NDT
NDT
NDT
Table of Contents
Chapter Name of the Chapter Page
No: No
1 Course daily schedule 1
2 Course Contents 2
3 Introduction NDT processes & their Uses 3 11
4 Identification of weld Discontinuities 12 20
5 Penetrant Testing 21 30
6 Magnetic Particle Testing 31 – 48
7 Ultrasonic Testing 49 60
8 Radiographic Testing 61 77
9 Eddy Current Testing 78 80
1
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
Nondestructive Testing
The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad, that plays a critical role in
assuring that structural components and systems perform their function in a reliable and
cost effective fashion. NDT technicians and engineers define and implement tests that
locate and characterize material conditions and flaws that might otherwise cause
serious accidents such as, planes to crash, reactors to fail, trains to derail, pipelines to
burst, and a variety of troubling events.
These tests are performed in a manner that does not affect the future usefulness of the
object or material. In other words, NDT allows parts and materials to be inspected and
evaluated without damaging them. Because it allows inspection without interfering with
a product's final use, NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and
costeffectiveness.
Nondestructive Evaluation
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) is a term that is often used interchangeably with NDT.
However, technically, NDE is used to describe measurements that are more quantitative
in nature. For example, a NDE method would not only locate a defect, but it would also
be used to measure something about that defect such as its size, shape, and
orientation. NDE may be used to determine material properties such as fracture
toughness, ductility, conductivity and other physical characteristics.
Uses of NDE
· Flaw Detection and Evaluation
· Leak Detection, Location Determination
· Dimensional Measurements
· Structure and Microstructure Characterization
· Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
· Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
· Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination
2
Background on Nondestructive Testing (NDT)
Nondestructive testing has been practiced for many decades. One of the earliest
applications was the detection of surface cracks in railcar wheels and axles. The parts
were dipped in oil, then cleaned and dusted with a powder. When a crack was present,
the oil would seep from the defect and wet the oil providing visual indication indicating
that the component was flawed. This eventually led to oils that were specifically
formulated for performing these and other inspections and these inspection techniques
are now called penetrant testing.
Xrays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (18451923) who was a
Professor at Wuerzburg University in Germany. Soon after his discovery, Roentgen
produced the first industrial radiograph when he imaged a set of weights in a box to
show his colleagues. Other electronic inspection techniques such as ultrasonic and
eddy current testing started with the initial rapid developments in instrumentation
spurred by technological advances and subsequent defense and space efforts following
World War II. In the early days, the primary purpose was the detection of defects.
Critical parts were produced with a "safe life" design, and were intended to be defect
free during their useful life. The detection of defects was automatically a cause for
removal of the component from service.
The continued improvement of inspection technology, in particular the ability to detect
smaller and smaller flaws, led to more and more parts being rejected. At this time the
discipline of fracture mechanics emerged, which enabled one to predict whether a crack
of a given size would fail under a particular load if a particular material property or
fracture toughness, were known. Other laws were developed to predict the rate of
growth of cracks under cyclic loading (fatigue). With the advent of these tools, it became
possible to accept structures containing defects if the sizes of those defects were
known. This formed the basis for a new design philosophy called "damage tolerant
designs." Components having known defects could continue to be used as long as it
could be established that those defects would not grow to a critical size that would result
in catastrophic failure. A new challenge was thus presented to the nondestructive
testing community.
Mere detection of flaws was not enough. One needed to also obtain quantitative
information about flaw size to serve as an input to fracture mechanics calculations to
predict the remaining life of a component. These needs, led to the creation of a number
of research programs around the world and the emergence of nondestructive evaluation
(NDE) as a new discipline.
3
NDT/NDE Methods
The list of NDT methods that can be used to inspect components and make
measurements is large and continues to grow. Researchers continue to find new ways
of applying physics and other scientific disciplines to develop better NDT methods.
However, there are six NDT methods that are used most often. These methods are
Visual Inspection, Penetrant Testing, Magnetic Particle Testing, Electromagnetic or
Eddy Current Testing, Radiography, and Ultrasonic Testing.
Visual and Optical Testing (VT)
Visual inspection involves using an inspector's eyes to look for defects. The inspector
may also use special tools such as magnifying glasses, mirrors, or borescopes to gain
access and more closely inspect the subject area. Visual examiners follow procedures
that range fm simple to very complex.
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Test objects are coated with visible or fluorescent dye solution. Excess dye is then
removed from the surface, and a developer is applied. The developer acts as blotter,
drawing trapped penetrant out of imperfections open to the surface. With visible dyes,
vivid color contrasts between the penetrant and developer make "bleedout" easy to see.
With fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is used to make the bleedout fluoresce brightly,
thus allowing imperfections to be readily seen.
4
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
This method is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material
and then dusting the surface with iron particles (either dry or suspended in liquid).
Surface and nearsurface imperfections distort the magnetic field and concentrate iron
particles near imperfections, previewing a visual indication of the flaw.
Electromagnetic Testing (ET) or Eddy Current Testing
Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an induced alternating
magnetic field This electrical currents is called eddy currents because they flow in
circles at and just below the surface of the material. Interruptions in the flow of eddy
currents, caused by imperfections, dimensional changes, or changes in the material's
conductive and permeability properties, are detected.
5
Radiography (RT)
Radiography involves the use of penetrating gamma or Xradiation to examine parts
and products for imperfections. An Xray generator or radioactive isotope is used as a
source of radiation. Radiation is directed through a part and onto film or other imaging
media. The resulting radiograph shows the dimensional features of the part. Possible
imperfections are indicated as density changes on the film in the same manner as a
medical Xray shows broken bones.
Source
Rays
Object with defect
Film
Xray film
Defect Image Film with image
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Ultrasonics use transmission of highfrequency sound waves into a material to detect
imperfections or to locate changes in material properties. The most commonly used
ultrasonic testing technique is pulse echo, wherein sound is introduced into a test object
and reflections (echoes) are returned to a receiver from internal imperfections or from
the part's geometrical surfaces
Initial
pulse Probe
Back surface
echo
Crack
echo Couplant
Sound
waves crack
0 2 4 6 8 1
0
.
When a solid material is stressed, imperfections within the material emit short bursts of
acoustic energy called "emissions." As in ultrasonic testing, acoustic emissions can be
detected by special receivers. Emission sources can be evaluated through the study of
their intensity, rate, and location.
Leak Testing (LT)
Several techniques are used to detect and locate leaks in pressure containment parts,
pressure vessels, and structures. Leaks can be detected by using electronic listening
devices, pressure gauge measurements, liquid and gas penetrant techniques, and/or a
simple soapbubble test.
7
The Relative Uses and Merits of Various NDT Methods
8
Table 1 Reference Guide to Major Methods for the Nondestructive
Examination of Welds
Inspection Equipment Enables Advantages Limitations Remarks
Method Required Detectiort of
Visual Magnifying Surface flaws Low cost. Applicable Should
glass cracks, Can be applied to surface always be the
Weld sizing porosity, while work is defects only. primary
gauge unfilled in process, Provides no method of
Pocket rule craters, slag permitting permanent inspection, no
Straight edge inclusions correction of record. matter what
Workmanship Warpage, faults. other
standards underwelding, Gives techniques are
overwelding, indication of required.
poorly formed incorrect Is the only
beads, procedures. "productive"
misalignments, type of
improper fitup inspection.
Is the
necessary
function of
everyone who
in any way
contributes to
the making of
the weld.
Radiographic Commercial Interior When the Requires Xray
Xray or macroscopic indications are skill in inspection is
gamma units flaws cracks, recorded on choosing required by
made porosity, blow film, gives a angles of many codes
especially for holes, permanent exposure, and
inspecting nonmetallic record. operating specifications.
welds, inclusions, When viewed equipment, Useful in
castings and incomplete on a and qualification
forgings. root fluoroscopic interpreting of welders
Film and penetration, screen, a low indications. and welding
processing undercutting, cost method of Requires processes.
facilities. icicles, and internal safety Because of
Fluoroscopic burnthrough. inspection precautions. cost, its use
viewing Not should be
equipment. generally limited to
suitable for those areas
fillet weld where other
inspection. methods will
not provide
the assurance
required.
9
Magnetic Special Excellent for Simpler to Applicable to Elongated
Particle commercial detecting use than ferromagnetic defects parallel
equipment. surface radiographic materials only. to the magnetic
Magnetic discontinuities inspection. Requires skill field may not
powders dry Permits in give pattern;
or wet form; especially controlled interpretation for this reason
may be surface cracks. sensitivity. of indications the field should
fluorescent Relatively and be applied
for viewing lowcost recognition of from two
under method. irrelevant directions at or
ultraviolet patterns. near right
light. Difficult to use angles to each
on rough other.
surfaces.
Liquid Commercial Surface cracks Applicable to Only surface In thinwalled
Penetrant kits not readily magnetic and defects are vessels will
containing visible to the nonmagnetic detectable. reveal leaks not
fluorescent or unaided eye. materials. Cannot be ordinarily
dye penetrants Excellent for Easy to use. used located by
and locating leaks Low cost. effectively on usual air tests.
developers. in weldments. hot assemblies. irrelevant
Application surface
equipment for conditions
the developer. (smoke, slag)
A source of may give
ultraviolet misleading
light if indications.
fluorescent
method is
used.
