height of the pipe at which the pipe stands or the height at which the flow
through i.e. gravity, and turbulence of the fluid. (Solteq,2014)
The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential
pressure gauge. The venturi tube has a converging portion, a throat
and a diverging portion as shown in the figure below. The function of
the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the and lower its
static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus
developed, which pressure difference is correlated with the rate of
discharge. The diverging cone to change the area of the stream back to
the entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.

Assume incompressible flow and no frictional losses, from Bernoullis

Equation

Use of the continuity

Equation Q = A1V1 = A2V2, equation (1) becomes

Ideally,

However, in
the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that
given by equation (3.18) because of frictional effects and consequent head
loss between inlet and throat. Therefore,

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

The apparatus used in this experiment are Bernoullis principle
apparatus, weighing tank, stopwatch and water.

10

1. Manometer Tubes
3. Water Inlet
5. Air Bleed Screw
7. Gland nut

2. Test Section
4. Unions
6. Discharge Valve

8.Hypodermic probe

9. Adjustable feet

Figure: Bernoulli
experimental
apparatus

figure:
stop watch
Figure

venturi meter
and the scale

11

PROCEDURE
General Start-up
The bernoullis theorem Demonstration (model :FM 24) is supplied ready for use and only
requires connection to the Hydraulic Bench (model :FM 110 ) as follows:
1. The clear acrylic test section is ensure have been installed with the converging section
upstream . The unions have to tighten (hand tight only). The total pressure probe have
been withdrawn fully before releasing the couplings to dismantel the test section.
2. The apparatus must be located on the flat top of the bench .
3. A spirit level has been attached to baseboard and the feet must be adjust to level unit on
top of the bench .
4. Water have been filled into the the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench until
approximately 90% full.
5. The flexible inlet tube has been connected by using the quick release coupling in the
bed of the channel .
6. A flexible hose was connected to the outlet and make sure that it is directed into the
channel.
7. The outlet flow control valve at the Bernoulli`s Theorem Demonstration unit was
partially opened .
8. The bench flow control valve , V1 was fully closed then switch on the pump.

12

9. V1 was opened gradually and allow piping to fill with water until all air has been
expelled from the system .
10. Trapped bubbles in the glass tube or plastic transfer tube have to check. The trapped
bubbles was removed from the system for better accuracy.

Note : to remove the air bubbles , bleed the air out as follow:
i.Get a pen or screw driver to press the air bleed valve at the top right side of manometer
board .
ii.Air bleed valve was pressed lightly to allow fluid and trapped air to escape out.

11. Water will flow into the venturi and discharge into the collection tank of hydraulic
bench at that time.
12. Proceed to increased flow rate of the water . The discharge valve is start to closed
when the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble , to reduce the flow to
the maximum measureable flow rate.
13. Then after the level of water in the manometer tubes will begins to display different
level of water heights. If the water level in the manometer board is too low where it is out
of visible point , open V1 to increase the static pressure. If the water level is too high ,
open the outlet control valve to lower the static pressure. Note: The water level can be
adjusted facilitate by the air bleed valve.
14. V1 and outlet control valve was adjusted to obtain a flow through the test section and
observe that the static pressure profile along the converging and diverging sections is

13

indicated on its respective manometers . The total head pressure along the venture tube
can be measured by traversing the hypodermic tube.
Note : The manometer tube connected to the tapping adjacent to the outlet flow control
valve is used as a datum when setting up equivalent conditions for flow through test
section.
15.The volumetric tank with a stop watch was used to measure the actual flow of water .
Bernoulli`s Theorem Demonstration
1. the general start up procedures was performed.
2. All manometer tubing was connected properly to the corresponding pressure taps and
are air bubble free.
3. The discharge valve was adjusted to high measurable flow rate .
4. After the level was stabilized , the water flow rate was measured by using volumetric
method .
5. The hypodemic tube was slide gently (total head measuring ) connected to manometer
#H , so its end reached the cross section of the venturi meter tube at #A . Wait for some
time and note down the reading from manometer #H and #A. The reading shown by
manometer #H is the sum of the static head and velocity heads i.e the
total stagnation head (h*) , because the hypodermic tube is held
against the flow of fluid forcing it to a stop (zero velocity ). The reading
manometer #A measures just the pressure head (h i) because the

