Biology Midterm Study Guide

Biology Midterm Study Guide
1/11/16
Unit 1
Scientific Method
Parts to the Scientific Method
Question/Observation
Hypothesis: educated guess on what you think will happen
Experiment
Analyze Data
Conclusion
Publish
Dependent variable: the factor that is observed, measured, or
counted in an experiment and is affected by the independent
variable
Independent/Experimental Variable: the factor that is changed
and tested in an experiment
Experimental/Independent group: group that contains the
variable being tested and changed
Control group: identical to the independent group except for the
lacking variable that is being tested
Constant/Controlled variable: the variable that is kept the same
in both groups and is not changed
The 8 Characteristics of Life
Made of one or more cells (unicellular or multicellular)
Displays organization (atoms, molecules, etc.)
Contain DNA and all of the cells in our body have the same
DNA
Grows and develops
Reproduces (sexual and asexual reproduction)
Asexual Reproduction: budding (clone), fragmentation (cut
and grow back on both), binary fission
Sexual: pollen, male and female
Responds to stimuli
Requires energy
Maintains homeostasis
Homeostasis: keep internal conditions stable
Adaptations evolve over time in order to survive
Unit 2
Dichotomous Key
Follow the numbers and directions until the directions include a
name
Cladogram
Lines come out of a straight line based on how many listed traits
they possess
Everything to the right of the trait possesses that trait and
everything to the left of the trait does not
6 Kingdoms
Prokaryotes
Archaea (extremophiles) Archaebacteria kingdom
First cells to evolve
Live in harsh environments
Methanogens (found in sewage plants)
Thermophiles (thermal or volcanic vents)
Hot springs or geysers that are acidic
Halophiles (very salty water such as the dead sea
and great salt lake)
Bacteria Eubacteria kingdom
Some cause disease
Found in all habitats except harsh ones
Important decomposers for environment
Important in making dairy products
Eukarya
Protista
Some autotrophic and some heterotrophic
No cell wall
Aquatic (cilia and flagella)
Most unicellular, some multicellular
Fungi
Absorptive heterotrophs
Cell wall made of chitin
Spores
Multicellular except yeast
Plantae
Autotrophic
Cell walls made of cellulose
Make glucose in photosynthesis
Multicellular
Animalia
Ingestive heterotrophs
No cell wall
Multicellular
Unit 3
Ionic Bonds
Atoms will transfer one or more electrons to another to form the

bond
Each atom is left with a complete outer shell
Form between a metal and a nonmetal
Covalent Bonds
Atoms share one or more electrons with each other to form the
bond
Each atom is left with a complete outer shell
Formed between two nonmetals
Hydrogen Bonds
Bonds between water molecules
The interaction between the charges on two separate molecules
is an important contribution to hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bonds among the surface of water molecules resist
stretching or breaking on the surface
Polar vs Nonpolar
Polar: slight charge on atoms in the compound or the arrows do
not cancel out
Equal sharing of electrons
Nonpolar: arrows cancel out and there is a small or no charge on
the atoms
Unequal sharing of electrons
Properties of Water
Polar
Cohesion: water molecules sticking to each other
Adhesion: water molecules adhering to other objects
Hydrophilic: attracted to water, ionic compounds dissolve in
water, polar molecules are generally water soluble
Hydrophobic: water repelling, nonpolar compounds, insoluble in
water
Universal solvent (dissolves)
High specific heat
Density
Most dense at 4 degrees Celsius
Contracts until 4 degrees Celsius
Expands from 4 to 0 degrees Celsius
Prevents water from freezing from the bottom up
Ice forms on the surface first because the freezing of the
water releases heat to the water below creating insulation
Surface Tension: a measure of the force necessary to stretch or
break the surface of a liquid, related to cohesion
Has a greater surface tension than most liquids because
hydrogen bonds among the surface of water molecules
resist stretching or breaking on the surface
Enzymes: biological catalysts, never used up or changed

Optimum pH and temperature
pH: about 7.5
Temperature: around 37.5 degrees Celsius, human body
temperature, for the enzymes in human body cells
Both can change denature the protein
Denature: change structure of protein
Heat, temperature, pH
Enzyme-Substrate complex
Contains a substrate and an enzyme that come together to
create two substrates in the end
Catalyst: speed up chemical reactions
Activation Energy: the energy required to make a reaction
happen,
Macromolecules
Carbohydrates (CHO with a 1:2:1 ratio)
Function: energy and storage, instant energy for cells
Monomer: glucose
Monosaccharides (one sugar): galactose, fructose
Polysaccharides (many sugars/complex carbonates)
1. Starch: long term plant energy storage, plant cell
walls, fiber
2. Glycogen: long term energy storage for animals,
branched, stored in liver
3. Chitin: fungi cell walls and exoskeleton of insects
Disaccharides (two sugars): maltose, lactose
Definitions:
1. Dehydration Synthesis: condensation reaction, loss
or removal of one water molecule to form a bond
2. Isomer: same molecular formula but different
structures (galactose and fructose)
Lipids (CHO)
Function: energy storage
Monomer: fatty acid
Triglyceride: three fatty acids attached to a glycerol
Phospholipids: major component of animal and plant cell
membranes
Saturated: single bonds, flat line, carbons are full of
hydrogens, solid at room temperature, butter and animal
fat
Unsaturated: double bonds, less hydrogens, fatty acid
kinks or bends, liquid at room temperature, vegetable and
olive oil
Proteins (CHON)
Shape/structure determines function