Ultrasonic Special Surface and Very Requires high Pulseecho
commercial subsurface sensitive. degree of skill equipment is
equipment, flaws including Permits in interpreting highly
either of the those too small probing of pulseecho developed for
pulseecho or to be detected joints patterns. weld inspection
transmission by other inaccessible Permanent purposes.
type. methods. to record is not The
Standard Especially for radiography. readily transmission
reference detecting obtained. type equipment
patterns for subsurface simplifies
interpretation laminationlike pattern
of RF or defects. interpretation
video where it is
patterns. applicable.
10
Chapter II
IDENTIFICATION OF WELD DISCONTINUITIES
11
Lack of Fusion:
Lack of fusion (Cold Lap) is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly
fuse with the base metal or the previous weld pass material (inter pass cold lap). The
arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to
flow into base material without bonding.
12
Porosity:
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many
shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks
appearing singularly, in clusters or rows. Sometimes porosity is elongated and may
have the appearance of having a tail This is the result of gas attempting to escape while
the metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in
the material it will have a radiographic density more than the surrounding area.
Cluster porosity:
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with moisture.
The moisture turns into gases when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the
welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity in the radiograph but
the indications will be grouped close
together.
13
Slag inclusions:
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld
and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or
along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.
Root concavity:
14
Root or Internal concavity or suck back is condition where the weld metal has
contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph
it looks similar to lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is often quite
wide in the center of the weld image.
Offset or mismatch:
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being
welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image is a noticeable
difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused by the
difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by failure of the weld
metal to fuse with the land area.
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Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal
deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to determine by
radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the image density in the
area of suspected inadequacy will be more (darker) than the image density of the
surrounding base material.
Tungsten inclusions.
Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in tungsten
inert gas ( TIG ) welding. If improper welding procedures are used, tungsten may be
entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is denser than aluminum or steel;
therefore, it shows as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph.
Oxide inclusions:
Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially
aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding materials and,
therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the
radiograph.
Burn-Through:
Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate
the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld creating a thick globular
condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On a
radiograph, burn through appears as dark spots, which are often surrounded by light
globular areas (icicles).
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Chapter III
PENETRANT INSPECTION
Introduction
Liquid penetration inspection is a method that is used to reveal surface breaking flaws
by bleedout of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw. The technique is based on the
ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface breaking flaw by capillary action.
After a period of time called the "dwell," excess surface penetrant is removed and a
developer is applied. This acts as a "blotter." It draws the penetrant from the flaw to
reveal its presence.
Colored (contrast) penetrants require good white light while fluorescent penetrants need
to be viwed in darkened conditions with an ultraviolet "black light".
A very early surface inspection technique involved the rubbing of carbon black on
glazed pottery, whereby the carbon black would settle in surface cracks rendering them
visible. Later it became the practice in railway workshops to examine iron and steel
components by the "oil and whiting" method. In this method, heavy oil commonly
available in railway workshops was diluted with kerosene in large tanks so that
locomotive parts such as wheels could be submerged. After removal and careful
cleaning, the surface was then coated with a fine suspension of chalk in alcohol so that
a white surface layer was formed once the alcohol had evaporated. The object was then
vibrated and stroked with a hammer, causing the residual oil in any surface cracks to
seep out and stain the white coating.
This method was in use from the latter part of the 19th century through to approximately
1940, when the magnetic particle method was introduced and found to be more
sensitive for the ferromagnetic iron and steels. Penetrant Inspection Improves the
Detect ability of Flaws
The advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) offers over an unaided visual
inspection is that it makes defects easier to see for the inspector. There are basically
two ways that a penetrant inspection process makes flaws more easily seen. First, LPI
produces a flaw indication that is much larger and easier for the eye to detect than the
flaw itself. Many flaws are so small or narrow that they are undetectable by the unaided
eye.
The second way that LPI improves the detectability of a flaw is that it produces a flaw
indication with a high level of contrast between the indication and the background which
also helps to make the indication more easily seen. When a
visible dye penetrant inspection is performed, the penetrant materials are formulated
using a bright red dye that provides for a high level of contrast
20
between the white developer that serves as a background as well as to pull the trapped
penetrant from the flaw. When a fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed, the
penetrant materials are formulated to glow brightly and to give off light at a wavelength
that the eye is most sensitive to under dim lighting conditions.
Basic Processing Steps of a Liquid Penetrant Inspection
1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant
inspection is the surface preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease,
water, or other contaminants that may prevent penetrant from entering flaws. The
sample may also require etching if mechanical operations such as machining,
sanding, or grit blasting have been performed. These and other mechanical
operations can smear the surface of the sample, thus closing the defects.
2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried,
the penetrant material is applied on the surface by spraying, brushing, or
immersing the parts in a penetrant bath.
3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow
as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect.
Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the part
surface. Dwell times are usually recommended by the
penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The times
vary depending on the application, penetrant materials used, the material being
inspected, and the type of defect being inspected. Minimum dwell times typically
range from 5 to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer
21
penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal
dwell time is often determined by experimentation and is often very specific to a
particular application.
4 Excess Penetrant Removal: This is a most delicate part of the inspection
procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of
the sample while removing as little penetrant as possible from defects.
Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may involve cleaning with a
solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treated with an emulsifier and then
rinsing with water .
5 Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample
to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible.
Developers come in a variety of forms that may be applied by dusting (dry
powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet developers).
6 Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface
for a period of time sufficient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out
of any surface flaws. This development time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes
and significantly longer times may be necessary for tight cracks.
7 Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect
indications from any flaws that may be present.
8 Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part
surface to remove the developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable.
Penetrant Testing Materials
The penetrant materials used today are much more sophisticated than the kerosene
and whiting first used by railroad inspectors near the turn of the 20th century. Today's
penetrants are carefully formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the
inspector.
1 Penetrant: Penetrant materials are classified in the various industry and
government specifications by their physical characteristics and their performance
Penetrant materials come in two basic types. These types are listed below:
· Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants
· Type 2 Visible Penetrants
Fluorescent penetrants contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when exposed to
ultraviolet radiation. Visible penetrants contain a red dye that provides high contrast
against the white developer background. Fluorescent penetrant systems are more
sensitive than visible penetrant systems because the eye is drawn to the glow of the
fluorescing indication. However, visible penetrants do not require a darkened area and
an ultraviolet light in order to make an inspection. Visible penetrants are also less
vulnerable to contamination from things such as cleaning fluid that can significantly
reduce the strength of a fluorescent indication.
22
Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess penetrant from
the part. The four methods are listed below:
· Method A Water Washable
· Method B Post Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
· Method C Solvent Removable
· Method D Post Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic
Water washable (Method A) penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing with
water alone. These penetrants contain some emulsifying agent (detergent) that makes it
possible to wash the penetrant from the part surface with water alone. Water washable
penetrants are sometimes referred to as selfemulsifying systems.
Post emulsifiable penetrants come in two varieties, lipophilic and hydrophilic. In post
emulsifiers, lipophilic systems (Method B), the penetrant is oil soluble and interacts with
the oilbased emulsifier to make removal possible. Post emulsifiable, hydrophilic
systems (Method D), use an emulsifier that is a water soluble detergent which lifts the
excess penetrant from the surface of the part with a water wash. Solvent removable
penetrants require the use of a solvent to remove the penetrant from the part.
Properties of good Penetrant
To perform well, a penetrant must possess following important characteristics.
· spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide
complete and even coverage.
· be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action.
· remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part.
· remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the drying
and developing steps.
· be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications.
· must not be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.
2 Emulsifiers: When removal of the penetrant from the defect due to overwashing
of the part is a concern, a post emulsifiable penetrant system can be used. Post
emulsifiable penetrants require a separate emulsifier to break the penetrant down and
make it water washable. Most penetrant inspection specifications classify penetrant
systems into four methods of excess penetrant removal. These are listed below:
1. Method A: WaterWashable
2. Method B: Post Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
23
3. Method C: Solvent Removable
4. Method D: Post Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic
Method C relies on a solvent cleaner to remove the penetrant from the part being
inspected. Method A has emulsifiers built into the penetrant liquid that makes it possible
to remove the excess penetrant with a simple water wash. Method B and D penetrants
require an additional processing step where a separate emulsification agent is applied
to make the excess penetrant more removable with a water wash. Lipophilic
emulsification systems are oilbased materials that are supplied in readytouse form.
Hydrophilic systems are waterbased and supplied as a concentrate that must be
diluted with water prior to use .Lipophilic emulsifiers (Method B) were introduced in the
late 1950's and work with both a chemical and mechanical action. After the emulsifier
has coated the surface of the object, mechanical action starts to remove some of the
excess penetrant as the mixture drains from the part. During the emulsification time, the
emulsifier diffuses into the remaining penetrant and the resulting mixture is easily
removed with a water spray.
Hydrophilic emulsifiers (Method D) also remove the excess penetrant with mechanical
and chemical action but the action is different because no diffusion takes place.