14

hypodermic tube was held against the flow of fluid forcing it to a stop
(zero velocity). The reading in mamometer #A measures just the
pressure tap , which does not obstruct the flow, thus measuring the
flow static pressure .
6. Step 5 was repeated for others cross section (#B ,#C, #D, #E, #F)
7. Step 3 to 6 was repeated with three other decreasing flow rates by
regulating the venturi discharge valve .
8. The velocity,ViB is calculated by using the Bernoulli`s equation where
ViB =
9. The velocity , Vic .is calculated by using the continuity equation
where Vic= Qav/Ai
10. The difference between two calculated velocities is determined.
General Shut-down
1. The water supply valve and venturi discharge valve was closed
2. The water supply pump was turn off.

15

RESULT
FIRST READING
Volume (L)

Average Time (min)

0.28

Flow rate (LPM)

10.71

Cross section

Using bernoulli equation

h* = hH
(mm)

hi

ViB =

(mm)
(m/s)

16

Using continuity equation

Ai =

Difference

Vic =

ViB = Vic

Qav / Ai

(m/s)

(m/s)

(m2)

174

164

0.44

0.000531

0.34

0.10

171

159

0.49

0.000366

0.49

0.00

17

170

168

130

0..89

0.000201

0.89

0.00

151

0.58

0.000314

0.57

0.01

166

154

0.48

0.000380

0.47

0.01

165

157

0.40

0.000531

0.34

0.06

SECOND READING
Volume (L)

Average Time (min)

0.29

Flow rate (LPM)

10.34

Cross section

Using bernoulli equation

h* = hH
(mm)

hi

ViB =

(mm)
(m/s)

18

Using continuity equation

Ai =

Difference

Vic =

ViB = Vic

Qav / Ai

(m/s)

(m/s)

(m2)

190

168

0.66

19

0.000531

0.34

0.32

187

160

0.73

0.000366

0.47

0.26

183

99

1.28

0.000201

0.86

0.42

179

138

0.80

0.000314

0.55

0.25

175

144

0.61

0.000380

0.45

0.16

174

154

0.39

0.000531

0.32

0.07

THIRD READING
Volume (L)

Average Time (min)

0.32

Flow rate (LPM)

9.38

Cross section

Using bernoulli equation

h* = hH
(mm)

hi

ViB =

(mm)

Using continuity equation

Ai =
(m2)

(m/s)

Difference

Vic =

ViB = Vic

Qav / Ai

(m/s)

(m/s)

221

186

0.83

0.000531

217

177

0.89

0.000366

212

68

1.68

0.000201

0.78

0.90

207

135

1.18

0.000314

0.50

0.68

205

151

1.03

0.000380

0.41

0.62

202

167

0.69

0.000531

0.29

0.40

CALCULATION

20

0.29
0.43

0.54
0.46


Area , Ai =
for A :

21

Ai =

22

=
= 0.000531 mm2
for B :

Ai =

23

=
= 0.000366 mm2
for C :

Ai =

24

=
= 0.000201 mm2

201.0
for D :

25

Ai =

26

=
= 0.000314 mm2
for E :

Ai =

27

=
= 0.000380 mm2

380.1
for F :

28

Ai =

=
= 0.000531 mm2

530.9
First reading : Q = 10.71 LPM
For A

29

ViB =

2g (

=
= 0.44m/s

30

Qav
10.71
6000
Vic =

31

=
= 0.34m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.44 - 0.34
=0.10 m/s
For B