1. Signaling
2. Structure
3. Immune system
Monomer: amino acids
Amine group (NH4), R group, Carboxyl group (CO2), and
hydrogen
Polypeptide: many amino acids
Peptide Bond: Bonds between amino acids
Enzymes
Nucleic Acids
Responsible for genetic code
Found mostly in the nucleus
DNA
Unit 4
Structure determines function of cell
Cell Theory
All organisms are composed of one or more cells
The cell is the basic unit of organization of organisms
All cells come from pre-existing cells
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
Gets smaller as the cell gets larger
Levels of Organization
Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organism
What determines cell size?
Prokaryotes are much smaller than Eukaryotes due to membrane
bound organelles
The size of most cells
microscopic
Animal vs Plant Cell
Plant: cell wall, chloroplasts, large central vacuole
Animal: smaller vacuoles, centrioles
Eukaryote vs Prokaryote
Prokaryote
Both
Eukaryote
No nucleus or
Regulate the flow
Have nucleus and
organelles except of nutrients and
organelles with cell
ribosomes
waste
membranes
around them
DNA found in
Covered by cell
DNA held within
single loops
membrane
nucleus organized
(circular)
into chromosomes
Single cell
DNA is genetic
Multicellular
material
Primitive
Form the same

basic membrane
Ten times larger

than prokaryotic
cells
Has nuclear
envelope
Form the same

basic
macromolecules
Have ribosomes
More complex
Cytosol and require
energy
What do all cells have in common?
DNA, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes
Structure and Function of Organelles
Nucleus (City Hall, brain, computer control center)
Structure: membrane bound, contains DNA
Function: control center, regulates DNA and RNA actions
Nuclear Envelope (walls and doors of city hall)
Structure: double layer of lipids
Function: regulates what enters and exits the nucleus
Nucleolus (the mayor)
Structure: Inside nucleus, separate from DNA
Function: produces RNA, which are used to make all
proteins
Ribosomes (restaurants, factories, builders)
Structure: small circular organelles
Function: makes proteins
Lysosome (recycling center)
Structure: small membrane-bound organelles
Function: packets of enzymes that break down materials in
a cell
Vacuole (grocery stores and water tanks, closet, locker)
Structure: small membrane-bound organelle
Function: storage for water, nutrients, or waste
Cell Membrane (Pittsburgh city limits, egg shell, fence)
Structure: two layers of phospholipids, proteins
Function: regulates materials entering and exiting the cell
Vesicle (grocery store and water tanks)
Structure: small membrane-bound organelle
Function: transport molecules within the cell, carries ER
products to the Golgi body, and carries Golgi products to
the cell membrane to be released outside of the cell
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (roads and sidewalks, highway)
Structure: tubes and channels
Function: makes proteins that are meant to be sent out and

are the transportation route for proteins (has ribosomes)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (roads and side walks, highway)
Structure: tubes and channels
Function: transportation route for proteins and makes lipids
(no ribosomes
Golgi Apparatus (Post Office, meat-processing plant, mail room)
Structure: pancake-shaped layered organelle
Function: packages, labels and ships proteins out of the cell
Chloroplasts (Solar Panels)
Structure: membrane-bound organelles that contain
chlorophyll
Function: site of photosynthesis (converting sun and
carbon dioxide into sugar)
Mitochondria (PG&E, electronic generator)
Structure: double membrane-bound, kidney shaped
Function: produce energy for the cell, site of cellular
respiration, the powerhouse
Cell Wall (ground, rock wall)
Structure: made of cellulose
Function: provides support for the cell and the plant
Cytoskeleton (wood, cement, steel beams)
Structure: tubules
Functions: provide support and structure for the cell
(microfilaments and microtubules)
Cytoplasm (all air, water, life that are in Pittsburgh, except city
hall)
Structure: made up of fluid organelles except for nucleus
Function: All cell contents that lie between the cell
membrane and the nucleus (organelles and cytosol- liquid
portion and organelles except for nucleus

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Biology Midterm Study Guide

Atoms will transfer one or more electrons to another to form the

Enzymes: biological catalysts, never used up or changed

Shape/structure determines function

Form the same

Ten times larger

Form the same

Function: makes proteins that are meant to be sent out and

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