Hydrophilic emulsifiers are basically detergents that contain solvents and surfactants.
The hydrophilic emulsifier breaks up the penetrant into small quantities and prevents
these pieces from recombining or reattaching to the surface of the part. The mechanical
action of the rinse water removes the displaced penetrant from the part and causes
fresh remover to contact and lift newly exposed penetrant from the surface.
The hydrophilic post emulsifiable method (Method D) was introduced in the mid 1970's
and since it is more sensitive than the lipophilic post emulsifiable method it has made
the later method virtually obsolete. The major advantage of hydrophilic emulsifiers is
that they are less sensitive to variation in the contact and removal time. While
emulsification time should be controlled as closely as possible, a variation of one minute
or more in the contact time will have little effect on flaw detectability when a hydrophilic
emulsifier is used. However, a variation of as little as 15 to 30 seconds can have a
significant effect when a lipophilic system is used.
3 Developers
The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of defects and to
spread the developer out on the surface of the part so it can be seen by an inspector.
The fine developer particles both reflect and refract the incident ultraviolet light, allowing
more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more efficient fluorescence. The
developer also allows more light to be emitted through the same mechanism. This is
why indications are brighter than the penetrant itself under UV light. Another function
that some developers performs is to create a white background so there is a greater
degree of contrast between the indication and the surrounding background.
Developer Forms
24
The AMS 2644 and MilI25135 classify developers into six standard forms. These
forms are listed below:
1. Form a Dry Powder
2. Form b Water Soluble
3. Form c Water Suspendible
4. Form d Nonaqueous Type 1 Fluorescent (Solvent Based)
5. Form e Nonaqueous Type 2 Visible Dye (Solvent Based)
The developer classifications are based on the method that the developer is applied.
The developer can be applied as a dry powder, or dissolved or suspended in a liquid
carrier. Each of the developer forms has advantages and disadvantages.
A) Dry Powder
Dry powder developer is generally considered to be the least sensitive but it is
inexpensive to use and easy to apply. Dry developers are white, fluffy powders that can
be applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number of ways. The developer can be
applied by dipping parts in a container of developer, or by using a puffer to dust parts
with the developer. Parts can also be placed in a dust cabinet where the developer is
blown around and allowed to settle on the part. Electrostatic powder spray guns are
also available to apply the developer. The goal is to allow the developer to come in
contact with the whole inspection area.
Unless the part is electrostatically charged, the powder will only adhere to areas where
trapped penetrant has wet the surface of the part. The penetrant will try to wet the
surface of the penetrant particle and fill the voids between the particles, which brings
more penetrant to the surface of the part where it can be seen. Since dry powder
developers only stick to the part where penetrant is present, the dry developer does not
provide a uniform white background as the other forms of developers do. Having a
uniform light background is very important for a visible inspection to be effective and
since dry developers do not provide one, they are seldom used for visible inspections.
When a dry developer is used, indications tend to stay bright and sharp since the
penetrant has a limited amount of room to spread.
B) - Water Soluble
As the name implies, water soluble developers consist of a group of chemicals that are
dissolved in water and form a developer layer when the water is evaporated away. The
best method for applying water soluble developers is by spraying it on the part. The part
can be wet or dry. Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the surface is
sometimes used but these methods are less desirable. Aqueous developers contain
wetting agents that cause the solution to function much like dilute hydrophilic emulsifier
and can lead to additional removal of entrapped penetrant. Drying is achieved by
placing the wet but well drained
part in a recalculating warm air dryer with the temperature held between 70 and 75°F. If
the parts are not dried quickly, the indications will will be blurred and indistinct. Properly
developed parts will have an even, pale white coating over the entire surface.
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C) Water Suspendible
Water suspendible developers consist of insoluble developer particles suspended in
water. Water suspendible developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep the
particles from settling out of suspension. Water suspendible developers are applied to
parts in the same manner as water soluble developers. Parts coated with a water
suspendible developer must be forced dried just as parts coated with a water soluble
developer are forced dried. The surface of a part coated with a water suspendible
developer will have a slightly translucent white coating.
B) Nonaqueous
Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile solvent and are typically
applied with a spray gun. Nonaqueous developers are commonly distributed in aerosol
spray cans for portability. The solvent tends to pull penetrant from the indications by
solvent action. Since the solvent is highly volatile, forced drying is not required. A
nonaqueous developer should be applied to a thoroughly dried part to form a slightly
translucent white coating.
Preparation of Part
One of the most critical steps in the penetrant inspection process is preparing the part
for inspection. All coatings, such as paints, varnishes, plating, and heavy oxides must
be removed to ensure that defects are open the surface of the part. If the parts have
been machined, sanded, or blasted prior to the penetrant inspection, it is possible that a
thin layer of metal may have smeared across the surface and closed off defects. It is
even possible for metal smearing to occur as a result of cleaning operations such as grit
or vapor blasting. This layer of metal smearing must be removed before inspection.
Contaminants
Coatings, such as paint, are much more elastic than metal and will not fracture even
though a large defect may be present just below the coating. The part must be
thoroughly cleaned as surface contaminates can prevent the penetrant from entering a
defect. Surface contaminants can also lead to a higher level of background noise since
the excess penetrant may be more difficult to remove.
Common coatings and contaminates that must be removed include: paint, dirt, flux,
scale, varnish, oil, etchant, smut, plating, grease, oxide, wax, decals, machining fluid,
rust, and residue from previous penetrant inspections.
Some of these contaminants would obviously prevent penetrant from entering defects
and it is, therefore, clear that they must be removed. However, the impact of other
contaminants such as the residue from previous penetrant inspections is less clear, but
they can have a disastrous affect on the inspection. Take the link below to review some
26
of the research that has been done to evaluate the effects of contaminants on LPI
sensitivity.
A good cleaning procedure will remove all contamination from the part and not leave
any residue that may interfere with the inspection process. It has been found that some
alkaline cleaners can be detrimental to the penetrant inspection process if they have
silicates in concentrations above 0.5 percent. Sodium metasilicate, sodium silicate, and
related compounds can adhere to the surface of parts and form a coating that prevents
penetrant entry into cracks. Researchers in Russia have also found that some domestic
soaps and commercial detergents can clog flaw cavities and reduce the wettability of
the metal surface, thus, reducing the sensitivity of the penetrant. Conrad and Caudill
found that media from plastic media blasting was partially responsible for loss of LPI
indication strength. Microphotographs of cracks after plastic media blasting showed
media entrapment in addition to metal smearing.
It is very important that the material being inspected has not been smeared across its
own surface during machining or cleaning operations. It is well recognized that
machining, honing, lapping, hand sanding, hand scraping, shot peening, grit blasting,
tumble deburring, and peening operations can cause a small amount of the material to
smear on the surface of some materials. It is perhaps less recognized that some
cleaning operations, such as steam cleaning, can also cause metal smearing in the
softer materials. Take the link below to learn more about metal smearing and its affects
on LPI.
Common Uses of Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the most widely used nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors, which
are its relative ease of use and its flexibility. LPI can be used to inspect almost any
material provided that its surface is not extremely rough or porous. Materials that are
commonly inspected using LPI include the following:
· Metals (aluminum, copper, steel, titanium, etc.)
· Glass
· Many ceramic materials
· Rubber
· Plastics
LPI offers flexibility in performing inspections because it can be applied in a large variety
of applications ranging from automotive spark plugs to critical aircraft components.
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Penetrant material can be applied with a spray can or a cotton swab to inspect for flaws
known to occur in a specific area or it can be applied by dipping or spraying to quickly
inspect large areas. At right, visible dye penetrant being locally applied to a highly
loaded connecting point to check for fatigue cracking.
Penetrant inspection systems have been developed to inspect some very large
components. In this picture, DC10 banjo fittings are being moved into a penetrant
inspection system at what used to be the Douglas Aircraft Company's Long Beach,
California facility. These large machined aluminum forgings are used to support the
number 3 engine in the tail of a DC10 aircraft.
Liquid penetrant inspection is used to inspect of flaws that break the surface of the
sample. Some of these flaws are listed below:
· Fatigue cracks
· Quench cracks
· Grinding cracks
· Overload and impact fractures
· Porosity
· Laps
· Seams
· Pin holes in welds
· Lack of fusion or braising along the edge of the bond line
As mentioned above, one of the major limitations of a penetrant inspection is that flaws
must be open to the surface.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Penetrant Testing
Like all nondestructive inspection methods, liquid penetrant inspection has both
advantages and disadvantages. The primary advantages and disadvantages when
compared to other NDE methods are summarized below.
Primary Advantages
· The method has high sensitive to small surface discontinuities.
· The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic
and nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be
inspected.
· Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at
low cost.
· Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
· Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
· Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
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Primary Disadvantages
· Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
· Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be inspected.
· Precleaning is critical as contaminants can mask defects.
· Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be
removed prior to LPI.
· The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
· Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
· Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
· Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
· Chemical handling and proper disposal is require
Chapter IV
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Introduction:
Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive testing method used for surface and
near surface defect detection. MPI is a fast and relatively easy to apply and surface
preparation is not as critical as it is for some other NDT methods. These characteristics
make MPI one of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing methods.
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MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect
flaws in components. The only requirement is that the component being inspected must
be made of a ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys.
Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow
the inspection to be effective.
The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms such as castings, forgings, and
weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a
component's fitnessforuse. Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle
inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and
aerospace industries. Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle
inspection may be used to test items such as offshore structures and underwater
pipelines.
Basic Principles
In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. Consider a
bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any place that a
magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a
magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole and a pole where a line of
force enters the magnet is called a south pole.
When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar magnets with
magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked but
not broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack.
The magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters the at the south pole. The magnetic
field spreads out when it encounter the small air gap created by the crack because the
air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the
field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus, it is called a flux
leakage field.
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If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and
cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet but also at the poles at the edges
of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this
is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.
The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to
be inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a
leakage field. After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry
or wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles
will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication
that the inspector can detect.
History of Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetism is the ability of matter to attract other matter. The ancient Greeks were the
first to discover this phenomenon in a mineral they named magnetite. Later on
Bergmann, Becquerel, and Faraday discovered that all matter including liquids and
gasses were affected by magnetism, but only a few responded to a noticeable extent.
The earliest known magnetic inspection an object took place as early as 1868. Cannon
barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing the barrel then sliding a magnetic
compass along the barrel's length. These early inspectors were able to locate flaws in
the barrels by monitoring the needle of the compass.
In the early 1920’s, William Hoke realized that magnetic particles could be used with
magnetism as a means of locating defects. Hoke discovered that a surface or
subsurface flaw in a magnetized material caused the magnetic field to distort and
extend beyond the part. This discovery was brought to his attention in the machine
shop. He noticed that the metallic grindings from hard steel parts, which were being
held by a magnetic chuck while being ground, formed patterns on the face of the parts
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which corresponded to the cracks in the surface. Applying a fine ferromagnetic powder
to the parts caused a build up of powder over flaws and formed a visible indication.
Today, the MPI inspection method is used extensively to check for flaws in a large
variety of manufactured materials and components. MPI is used to check materials such
as steel bar stock for seams and other flaws prior to investing machining time during the
manufacturing of a component. Critical automotive components are inspected for flaws
after fabrication to ensure that defective parts are not placed into service. MPI is used to
inspect some highly loaded components that have been inservice for a period of time.
For example, many components of high performance race cars are inspected whenever
the engine, drive train and other systems are overhauled. MPI is also used to evaluate
the integrity of structural welds on bridges, storage tanks, pipelines and other critical
structures.
Magnetism
Magnets are very common items in the workplace and household. Uses of magnets
range from holding pictures on the refrigerator to causing torque in electric motors. The
term "magnetic field" simply describes a volume of space where there is a change in
energy within that volume. This change in energy can be detected and measured. The
location where a magnetic field can be detected exiting or entering a material is called a
magnetic pole. Magnetic poles have never been detected in isolation but always occur
in pairs and, thus, the name dipole.
A bar magnet can be considered a dipole with a north pole at one end and South Pole
at the other. A magnetic field can be measured leaving the dipole at the North Pole and
returning the magnet at the South Pole. If a magnet is cut in two, two magnets or
dipoles are created out of one. This sectioning and creation of dipoles can continue to
the atomic level. Therefore, the source of magnetism lies in the basic building block of
all matter...the atom.
The Source of Magnetism
All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and
electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the atom's nucleus and the electrons
are in constant motion around the nucleus. Electrons carry a negative electrical charge
and produce a magnetic field as they move through space. A magnetic field is produced
whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The strength of this field is called the
magnetic moment.
consider electric current flowing through a conductor. When the electrons (electric
current) are flowing through the conductor, a magnetic field forms around the conductor.
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The magnetic field can be detected using a compass. The magnetic field will place a
force on the compass needle.
Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way by a
magnetic field. However, not all materials react the same way.
Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic Materials
In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Each electron in a pair spins in the opposite
direction. So when electrons are paired together, there opposite spins cause their
magnetic fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic field exists.
Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic field and
will react more to an external field. Most materials can be classified as ferromagnetic,
diamagnetic or paramagnetic.
Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.
Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not
retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Most elements in the
periodic table, including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These
materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic materials include
magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.
Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external
magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain
their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed. They get their
strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains. In these domains,
large numbers of atoms moments (10 12 to 10 15 ) are aligned parallel so that the magnetic
force within the domain is strong. When a ferromagnetic material is in the unmagnitized
state, the domains are nearly randomly organized and the net magnetic field for the part
as a whole is zero. When a magnetizing force is applied, the domains become aligned
to produce a strong magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples
of ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic Domains
Ferromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties because the material is made up
of small regions known as magnetic domains. In each domain, all of the atomic dipoles
are coupled together in a preferential direction. This alignment develops as the material
develops its crystalline structure during solidification from the molten state.
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During solidification a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the
magnetic force within the domain is strong in one direction. Even though the domains
are magnetically saturated, the bulk material may not show any signs of magnetism
because the domains develop themselves are randomly oriented relative to each other.
Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within the
material are aligned. This can be done by placing the material in a strong external
magnetic field or by passing electrical current through the material. Some or all of the
domains can become aligned. The more domains are aligned, the stronger the
magnetic field in the material. When all of the domains are aligned, the material is
magnetically saturated and additional amount of external magnetization force will not
cause any increase in its internal level of magnetization.
Unmagnetized Material Magnetized Material
Magnetic Field Characteristics
Magnetic lines of force have a number of important properties, which include:
· They seek the path of least resistance between opposite magnetic poles. In a
single bar magnet as shown to the right, they attempt to form closed loop from
pole to pole.
· They never cross one another.
· They all have the same strength.
· Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an area of
higher permeability to an area of lower permeability.
· Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles.
· They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement
occurs. They flow from the south pole to the north pole within the material and
north pole to south pole in air.
Electromagnetic Fields
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In most conductors, the magnetic field exists only as long as the current is flowing
the direction of the magnetic field is dependent on the direction of the electrical current
in the wire. A threedimensional representation of the magnetic field is shown above.
There is a simple rule for remembering the direction of the magnetic field around a
conductor. It is called the righthand rule. If a person grasps a conductor in ones right
hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers will circle the
conductor in the direction of the magnetic field.
Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil
When a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form a coil,
a magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along
longitudinal axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil. The magnetic
field circling each loop of wire combines with the fields from the other loops to produce a
concentrated field down the center of the coil. A loosely wound coil is illustrated below
to show the interaction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field is essentially uniform
down the length of the coil when it is wound tighter.
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The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing current but also
with each loop that is added to the coil. A long straight coil of wire is called a solenoid
and can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar
magnet. The concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is very useful in magnetizing
ferromagnetic materials for inspection using the magnetic particle testing method.
Please be aware that the field outside the coil is weak and is not suitable for magnetize
ferromagnetic materials.
The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties
A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material
by studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the
induced magnetic flux density B and the magnetizing force H. It is often referred to as
the BH loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown below.
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Plotting the change in magnetic flux B induced a ferromagnetic material while the
magnetizing force H is changed generates the hysteresis loop. A ferromagnetic material
that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will
follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the
amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B+).
At point "a" almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in
the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has
reached the point of magnetic saturation.
When H is reduced back down to zero, the curve will move from point "a" to point "b." At
this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material even though
the magnetizing force is zero, this is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph
and indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of
the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost there alignment.) As the
magnetizing force is reversed, the curve
moves to point "c", where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of
coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the
domains so that the net flux within the material is zero.) The force required to remove
the residual magnetism from the material, is called the coercive force or coercivity of the
material.
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again
become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H to
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zero brings the curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that
achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B
to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some
force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path
from point "f" back the saturation point where it with complete the loop.
From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be
determined.
Retentivity A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation
induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a
certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after
achieving saturation. (The value of B at point B on the hysteresis curve.)
Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux the magnetic flux density that remains in a
material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and
retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point.
However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when
the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.
Coercive Force The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a
magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point C
on the hysteresis curve.)
Permeability A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic
flux is established in the component.
Reluctance Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment
of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.
The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal about the material being magnetized.
The hysteresis curves of two different materials are shown in the graph.
Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability
To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to
understand that orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very
important. There are two general types of magnetic fields that can be established within
a component.
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A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force
that run parallel to the long axis of the part. Longitudinal
magnetization of a component can be accomplished using
the longitudinal field set up by a coil or solenoid. It can also
be accomplished using permanent or electromagnets.
To magnetize the part in two directions is important because the best detection of
defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established at right angles to the
longest dimension of the defect, if the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field
will see little disruption and no flux leakage field will be produced.
An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is
necessary to form an indication. Since defects may occur in various directions, each
part is normally magnetized in two directions at right angles to each other. To determine
most of the defects.
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Demagnetization
After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to demagnetize
the component
Remanent magnetic fields can:
· Affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.
· Interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.
· Create a condition known as "ark blow" in the welding process. Arc blow may
cause the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.
· Cause abrasive particle to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase wear.