ViB =

2g (
32

=
= 0.49m/s

2x9
Qav
33

Vic =

10.71
6000
=

= 0.49m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.49-0.49
=0 m/s

For C

34

ViB =

2g (

=
= 0.89m/s

35

Qav
10.71
6000
Vic =

36

=
= 0.89m/s
Difference = Vib - Vic
=0.89-0.89
=0 m/s
For D

ViB =

2g (
37

=
= 0.58m/s

2x9
Qav
38

Vic =

10.71
6000
=

= 0.57m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.58-0.57
=0.01m/s

For E

39

ViB =

2g (

=
= 0.48m/s

40

Qav
10.71
6000
Vic =

41

=
= 0.47m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.48-0.47
=0.01m/s
For F

ViB =

2g (
42

=
= 0.40m/s

2x9
Qav
43

Vic =

10.71
6000
=

= 0.34m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.40-0.34
=0.06m/s

Second reading : Q = 10.34 LPM

For A

44

ViB =

2g (

=
= 0.66m/s

45

Qav
10.34
6000
Vic =

46

=
= 0.34m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.66-0.34
=0.32m/s
For B

ViB =

2g (
47

=
=0.73 m/s

2x9
Qav
48

Vic =

10.34
6000
=

= 0.47m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.73-0.47
=0.26m/s

For C

49

ViB =

2g (

=
= 1.28m/s

50

Qav
10.34
6000
Vic =

51

=
=0.86 m/s
Difference = Vib - Vic
=1.28-0.86
=0.42m/s
For D

ViB =

2g (
52

=
= 0.80m/s

2x9
Qav
53

Vic =

10.24
6000
=

= 0.55m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.80-0.55
=0.25 m/s

For E

54

ViB =

2g (

=
= 0.61m/s

55

Qav
10.34
6000
Vic =

56

=
= 0.45m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.61-0.45
=0.16
For F

ViB =

2g (
57

=
= 0.39m/s

2x9
Qav
58

Vic =

10.34
6000
=

= 0.32m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.39-0.32
=0.07m/s

Third reading : Q = 9.38 LPM

For A

59

ViB =

2g (

=
= 0.83m/s

60

Qav
9.38
6000
Vic =

61

=
= 0.29m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.83-0.29
=0.54m/s
For B

ViB =

2g (
62

=
= 0.89m/s

2x9
Qav
63

Vic =

9.38
6000
=

= 0.43m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.89-0.43
=0.46m/s

For C

64

ViB =

2g (

=
= 1.68m/s

65

Qav
9.38
6000
Vic =

66

=
= 0.78m/s
Difference = Vib - Vic
=1.68-0.78
=0.90m/s
For D

ViB =

2g (
67

=
= 1.18m/s

2x9
Qav
68

Vic =

9.38
6000
=

= 0.50m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=1.18-0.50
=0.68m/s

For E

69

ViB =

2g (

=
= 1.03m/s

70

Qav
9.38
6000
Vic =

71

=
= 0.41m/s
Difference = Vib - Vic
=1.03-0.41
=0.62m/s
For F

ViB =

2g (
72

=
= 0.69m/s

2x9
Qav
73

Vic =

9.38
6000
=

= 0.29m/s

Difference = Vib - Vic

=0.69-0.29
=0.40m/s

DISCUSSION

In this experiment Bernoulli`s Theorem demonstration Apparatus Model

FM:2 along with the hydraulic bench were used to achieve the objectives of
this experiment .This instrument was combined with a venturi meter and the
pad of manometer tubes which indicate the pressure of hA until hG but for
this experiment only the pressure in manometer hA until hF being measured.
A venturi is basically a converging-diverging section , typically placed
between tube or duct sections with fixed cross-sectional area.. The flow rates

