BOOK REVIEW

W
OLF, ERIC R. 1 9 8 2 . EUROPE AND THE PEOPLE WITHOUT HISTORY.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
The award winning book mainly sees the world as a whole, like a
system. Wolf discuses different populations, their modes of
existence before European expansion and the manner in which these
modes were penetrated, and subordinated- first by growing market
and subsequently by industrial capitalism. The book shows that in
the year A.D.1400 the world already had regional linkages, but by
European expansions, these regional linkages were spread to a
global phenomenon. In the process of numerous convergent
activities, such as- fur trade, slave trade, movements of people,
military forces, involved societies of the New World (Americas) and
Old World (Asia, Africa, and Europe) experienced major changes.
The World in 1400: Before European expansion, the linkages of
people were out of the build up of contentious hegemonic, political,
and military system. Different agricultural regions generated
separate politics but routes of traffic and trade connected these
regions. The most important was the Silk Road. Related necessary
exchanges connected pastoralists and agriculturalists in different
continents. Kinship or ceremonial allegiances linked culturally
distinct groups across Asia, Africa, and Americas. If there were any
isolated societies, Wolf thought, were temporary phenomena. Thus,
Wolf argues, analysis that shows different parts of the world as
separated cannot portray the world condition even before the Euro-
pean expansion.
Modes of Production: Relying on Marxian idea of mode of
production Wolf shows these interconnections were rooted in
political and economic factors. He defines mode of production as a
specific, historically occurring set of social relations through which
labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means of tools,
skills, organization, and knowledge.(p. 75). Wolf distinguishes three
types of modes of production- the kin-ordered, the tributary and
the capitalist mode. He characterizes them as follows- the kin-
ordered mode is predicated upon oppositions between those who
belong and those who do not, and engenders distinctions of gender,
rank and privilege favoring some kin over others. The tributary mode
sets tribute takers against the producers of tribute and give rise to
military and political competition both within and between the
contending classes. The capitalist mode acts to accumulate capital
through the hiring of labor power, but it is marked by the cyclical
alternation of labor mobilization and labor displacement; each
intake of labor power uproots some prior adaptation, while each
sloughing off of labor power creates a new cohort of the
disemployed.(p. 386). Thus, although these modes are subject to
external influence, internal differentiation is at the heart of Wolfs
definitions.
Capitalist and tributary modes differentiates between surplus
takers and surplus producers, thus, both requires domination.
Surpluses, gathered as tribute, opened up ways for mercantile wealth
that led channels of exchange. Capitalist modes of production grew
out of its ability to reproduce itself- develop internally and then
growing out by entering into other modes and turning them into
capital, such as the labour power. It relied on political and military
power to seize zones.
Europe: Prelude to Expansion and political Consolidation:
Between A.D. 800 to 1400, shift in long distance trade positioned
Europe into a key area of commercial development. Numerous small
and scattered tributary principalities of A.D. 800 had grown into
politically and militarily consolidated kingdoms. Several consolidated
kingdoms sought expansions. In A.D 900 Muslim worlds were in
control of long distance trade between Mediterranean and Asian
zones. After the rise of Italian ports, in A.D 1000, the trade started
to come in favour of the West.
The movement towards political consolidation depended upon
extracting tribute to pay for war. It could manage three ways,
one- to expand externally and seize surpluses from enemies,
two- Discover resources for selling to merchants for necessary goods,
CDRB
publication
Asian Affairs, vol. 27, No. 1 : 72-79 , January-March, 200S
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BOOK REVIEW
and three-enlarge Royal domain. Europe followed all three
strategies. Seizure of external resources was the main strategy.
Central political consolidation took place at, what now we call, in
England and France.
State making and Expansion: External warfare, trade and
internal consolidation created new states in Europe. When
agriculture and trading profits reached its limits, European replied
to it by increasing the scale and intensity of war that required
enhanced military power. The relations between central executive
and merchants were very important. In the process, tributary
system lost its ability to make alliances across states and dissolved
into a guidance from a political centre in exchange of its tributary
rights. Wolf sketches how Portugal, present Spain, Dutch
Netherlands underwent a mercantile expansion. In seventeenth
century, these states faced economic and political crisis again. Wolf
reckons it a result of mercantile wealths inability to transform ways
of committing labour for creating new resources. Only England took
the step for a capitalist transformation.