Magnetizing Equipment for Magnetic Particle Inspection
To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to become familiar
with the different types of magnetic fields and the equipment used to generate them. As
discussed previously, one of the primary requirements for detection of a defect in a
ferromagnetic material is that the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept the
defect at a 45 to 90 degrees angle. Flaws that are normal (90 degrees) to the magnetic
field will produce the strongest indications because they disrupt more of the magnet
flux.
A variety of equipment exist to establish the magnetic field for MPI. Some equipment is
designed to be portable so that inspections can be made in the field and some is
designed to be stationary for ease of inspection in the laboratory or manufacturing
facility.
Permanent magnets
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Permanent magnets are sometimes used for magnetic particle inspection as the source
of magnetism. The two primary types of permanent magnets are bar magnets and
horseshoe (yoke) magnets. These industrial magnets are usually very strong and may
require significant strength to remove them from a piece of metal. Some permanent
magnets require over 50 pounds of force to remove them from the surface. Because it is
difficult to remove the magnets from the component being inspected, and sometimes
difficult and dangerous to place the magnets, their use is not particularly popular.
However, a diver for inspection in an underwater environment or other areas sometimes
uses permanent magnets, such as in an explosive environment, where electromagnets
cannot be used. Permanent magnets can also be made small enough to fit into tight
areas where electromagnets might not fit
Electromagnets
Today, most of the equipment used to create the magnetic field used in MPI is based on
electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical current to produce the magnetic field. An
electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment that is used to establish a
magnetic field. It is basically made by wrapping an electrical coil around a piece of soft
ferromagnetic steel. A switch is included in the electrical circuit so that the current and,
therefore, also the magnetic field can be turn on and off. They can be powered with
alternating current from a wall socket or by direct current from a battery pack. This type
of magnet generates a
very strong magnetic field in a local area where the poles of magnet touch the part to be
inspected. Some yokes can lift weights in excess of 40 pounds.
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Portable yoke with battery pack Portable magnetic particle kit
Prods
Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface of the component
being inspected to make contact for passing electrical current through the metal. The
current passing between the prods creates a circular magnetic field around the prods
that is can be used in magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically made from
copper and have an insulated handle to help protect the operator. One of the prods has
a trigger switch so that the current can be quickly and easily turned on and off.
Sometimes the the two prods are connected by any insulator as shown in the image to
facilitate one hand operation. This is referred to as a dual prod and is commonly used
for weld inspections.
If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component surface,
electrical arcing can occur and cause damage to the component. For this reason, the
use of prods are not allowed when inspecting aerospace and other critical components.
To help to prevent arcing, the prod tips should be
inspected frequently to ensure that they are not oxidized, covered with scale or other
contaminant, or damaged.
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Portable Coils and Conductive Cables
Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field within a
component. When a preformed coil is used, the component is placed against the inside
surface on the coil. Coils typically have three or five turns of a copper cable within the
molded frame. A foot switch is often used to energize the coil. Conductive cables are
wrapped around the component. The cable used is typically 00 extra flexible or 0000
extra flexible. The number of wraps is determined by the magnetizing force needed and,
of course, the length of the cable. Normally the wraps are kept as close together as
possible. When using a coil or cable wrapped into a coil, amperage is usually expressed
in ampereturns. Ampereturns is the amperage shown on the amp meter times the
number of turns in the coil.
Portable coil Conductive Cable
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central conductor.
This type of a setup is used to inspect parts that are hollow such as gears, tubes, and
other ringshaped objects. A central conductor is an electrically conductive bar that is
usually made of copper or aluminum. The bar is inserted through the center of the
hollow part and the bar is then clamped between the contact pads. When current is
passed through the central conductor, a circular magnetic field flows around the bar and
enters into the part or parts being inspected.
Lights for Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection can be performed using particles that are highly visible
under white lighting conditions or particles that are highly visible under ultraviolet
lighting conditions. When an inspection is being performed using the visible color
contrast particles, no special lighting is required as long as the area of inspection is well
lit. A light intensity of at least 1000 lux (100 fc) is recommended when a visible particles
are used, but a variety of light sources can be used.
When fluorescent particles are used, special ultraviolet light must be used.
Fluorescence is defined as the property of emitting radiation as a result of and during
exposure to radiation. Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle inspections are
coated with a material that produces light in the visible spectrum when exposed to the
nearultraviolet light. This "particle glow" provides high contrast indications on the
component anywhere particles collect. Particles that fluoresce yellowgreen are most
common because this color matches the peak sensitivity of the human eye under dark
conditions. However, particles that fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and green colors are
available.
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Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light or "black light" is light in the 1,000 to 4,000 Angstroms (100 to 400 nm)
wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic form of light
that is invisible to the human eye. Wavelengths above 4,000 Angstroms fall into the
visible light spectrum and are seen as the color violet. UV is separated according to
wavelength into three classes: A, B, and C. The shorter the wavelength, the more
energy that is carried in the light and the more dangerous it is to the human cells.
Class Wavelength Range
UVA 3,200–4,000 Angstroms
UVB 2,800–3,200 Angstroms
UVC 2,800–1,000 Angstroms
The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is between 3,500 and
3,800 Angstroms with a peak wavelength at about 3,650 A. This wavelength range is
used because it is in the UVA range, which is the safest to work with. UVB will do an
effective job of causing substances to fluoresce, however, it should not be used
because harmful effects such as skin burns, and eye damage can occur. This
wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created during the welding process. UVC
(1,000 to 2,800) is even more dangerous to living cells and is used to kill bacteria in
industrial and medical settings.
The desired wavelength range for use in NDT is obtained by filtering the ultraviolet light
generated by the light bulb. The output of a UV bulb spans a wide range of
wavelengths. The short wave lengths of 3,120 A to 3,340 A are produced in low levels.
A peak wavelength of 3650 A is produced at a very high intensity. Wavelengths in the
visible violet range (4050 A to 4350 A), greenyellow (5460 A), yellow (6220 A) and
orange (6770 A) are also usually produced. The filter allows only radiation in the range
of 3200 to 4000 angstroms and a little visible dark purple to pass.
Magnetic Particles
As mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection are
a key ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to defects. Particles
start out as tiny milled (a machining process) pieces of iron or iron oxide. A pigment
(somewhat like paint) is bonded to their surfaces to give the particles color. The metal
used for the particles has high magnetic permeability and low retentivity. High magnetic
permeability is important because it makes the particles attract easily to small magnetic
leakage fields from discontinuities, such as flaws. Low retentivity is important because
the particles themselves never become strongly magnetized so they do not stick to each
other or the surface of the part. Particles are available in a dry mix or a wet solution.
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Dry magnetic particles can typically be purchased in red, black, gray, yellow and several
other colors so that a high level of contrast between the particles and the part being
inspected can be achieved. The size of the magnetic particles is also very important.
Dry magnetic particle products are produced to include a range of particle sizes. The
fine particles are around 50 m (0.002 inch) in size are about three times smaller in
diameter and more than 20 times lighter than the coarse particles (150 m or 0.006
inch), which make them more sensitive to the leakage fields from very small
discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot be made exclusively of the fine
particles. Coarser particles are needed to bridge large discontinuities and to reduce the
powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to surface
contamination, such as remanent dirt or moisture, and get trapped in surface roughness
features producing a high level of background. It should also be recognized that finer
particles will be more easily blown away by the wind and, therefore, windy conditions
can reduce the sensitivity of an inspection. Also, reclaiming the dry particles is not
recommended because the small particle are less likely to be recaptured and the "once
used" mix will result in less sensitive inspections.
The particle shape is also important. Long, slender particles tend align themselves
along the lines of magnetic force. However, research has shown that if dry powder
consists only of long, slender particles, the application process would be less than
desirable. Elongated particles come from the dispenser in clumps and lack the ability to
flow freely and form the desired "cloud" of particles floating on the component.
Therefore, globular particles are added that are shorter. The mix of globular and
elongated particles result in a dry powder that flows well and maintain good sensitivity.
Most dry particle mixes have particle with L/D ratios between one and two.
Wet Magnetic Particles
Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil. The wet
magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry because the
suspension provides the particles with more mobility and makes it possible for smaller
particles to be used since dust and adherence to surface contamination is reduced or
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eliminated. The wet method also makes it easy to apply the particles uniformly to a
relatively large area.
Wet method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder products in a number of
ways. One way is that both visible and fluorescent particle are available. Most
nonfluorescent particles are ferromagnetic iron oxides, which are either black or brown
in color. Fluorescent particles are coated with pigments that fluoresce when exposed to
ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce greenyellow are most common to take
advantage of the peak color sensitivity of the eye but other fluorescent colors are also
available. (For more information on the color sensitivity of the eye, see the penetrant
inspection material.)
The particles used with the wet method are smaller in size than those used in the dry
method for the reasons mentioned above. The particles are typically 10 m (0.0004
inch) and smaller and the synthetic iron oxides have particle diameters around 0.1 m
(0.000004 inch). This very small size is a result of the process used to form the particles
and is not particularly desirable, as the particles are almost too fine to settle out of
suspension. However, due to their slight residual magnetism, the oxide particles are
present mostly in clusters that settle out of suspension much faster than the individual
particles. This makes it possible to see and measure the concentration of the particles
for process control purposes. Wet particles are also a mix of long slender and globular
particles. The carrier solutions can be water or oilbased. Waterbased carriers form
quicker indications, are generally less expensive, present little or no fire hazard, give off
no petrochemical fumes, and are easier to clean from the part. Waterbased solutions
are usually formulated with a corrosion inhibitor to offer some corrosion protection.