through the venturi meter can be related to pressure measurements by using

74

Bernoullis equation. This experiment is based on the Bernoullis principle

which relates between velocities with the pressure for an inviscid flow.
Based on the calculation made after the experiment, the velocity of the
flowing fluid is increased as the fluid flows from a wider to narrower pipe
regardless the pressure difference and type of flow of each result taken.The
result show a rise at each manometer tubes when the pressure difference
increases. This is shown in all the results tables, where the velocity of water
that flows in the tapered duct increases as the duct area decreases,
regardless of the pressure difference and type of flow of each result
taken.From the analysis of the results, it can be concluded that the velocity of
water decrease as the water flow rate decrease. By using bernoulli equation ,
result shown that the highest velocity , V ib is at cross section C which is there
is the smaller diameter , 16mm. By using continuity equation , the V iC can be
determine.The result shows that all difference V ib -Vic

is positive value ,

therefore , its shows that this experiment is done successfully.

According to objective ,the validity of the Bernoulli Equation is proven
under this experiment . When the pressure head increase , the velocity head
will decrease .Hence , the speed of the fluid is inversely proportional to the
pressure of the fluid. The experiment proof that the Bernoullis equation is
valid for all flow . So this experiment is also consider as successful.
Compare to experiment done in Hydraulic Lab , at Islamic University by Dr
Khalil M. Alastal. He verify Bernoulli`s equation by demonstrate the
relationship between pressure head and kinetic head . In that experiment ,
the total head = static head +dynamic head have to be calculated as long to

75

determine whether the Bernoulli`s equation is valid or not . Other than that ,
Bernoulli`s theorem Demonstration also can be done by using F1-10 hydraulic
bench and F1-15 bernoulli`s apparatus test.
In our experiment , there must be some parallax error and zero error
occurs when taking the measurement of each data. The observer must have
not read the level of static head properly. Moreover, the eyes are not
perpendicular to the water level on the manometer. Thus, this error will
contribute to the different in the values obtained. Besides that , there are air
bubble trapped in the tube and the manometer that give some error to
pressure taken .Therefore, there are some minor effects on the calculations
due to the errors . Other than that,the readers must take the accurate
reading from the manometers. In order to get the accurate value, the water
level must be let to be really stable. Thus, a patient is needed in order to run
this experiment successfully because sometimes the way the experiment is
conduct may influence the result of the experiment.

CONCLUSION
Fr o m t h i s e x p e r i m e n t w e f o u n d o u t t h a t fl u i d fl o w i n g u n d e r
h o r i z o n t a l s t r e a m l i n e w i l l follows the Bernoullis principle where when
the speed of fluid increase, the pressure of the fluid will decrease. The results
show the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the pressure
difference increases. From the result obtained, we can conclude that the
Bernoullis equation is valid for convergent and divergent flow as both of it
does obey the equation. For all flow,as the pressure difference increase, the

76

time taken for 3L water collected increase and the flow rates of the water
decreased. This experiment is consider as a successfull as long as , the
differences between the Vib - Vic is positive value.
RECOMMENDATION
There are some recommendation in order to obtain more
accuracate result in this experiment. Therefore, through this experiment it is require

to make sure that all the apparatus are functioning well. There is no leaks in the gaps
between the connection This can ensure the water can flow smoothly. The valve has to be
open slowly for the water to flow continuously in the system. . Although , t he valve
should

be

control

slowly

so

that

the

pressure

difference

can

be

maintained .Futhermore , repeat the experiment several times to get an

accurate result. Also make sure the eye of observers should be placed
parallel to the scale of manometer to get anaccurate reading. Beside make
sure the bubbles in the manometer are completely removed by adjusting the
bleedscrew. Lastly, always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and

procedures.
REFERENCES

Robert L. Street, Gary Z. Watters, John K. Vennard, John Wiley & Sons Inc. Elementary
Fluid Mechanics 7th Edition,
Yunus A.Cengel ,John M.Cimbala , Essential of Fluid Mechanics Fundamental and
Application , 6th Edition , 2006 , New York , Mc Graw Hill Publication.

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Frederic P. Miller, Agnes F. Vandome, John McBrewster , Bernoulli`s Principle ,

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