The Search for Wealth: Most of the time, Portuguese first opened
up naval business routes to different continents. The spice and sugar
trade between Asia, Africa, and America were accompanied by slave
trade in southern Atlantic. The Europeans sought to control the
ocean for vantage points in trade. Wolf reckoned that from then on,
worldwide networks drew several continents into a global system of
connections.
As a result of European contact, the Indian population of the
New World died by the Old World diseases. Also they lost huge
population under slave raiding by Europeans. The loss of manpower
shacked the foundation of kin- ordered mode. They became under
populated for enforcing and reproducing rights to people that made
survival possible. Remaining small population base supported and
transformed to European modelled clean-tilled field based
agriculture, instead of horticulture. In tributary mode, it caused
transformation of existing polities.
The Fur Trade: Fur trade had profound impact upon the modes
of life of the present North America. From the beginning, France
and The Netherlands competed each other for control over the fur
trade. Abenaki, Northeastern, Northwest, Huron, the Iroquois, the
Cree, the Ojibwa, populations of the Great Lakes were involved in
the trade. The competition between France and the Netherlands,
and as a result of its subsequent extension, all Indian communities
became each others competitors. This competition brought profound
changes in the natives livelihood. It increased the intensity of
warfare among them, which forced them towards frequent
dislocation from the original habitat and sometime even
decimation. The competition destroyed many groups, remnant
population merged with other groups under new ethnic identities.
Mostly Chiefs controlled local trades. Big man or chiefs became
competitors as well. The population groups received European goods
in exchange of fur and they re-patterned their lives around these
European manufactures. The native people became heavily depen-
dent on fur trade. With the decline of international warfare, and
rejection of politically motivated flow of goods, they became
subordinate producers and not partners in the international
networks of exchange.
The Slave Trade: Black Ivory- the slaves, connected Africa to
the global network. They provided labour for European mining and
plantation in America. East Africa, West Africa, all became the area
of supply. Through warfare, local chiefs engaged themselves in this
trade. Kin-ordered mode, to some extent, was transformed into
fighting organizations. The trade increased the power of local
tributary leaders. Europeans provided guns to their allies for
effective slave raiding. In the process, militaristic states emerged in
different parts of Africa. African hands controlled capture,
maintenance, and overland transportation of slaves. The
Europeans controlled the transoceanic transport. Thus, not only
the Europeans, Africans themselves were engaged in slave tradings.
These processes continued, until slave trade became unprofitable
for the Europeans.
Trade and Conquest in the Orient: At the beginning, European
control of Asia was weak. European power fought each other.
Unlike Portuguese and Dutch, English powers came to India for
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economic reasons. The British rule essentially broke down the
politico-economic structure of the Sub- continent. Under the Mughal
Empire, Zaminders collected tributes from cultivators and
attributed some of that to the Emperor. Under the new British rule,
(Permanent Settlement Act. 1793) Zaminders became the owner of
the land, giving nine-tenth of their collected tributes to the English
administration. Many Zaminders also lost their rule as they could
not match the sun-set rule. As a result, new classes of Zaminders,
brokers, middlemen, cultivators emerged. Already hard- pressed
agriculturalists started to produce cash crops, such as- tobacco,
cotton, sugar, spices, jute etc. for the market. English rule also
penetrated English style bureaucracy in India. While English goods
were squeezed duty-free into India, many Indian gods were banned
in English market. These processes enabled the English to gain
control of Indian market. Indian handicrafts (such as cotton based
crafts) were destroyed. Indian surpluses enabled England to create
and maintain a global system of free trade.(p. 261). India became
key foundation of the emerging worldwide capitalist edifice.(p. 261)
Wolf also discusses the impact of European intervention in China.
Opium, tea, and sandalwoods were the most important trading goods.
Large scale whaling for European market contributed to
distribution of firearms that affected the power of local chiefs.
Capitalism: England provided the breakthrough towards
capitalist mode of production. Machine productions, mainly textiles
and later railroad construction transformed the lives both in
industrial areas and in the supply zones of the globe. Both
commodities and population started to roll towards developing
centres of the world.
Industrial Revolution: According to Wolf, blocked by European
lords to invest in acquiring land, and, getting political power,
European merchants maintained commercial linkages for
converting surpluses into commodities and commodities into money
over wide geographical regions. Factory production, labour
movement and other related processes created peripheries both
within states and between different geographical areas.