However, oilbased carrier solutions offer superior corrosion and hydrogen
embrittlement protection to those materials that are prone to attack by these
mechanisms.
Chapter IV
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Ultrasonic Testing
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and
make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation,
dimensional measurements, material characterization, and more.
The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of
waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the
energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is
transformed into electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen.
Initial Probe
pulse
Back surface
Crack echo
echo
Plate Crack
0 2 4 6 8 10
SCREEN
Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method for detecting both
surface and subsurface volumetric defects and is widely used in pipeline, oil and gas
and processing industry.
Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen
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Sound Spectrum
Audible
range
Ultrasonic testing range
20 kHz 200 kHz
16Hz 15 MHz
Usual steel testing
range
Advantages of Ultrasonic Inspection
Some of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:
· It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
· The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to
other NDT methods.
· Only singlesided access is needed when the pulseecho technique is
used.
· It is high accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size and
shape.
· Minimal part preparation required.
· Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
· Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
· It has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw
detection.
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Inspection
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which
include:
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· Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
· Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
· It normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound
energy into test specimen.
· Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin
or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
· Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to
low sound transmission and high signal noise.
· Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
· Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and
characterization of flaws.
Properties of sound wave
Wave Propagation
Ultrasonic testing is based on timevarying deformations or vibrations in
materials, which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances are
comprised of atoms, which may be forced into vibrational motion about their
equilibrium positions.
In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on
the way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear
waves, surface waves, and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and
shear waves are the two modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic
testing. The particle movement responsible for the propagation of longitudinal
and shear waves is illustrated below.
Longitudinal waves:
In longitudinal waves the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction of the
direction of wave propagation. Since compressional forces are active in these
waves, they are also called compressional waves. Compression waves can be
50
generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the
atomic structure by a series of comparison and expansion (rarefaction)
movements.
Transverse or shear wave:
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or
transverse to the direction of propagation. Shear waves require an acoustically
solid material for effective propagation and, therefore, are not effectively
propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses. Shear waves are relatively
weak when compared to longitudinal waves
Surface or Rayleigh waves :
Surface or Rayleigh waves travel on the surface of a relative thick solid material
penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. The particle movement has an elliptical
orbit. Raleigh waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface
defects and since they will follow the surface around curves, therefore can be
used to inspect areas that other waves might have difficulty in reaching.
Plate waves:
Plate waves can be propagated only in very thin metals. Lamb waves are the
most commonly used plate waves in NDT. Lamb waves are a complex vibrational
wave that travels through the entire thickness of a material. Propagation of Lamb
waves depends on density, elastic, and material properties of a component, and
they are influenced by a great deal by selected frequency and material thickness.
Velocity: How quickly a sound wave will travel
Frequency: How many vibrations per second
Wave length:
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1 Second 1 Second
A change in frequency will result in a change in wavelength. In ultrasonic testing,
the shorter wavelength resulting from an increase in frequency will help in the
detection of smaller discontinuities.
Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is the ability to locate small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally
increases with higher frequency (shorter wavelengths).
Resolution:
Resolution is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities that are close
together within the material or located near the part surface. Resolution also
generally increases as the frequency increases.
Velocity of sound traveling through materials:
Velocity of sound varies with the material in which it is traveling.
Material Compression Shear Velocity
Velocity m\sec m\sec
Steel 5960 3245
Water 1490 NA
Air 344 NA
Copper 4700 2330
Attenuation of Sound Waves
When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance.
This weakening results from two basic causes, which are scattering and
absorption. The combined effect of scattering and absorption is called
attenuation.
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Refraction and Snell's Law
When an ultrasound wave passes through an interface between two materials, it
produces both reflected and refracted waves. Refraction takes place at an
interface due to the different velocities of the acoustic waves within the two
materials. The velocity of sound in each material is determined by the material
properties (elastic modules and density) for that material.
Where:
Ultrasonic Probes
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion
of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for
53
ultrasonic testing. The active element is the Probe. It converts the electrical
energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa.
Characteristics of Probes
The probe is a very important part of the ultrasonic instrumentation system. The
probe converts electrical signals into mechanical vibrations (transmit mode) and
mechanical vibrations into electrical signals (receive mode). Many factors,
including material, mechanical and electrical construction, and the external
mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior a transducer.
Mechanical construction includes parameters such as radiation surface area,
mechanical damping, housing, connector type
.
Types of Probes
54
Ultrasonic transducers are manufactured for a variety of application and can be
custom fabricated when necessary. Careful attention must be paid to selecting
the proper transducer for the application It is important to choose transducers
that have the desired frequency, bandwidth, and focusing to optimize inspection
capability. Most often the transducer is chosen either to enhance sensitivity or
resolution of the system.
Transducers are classified into groups according to the application.
· Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are
generally hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a rugged
casing to withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These
transducers are designed so that they are easy to grip and move along a
surface. They also often have replaceable wear plates to lengthen their
useful life. Coupling materials of water, grease, oils, or commercial
materials are used to remove the air gap between the transducer and the
component inspected. Contact probes are classified as.
· Single crystal probe
· Twin crystal probe
· Normal beam or zero degree probe
· Angle beam probe
55
Contact transducers are available in a variety of configurations to improve their
usefulness for a variety of applications.
Single crystal probe normal probe:
The flat contact transducer shown above is used normal beam inspections of
relatively flat surfaces, and where near surface resolution is not critical. If the
surface is curved, a shoe that matches the curvature of the part may need to be
added to the face of the transducer.
Twin crystal normal probe:
contain two independently operating elements in a single housing. One of the
elements transmits and the other receives. Active elements can be chosen for
their sending and receiving capabilities providing a transducer with a cleaner
signal, and transducers for special applications, such as inspection of course
grain material. Dual element transducers are especially well suited for making
measurements in applications where reflectors are very near the transducer
since this design eliminates the ring down effect that singleelement transducers
experience. (When singleelement transducers are operating in pulse echo
mode, the element can not start receiving reflected signals until the element has
stopped ringing from it transmit function.) Dual element transducers are very
useful when making thickness measurements of thin materials and when
inspecting for near surface defects. The two elements are angled towards each
other to create a crossedbeam sound path in the test material.
Angle beam transducers:
Angle beams are typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test
material.In the fixed angle versions, the angle of refraction that is marked on the
transducer is only accurate for a particular material, which is usually steel. The
angled sound path allows the sound beam to be reflected from the back wall to
improve detectability of flaws in and around welded areas. They are also used to
generate surface waves for use in detecting defects on the surface of a
component.
56
Couplant
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of
ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is
generally necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air and
solids
Calibration Blocks
Standard blocks are used to calibrate the instrument and to calculate different
features of probe and the instrument. These blocks consists accurately cut and
fine polished surfaces, holes ,angles etc.
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Inspection of Welded Joints
The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag
inclusions, lack of sidewall fusion, lack of interrun fusion, lack of root
penetration, undercutting, and longitudinal or transverse cracks.
Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using a straight beam probe
in conjunction with an angle beam probe A straight beam probe, producing a
longitudinal wave at normal incidence into the test piece, is first used to locate
any laminations in or near the heataffected zone. This is important because an
angle beam transducer may not be able to provide a return signal from a laminar
flaw.
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Chapter VI
RADIORGAPHIC TESTING
59
Introduction:
In this method of Nondestructive testing the penetration property of Xray and
Gamma rays to detect the discontinuities. The object to be inspected is placed
between the radiation source and a piece of film. Xrays or gamma rays pass
through the object. The object will stop some of the radiation. Thicker and denser
area will stop more of the radiation and show on the film lighter than thinner or
less dense area. Most weld defects will show on the film darker than the
surrounding area.
Nature of Penetrating Radiation
Xrays and gamma rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are
waveforms as are light rays, microwaves, and radio wave, but xrays and gamma
rays cannot been seen, felt, or heard. They possess no charge and no mass and,
therefore, are not influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will always
travel in straight lines. They can be characterized by frequency, wavelength, and
velocity
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
60
The International System (SI) unit for activity is the Becquerel (Bq), w
Wavelengths of Electro Magnetic Spectrum
Electro Magnetic Radiation Type Wave length in nm
Visible Light 700-400
Ultraviolet light 400-100
X-Rays
Gamma -Rays
1 nm =109 Meters
Advantage of Radiography
1.Gives a permanent record
2.Detects internal Flaws
3.Detects volumetric flaws readily
4.Can be used on most materials
5.Can check for correct assembly
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6.Gives direct Images
7.Real time Image is possible
Disadvantages of Radiography
1Radiation Health
2Can be sensitive to defect orientation and could miss planar flaws
3Has limited ability to detect fine cracks
4Access is required to both sides of the object
5Limited thickness of the material can be penetrated
6Skilled radiographic interpretation is required
7Require high capital cost
8Relatively slow process
9Require high capital cost
10Require high running cost
Properties of Xrays and gamma rays
1.They have no effect on the human senses
2.They have adverse effect on the body tissues and blood
3.They penetrate matter
4.They move in straight line
5.They are part of electromagnetic spectrum
6.They travel at the speed of light
7.They obey the inverse square law
8.They ionize gases
9.They may be scattered
10.They make certain materials fluoresce
11.They may be refracted, diffracted and polarized
Xray Tube
High Electrical Potential
Electrons
+
Xray Generator or Radioactive Source
Creates Radiation
62 Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample
Exposure Recording Device
Properties of Xrays
1. Potential difference of around 300 kv is used
2. Approximately around 97 99% heat & 13 % of x rays are
generated
3. Anode is made up of cupper to carry out the heat. Additional
cooling using oil, air or water is also used
4 Target is made up of tungsten
5. Area of the target struck by the electrons is called as focal spot
6. Focal spot size should be big to absorb more heat but to produce
good quality radiograph this size should be the smallest
7. Important control points of the xray machine are timer, Amperage
control and Voltage control
8. More time more radiation more exposure
9. Amperage controls the intensity or quality of Xray, 612 Amp are usually used
10.More voltage generates the shorter wave length or quality of x
rays more penetrating power
11.Increase in voltage increases the speed of the electrons, therefore
high kinetic energy and high penetration
Gammarays:
63
Properties of Gammarays
1.Gamma rays are emitted from artificial radio active isotope
2.Radio active isotope is an unstable state of element which has different number
of neutrons to the normal state of the same element
3.The mass number of Radio active Isotope will be different from same element
4.The radio active isotope disintegrate continuously releasing electromagnetic
energy (gamma rays)
5Gamma ray sources are usually disc,cylindrical or spherical shape
6The discs: 3.0 mm diameter and 1 mm thick, stacked together
7Cylindrical: Typically upto 4 mm in length
8Spherical: 0.6 – 3.0 mm diameter
9Sources are encapsulated in the capsules of 316 \ S12 grade Stainless steel
Isotope Decay Rate (Decay of the Gamma Source)
Loss of activity of a radioactive nuclease due to Disintegration
Half Life of Gamma source:
Time taken for a radio active Isotope to reduce its out put by half
1.No electrical or water supply are needed
2.Gamma equipment is usually smaller and lighter and therefore more portable
3.The equipment is more simple
4.Places inaccessible to xray equipment are accessible to gamma equipment
5.Because of high energy there is less scatter
6.Gamma equipment is less expensive than xray equipment
7.Greater penetrating power than xrays
Disadvantages of gamma rays over xrays
1.Due to the higher energy, poorer contrast and definition
2.Exposure times are longer
3.Sources need replacing at regular intervals
4.The radiation cannot be switched off
5.SFD is shorter, resulting in poorer geometric unsharpness
6.Remote handling is necessary
Radiographic Techniques
1) SWSI : ( Film Inside Source Outside )
2) SWSI : ( Film Outside Source Inside )
3) DWSI : ( Film Outside Source Outside )
4) DWDI : (Film Outside Source Outside
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Radiographic Contrast
Subject contrast is determined by the following variables:
Absorption differences in the specimen
Wavelength of the primary radiation
Scatter or secondary radiation
Film contrast is determined by the following:
Grain size or type of film
Chemistry of film processing chemicals
Concentrations of film processing chemicals
Time of development
Temperature of development
Degree of mechanical agitation (physical motion)
Exposing the film to produce higher film densities will generally increase contrast.
In other words, darker areas will increase in density faster than lighter areas
because in any given period of time more xrays are reaching the darker areas.
Reasons for low contrast
Radiation wave length too short
Over exposure
Prolonged development
Too cold developer
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Insufficient fixing
Fog on the film
Reasons for High contrast
Radiation wave length too long
Incorrect developer
Under exposure
Definition
Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one density to
another. There are a number of geometric factors of the Xray equipment and the
radiographic setup that have an effect on definition. These geometric factors
include:
Focal spot size, which is the area of origin of the radiation.The focal spot size
should be as close to a point source as possible to produce the most definition.
Source to film distance, which is the distance from the source to the part.
Definition increases as the source to film distance increase.
Specimen to detector (film) distance, which is the distance between the
specimen and the detector. For optimal definition, the specimen and detector
should be as close together as possible. .
Abrupt changes in specimen thickness may cause distortion on the radiograph.
Movement of the specimen during the exposure will produce distortion on the
radiograph.
Film graininess, and screen mottling will decrease definition.
The grain size of the film will affect the definition of the radiograph. Wavelength
of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the wavelength shortens
and penetration increases, the apparent graininess of the film will increase. Also,
increased development of the film will increase the apparent graininess of the
radiograph.
Radiographic Density
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Degree of blackening of a radiograph. Density is measured by a
densitometer.High density area is a dark area and low density area is a light
area. A high density area absorbs more light than the low density area
Density is the log of the intensity of light incident on the film to the intensity of
light transmitted through the film. A density reading of 2.0 is the result of only 1
percent of the transmitted light reaching the sensor.
Density required in the area of interest should be between 1.5 and
2.5.Radiographs with very low density and with very high density are not
acceptable.
Reasons for low density
• Under exposure to radiation
• Insufficient development time
• Development temperature too low
• Incorrect developer
Reasons for Excessive density
. Over exposure to Radiation
• Excessive development time
• Development temperature too high
• Incorrect Developer
sensitivity
The ability of the radiographic technique to detect the smallest possible
defect.Sensitivity is measured by using Image Quality Indicators ( IQI ),also
called as Penetrameters. Sensitivity depends on Radiographic contrast and
Density.
Controlling Radiographic Quality
One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the use of
image quality indicators (IQI). IQIs provide a means of visually informing the film
interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and definition of the radiograph. The IQI
indicates that a specified amount of material thickness change will be detectable
in the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a certain level of definition so that
the density changes are not lost due to unsharpness. Without such a reference
point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and defects could go
undetected.
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various codes or
standards that invoke their use. In the United States two IQI styles are prevalent;
the placard, or holetype and the wire IQI. IQIs comes in a variety of material
68
types so that one with radiation absorption characteristics similar to the material
being radiographed can be used.
HoleType IQIs
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material
group classification of holetype image quality indicators. E1025 designates eight
groups of shims based on their radiation absorption characteristics. A notching
system is incorporated into the requirements allowing the radiographer to easily
determine if the penetrameter is the correct material type for the product. The
thickness in thousands of an inch is noted on each pentameter by a lead number
0.250 to 0.375 inch wide depending on the thickness of the shim. Military or
Government standards require a similar penetrameter but use lead letters to
indicate the material type rather than notching system as shown on the left in the
image above.
Image quality levels are typically designated using a two part expression such as
22T. The first term refers to the IQI thickness expressed as a percentage of the
region of interest of the part being inspected. The second term in the expression
refers to the diameter of the hole that must be revealed and it is expressed as a
multiple of the IQI thickness. Therefore, a 22T callout would mean that the shim
thickness should be two percent of material thickness and that a hole that is
twice the IQI thickness must be detectable on the radiograph. This presentation
of a 22T IQI in the radiograph verifies that the radiographic technique is capable
of showing a material loss of 2% in the area of interest.
It should be noted that even if 22T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a
defect of the same diameter and material loss may not be visible. The holes in
the penetrameter represent sharp boundaries, and a small thickness change.
Discontinues within the part may contain gradual changes, and are often less
visible. The penetrameter is used to indicate quality of the radiographic technique
and not intended to be used as a measure of size of cavity that can be located on
the radiograph.
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WireType IQIs
ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using
wire penetrameters (IQIs) to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set of
six wires arranged in order of increasing diameter and encapsulated between two
sheets of clear plastic. E747 specifies four wire IQIs sets, which control the wire
diameters. The set letter (A, B, C or D) is shown in the lower right corner of the
IQI. The number in the lower left corner indicates the material group. The same
image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 22T) used for holetype IQIs are
typically also used for wire IQIs. The wire sizes that correspond to various hole
type quality levels can be found in a table in E747 F = 0.79 (constant form factor
forwire)
Placement of IQIs
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a
material thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the
IQI may be placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of
interest. When a block is used, the IQI should the same distance from the film as
it would be if placed directly on the part in the region of interest. The IQI should
also be placed slightly away from the edge of the part so that atleast three of its
edges are visible in the radiograph.
Secondary (Scatter) Radiation
Secondary or scatter radiation must often be taken into consideration when
producing a radiograph. The scattered radiation create a loss of contrast and
definition. Often secondary radiation is thought of as radiation striking the film
70
reflected from an object in the immediate area, such as a wall, or from the table
or floor where the part is resting. Side scatter originates from walls, or objects on
the source side of the film. Control of side scatter can be achieved by moving
objects in the room away from the film, moving the xray tube to the center of the
vault, or placing a collimator at the exit port thus reducing the diverging radiation
surrounding the central beam.
It is often called backscatter when it comes from objects behind the film. Industry
codes and standards often require that a lead letter "B" be placed on the back of
the cassette to verify the control of back scatter. If the letter "B" shows as a
"ghost" image on the film the letter has absorbed the back scatter radiation
indicating a significant amount of radiation reaching the film. Control of back
scatter radiation is achieved by backing the film in the cassette with sheets of
lead typically 0.010 inch thick. It is a common practice in industry to place 0.005
lead screen in front and 0.010 backing the film.