After the mechanization, starting in 19th century, England
expanded outward, swaying or penetrating other modes. Where it
did not sway other modes, it dominated their inert-relation by
connecting them with the capitalist world market. Wolf distinguishes
two sources of differentiation in the capitalist mode. One is the
obvious difference between those employing higher and lower ratio
of capital in means of production. Another source lies in the
capitalist modes repeated exhibits of upswings and downturns or
retreats as result of internal contradiction; acceleration of profit,
followed by deceleration of profit. The state is another carrier that
differentiates between capitalist modes of production. In different
states, the capitalist domination of one class over other is executed
differently. How the state enters into capital accumulation abroad
creates another differentiation among the capitalist states.
The Movement of Commodities: Criticizing Adam Smith and David
Richard, Wolf suggested that no country ever select the commodity
it was most qualified to produce on free choice. In most cases, it was
rather, shaped or forced by more powerful participants. Followed by
great depression of late nineteenth century, cash crops, industrial
crops, livestock, gold, diamond etc. entered into the global market
as commodity. These movements served the intensification of
capitalist development. However, becoming engaged in such a
capitalist movement does not mean that all parties have become
capitalists. The capitalist system is an articulation of networks
between capitalists and non-capitalists relations of production,
dominated by the capitalist. Thus, the kin-ordered or tributary modes
still have place in the capitalist networks but only marginally.
The New Labourers: In capitalist system, labour becomes
commodity in the market that produces surplus for the capitalist.
In the process of capitalist development, Wolf sketches three waves
of working class migration; first one is within the centres of Europe.
The second flow was from Europe to overseas, mainly to U.S.A. The
third one carried labourers to the mining and the plantations of the
Tropics. Such a movement juxtaposed groups of different cultural
and social origins, creating unity and diversity between them. And
presently, in the age of globalization, Within an ever more
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integrated world, we witness the growth of ever more diverse
proletarian diasporas.(p. 383)
Criticisms: Although Wolf is brilliant in his articulation; he gives
little importance on local levels. He sketches the way local condition
has been changed by the colonial powers but did not talk enough
about the constraints that local conditions placed on global arenas.
Production, from Wolfs analysis, is purely targeted for international
market. However, various resistant against producing goods of
European will critically demonstrated producers struggles to
produce goods of local value. When we talk about local conditions
or local level production, it automatically fits in ecological consider-
ations that affect local adaptations. Wolf did not give enough
importance to this either. Thus, the general criticisms that Marxist
writers do not give enough importance to local cultures can be
labelled against Wolf as well. Apart from that, history, even the
written history, is never complete and most of the time, it is
contested. Any study that largely draws from such sources is
always vulnerable on the ground of its validity. Apart from the
criticism that Wolf did not discuss ideology enough to its
importance, he even never tried to conceptualize mode of
production rather, to him, it became a tool for looking at the
history.
Conclusion: Wolf criticizes taking separate nations as basic of
inquiry in social sciences. To him, the world is very much
interconnected. Wolf also challenged the conventional representa-
tion of traditional societies in anthropology as slow to change and
inflexible. Cultures, to him, are not fixed but changing, and forever
breaking up. Thus, he thinks, culture needs to be studied
historically. He said, Theoretically informed history and
historically informed theory must be joined together.(p. 21). In doing
historical analysis, he focuses on macro-micro relations, which
emancipated anthropology from its traditional narrow emphasis on
micro settings. To study the change over time, he adapted Marxist
concepts, such as mode of production, exploitation, and
colonialism. He viewed social life or culture as dominated by
economic and political factors. Wolf viewed societies as
heterogeneous and interpenetrating as opposed to functionalist view
of societies as homogenous, externally distinctive and bounded
objects.
Wolfs methodology is sometimes termed as the World system
approach. This approach ultimately leads to rethink the concept of
culture as an independent, and bounded whole. He defines culture
as A culture is thus better seen as a series of processes that
construct, reconstruct, and dismantle cultural materials, in response
to identifiable determinants.(p.387). Thus, in terms of Wolfs
methodology, culture cannot be explained only by internal logic but
also by various circumstances that dismantles and resembles it. To
Wolf, these circumstances relies on the deployment of social labour
and its manner sets the term of history. Thus, the construction of
world (Ideology, and even the common terms) is a reflection of power
relations. If the world were not interconnected in this way, one would
find the so-called scattered primitive people without history.
Md. Nazmul Has an Chowdhury
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Dahl, R. A. (1956), A Preface to Democratic Theory, Chicago: University of
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Liu, Melinda (2005), Worse than War, Newsweek, 17 January, pp. 22-25.
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