Lead screens in the thickness range of 0.004 to 0.015 inch typically reduce
scatter radiation at energy levels below 150, 000 volts. Above this point they will
emit electrons to provide more exposure of the film to ionizing radiation thus
increasing the density of the radiograph.
Undercut
Another condition that must often be controlled when producing a radiograph is
called undercut. Parts with holes, hollow areas, or abrupt thickness changes are
71
likely to suffer from undercut if controls are not put in place. Undercut appears as
lightening of the radiograph in the area of the thickness transition. This results in
a loss of resolution or blurring at the transition area.
Undercut occurs due to scattering within the film. At the edges of a part or areas
where the part transitions from thick to thin, the intensity of the radiation reaching
the film is much greater than in the thicker areas of the part. The high level of
radiation intensity reaching the film results in a high level of scattering within the
film. It should also be noted that the faster the film speed, the more undercut that
is likely to occur. Scattering from within the walls of the part also contributed
some to undercut but research has shown that scattering within the film is the
primary cause. Masks are used to control undercut. Sheets of lead cut to fill
holes or surround the part and metallic shot and liquid absorbers are often used
as masks.
Filters in Radiography
At xray energies, filters consist of material placed in the useful beam to absorb,
preferentially, radiations based on energy level or to modify the spatial
distribution of the beam. Filtration is required to absorb the lowerenergy xray
photons emitted by the tube before they reach the target. The use of filters
produce a cleaner image by absorbing the lower energy xray photons that tend
to scatter more.
Radiographic Film
72
Xray films for general radiography consist of an emulsiongelatin containing a
radiation sensitive silver halide and a flexible, transparent, bluetinted base.
Usually, the emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers about 0.0005
inch thick. Putting emulsion on both sides of the base doubles the amount of
radiationsensitive silver halide, and thus increases the film speed. The emulsion
layers are thin enough so developing, fixing, and drying can be accomplished in
a reasonable time.
Film Selection
The selection of a film when radiographing any particular component depends on
a number of different factors. Listed below are some of the factors that must be
considered when selected a film and developing a radiographic technique.
1. the composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in some
cases, its weight and location.
2. the type of radiation used, whether xrays from an xray generator or
gamma rays from a radioactive source.
3. the kilovoltages available with the xray equipment or the intensity of the
gamma radiation.
4. the relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical
results.
Film Processing
Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of chemical
concentration, temperature, time, and physical movement. Whether processing is
done by hand or automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require the
highest possible degree of consistency and quality control.
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Manual Processing & Darkrooms
Manual processing begins with the darkroom. An area dry and free of dust and
dirt should be used to load and unload the film. While another area, the wet side,
will be used to process the film. Thus protecting the film from any water or
chemicals that may be located on the surface of the wet side.
Each of step in film processing must be excited properly to develop the image,
wash out residual processing chemicals, and to provide adequate shelf life of the
radiograph.A radiograph may be retrieved after 5 or even 20 years in storage.
Viewing Radiographs
Radiographs (developed film exposed to xray or gamma radiation) are generally
viewed on a lightbox. Proper viewing conditions are very important when
interpreting a radiograph. The viewing conditions can enhance or degrade the
subtle details of radiographs.
Before beginning the evaluation of a radiograph, the viewing equipment and area
should be considered. The area should be clean and free of distracting materials.
Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film markers should be close at hand. Thin
cotton gloves should be available and worn to prevent fingerprints on the
radiograph. Ambient light levels should be low. Ambient light levels of less than 2
fc are often recommended, but subdued lighting, rather than total darkness, is
preferable in the viewing room. The brightness of the surroundings should be
about the same as the area of interest in the radiograph. Room illumination must
be arranged so that there are no reflections from the surface of the film under
examination.
Film viewers should be clean and in good working condition.Film viewers should
provide a source of defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from
viewers can cause distortion of the radiograph. A film having a measured density
of 2.0 will allow only 1.0 percent of the incident light to pass. A film containing a
density of 4.0 will allow only 0.01 percent of the incident light to pass. With such
low levels of light passing through the radiograph the delivery of a good light
source is important.
Radiographic film quality and acceptability, as required by the procedure, should
first be determined. It should be verified that the radiograph was produced to the
correct density on the required film type, and that it contains the correct
identification information. It should also be verified that the proper image quality
indicator was used and that the required sensitivity level was met. Next, the
74
radiograph should be checked to ensure that it does not contain processing and
handling artifacts that could mask discontinuities or other details of interest.
Once a radiograph passes these initial checks it is ready for interpretation.
Radiographic film interpretation is an acquired skill combining, visual acuity with
knowledge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated
discontinues. If the component is inspected while in service, an understanding of
applied loads and history of the component is helpful.
A process for viewing radiographs, left to right top to bottom etc., is helpful and
will prevent overlooking an area on the radiograph. One part of the interpretation
process, sometimes overlooked, is rest. The mind as well as the eyes needs to
occasionally rest when interpreting radiographs.
When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small
light source and moving the radiograph over the small light source, or changing
the intensity of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant
indications. Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate to help
identify and evaluate indications. Viewing the actual component being inspected
is very often helpful in developing an understanding of the details seen in a
radiograph.
Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time. By
using the proper equipment and developing consistent evaluation processes, the
interpreter will increase his or her probability of detecting defects.
Spurious Indications on the films or ( Artefacts )
Spurious Indications are caused by incorrect processing or careless handling of
the film
The common artefacts are
1 Radiation Fogging: This occurs when the film is stored too close to a source
of radiation or when the film is accidentally left in the exposure area during
the exposure of another film
2 Light Fog: Due to the storage of the film in a faulty storage storage box
where white light is leaks into the film OR due to the wrong type of safe light
in the dark room
75
3 Pressure Markings: Due to careless handling of the film during loading and
unloading of the film
4 Static Marks:This has the appearance of the dark branched and jagged fine
lines. It is due to rapid removal of the film from the wrapper
5 Scratch Marks: Usually caused by a finger nail or abrasive material on the
screens or during handling
6 High or Low Density Marks: Caused when handling the films with greasy or
chemically – stained fingers
7 Low density Patches or smears : Due to splashes of water or fixing solution on
the film
8 High density Patches or smears : Due to splashes of Developer on the film
9 Film Mottle: Due to the use of old films
10 Light Spots: Caused by dust particles between the film and the intensifying
Screen
11 Screen Marks: Due to contamination of the intensifying screens with
chemicals OR due to the defects on the screen such as cracking or
buckling
12Air bells: These are shown discs of lower density caused by air traped on the
surface of the emulsion, due to insufficient agitation
13 Patches or Streaks: Due to insufficient agitation during developer or in the
rinse bath
14 Reticulation:This is the appearance of leather grain and due to rupture of the
emulsion caused by great differences between succesive processing
solutions
15 Drying Marks: Due to drops of water remaining on the surface of the film,
often occur due to rapid drying the film in the high temperature cabinet.
Chapter VII
Eddy Current Testing
Introduction
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A varying electric current flowing in a coil gives rise to a varying magnetic field. A
nearby conductor resists this magnetic field and this produces an eddy current flowing in
the surface layer of the conductor and flowing in the direction opposite to the current in
the coil.
An induced eddy current in a conductor produces a magnetic field that opposes the
magnetic field produced by the coil, resulting in a change of impedance. It is this
impedance change that is to be detected with a high degree of accuracy by the measuring
equipment.
Cracks and other surface conditions modify the eddy currents generated in the conductor
and give rise to a local brief change in the impedance. This change is accurately
monitored.
Eddy currents always flow parallel to the plane of the winding of the test coil producing
them ,A discontinuity parallel to the eddy current can be missed by this method
Basic Principle
Coil's
Coil magnetic field
Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents
Conductive
Material
Eddy current testing method can be successfully used to detects surface breaking and
near surface discontinuities such as
· Cracks
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· Inclusions
· Dents
· Holes
· Scratches
Eddy current testing method can also identify the material properties such as
· Alloy composition
· Heat treatment
· Hardness
· Grain size
· Magnetic Permeability
Eddy current testing method can also be used to monitor the surface condition such as
· Surface coating
· Corrosion
· Specimen Temperature
Eddy Current Testing Depends on
· Electrical conductivity of the material
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· Nature of discontinuities in the material
· Magnetic permeability of the material
· Dimensions and shape of the specimen
· Current frequency
· Coil size
· Number of turns in the coil
· Metal condition
Advantages of Eddy Current Testing Method
· Instantaneous results
· Sensitive to a range of physical properties
· Firm contact between inspection coil and specimen not required
· Equipment is small and selfcontained
· Can detect very small discontinuities
· Defects in tubes and other circular parts can be detected using special probes
· Internal surface of cylinders can be using special probes
Disadvantages of Eddy Current Testing Method
· This method can be used on electrical conductors only
· Depth of penetration is restricted
· Interpretation needs skill
· Defects parallel to coil surface can be missed
· Ends of the parts can not be tested
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Chapter VIII
Selection of NDT Methods
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