UNIT-I OVERVIEW OF NDT

NDT Versus Mechanical testing

Non Destructive Testing

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials, components or assemblies
for discontinuities, or differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other
words, when the inspection or test is completed the part can still be used.

In contrast to NDT, other tests are destructive in nature and are therefore done on a limited number of samples ("lot
sampling"), rather than on the materials, components or assemblies actually being put into service.

These destructive tests are often used to determine the physical properties of materials such as impact resistance,
ductility, yield and ultimate tensile strength, fracture toughness and fatigue strength, but discontinuities and differences
in material characteristics are more effectively found by NDT.

Today modern non destructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication and in-service inspections to ensure product
integrity and reliability, to control manufacturing processes, lower production costs and to maintain a uniform quality
level. During construction, NDT is used to ensure the quality of materials and joining processes during the fabrication
and erection phases, and in-service NDT inspections are used to ensure that the products in use continue to have the
integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the safety of the public.

NDT Test Methods:

The six most frequently used test methods are MT, PT, RT, UT, ET and VT. Each of these test methods will be
described here, followed by the other, less often used test methods.

1. Visual Testing (VT)

2. Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT),
3. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT),
4. Ultrasonic Testing (UT),
5. Radiographic Testing (RT)and
6. Electromagnetic Testing (ET).

Test method names often refer to the type of penetrating medium or the equipment used to perform that test. Current
NDT methods are:

 Acoustic Emission Testing (AE),

 Electromagnetic Testing (ET),
 Guided Wave Testing (GW),
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  Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR),
 Laser Testing Methods (LM),
 Leak Testing (LT),
 Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL),
 Microwave Testing,
 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT),
 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT),
 Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR),
 Radiographic Testing (RT),
 Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR),
 Ultrasonic Testing (UT),
 Vibration Analysis (VA) and Visual Testing (VT).

Mechanical testing or Destructive Testing

In this type of testing, the component or specimen to be tested is destroyed and cannot be reused. After testing, the
component or specimen either breaks or remains no longer useful for future use.

As the name suggests, destructive testing (DT) includes methods where the component or specimen is broken down in
order to determine physical and mechanical properties such as strength, toughness, ductility and hardness.

Destructive testing is more suitable and economical for mass production, as the cost of destroying a small number of
pieces is negligible. It is not economical to do destructive testing where only one or very few items are to be produced.

Examples of Destructive testing are,

1. Tensile test
2. Compression test
3. Shear test
4. Hardness test
5. Impact test
6. Bending test
7. Fatigue test
8. Creep test
9. Torsion test
10. Chemical analysis, etc

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Comparison of destructive and non-destructive testing

DESTRUCTIVE TESTING NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

1. Tested parts get damaged. 1. Tested parts are not damaged

2. It’s applied only to a sample 2. It’s applied directly on production items.

3. Time consumption is high. 3. Time consumption is low.

4. Capital equipment and labour costs 4. labour cost is low.

are high.

OVERVIEW OF THE NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

Visual Testing (VT)

Visual testing is the most commonly used test method in industry. Because most test methods require that the
operator look at the surface of the part being inspected, visual inspection is inherent in most of the other test
methods. As the name implies, VT involves the visual observation of the surface of a test object to evaluate the
presence of surface discontinuities. VT inspections may be by Direct Viewing, using line-of sight vision, or may be
enhanced with the use of optical instruments such as magnifying glasses, mirrors, boroscopes, charge-coupled
devices (CCDs) and computer-assisted viewing systems (Remote Viewing). Corrosion, misalignment of parts,
physical damage and cracks are just some of the discontinuities that may be detected by visual examinations.

Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

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The basic principle of liquid penetrant testing is that when a very low viscosity (highly fluid) liquid (the penetrant) is
applied to the surface of a part, it will penetrate into fissures and voids open to the surface. Once the excess penetrant
is removed, the penetrant trapped in those voids will flow back out, creating an indication. Penetrant testing can be
performed on magnetic and non-magnetic materials, but does not work well on porous materials. Penetrants may be
"visible", meaning they can be seen in ambient light, or fluorescent, requiring the use of a "black" light. The visible
dye penetrant process is shown in Figure . When performing a PT inspection, it is imperative that the surface being
tested is clean and free of any foreign materials or liquids that might block the penetrant from entering voids or
fissures open to the surface of the part. After applying the penetrant, it is permitted to sit on the surface for a
specified period of time (the "penetrant dwell time"), then the part is carefully cleaned to remove excess penetrant
from the surface. When removing the penetrant, the operator must be careful not to remove any penetrant that has
flowed into voids. A light coating of developer is then be applied to the surface and given time ("developer dwell
time") to allow the penetrant from any voids or fissures to seep up into the developer, creating a visible indication.
Following the prescribed developer dwell time, the part is inspected visually, with the aid of a black light for
fluorescent penetrants. Most developers are fine-grained, white talcum-like powders that provide a color contrast to
the penetrant beingused.

PT Techniques
Solvent Removable
Solvent Removable penetrants are those penetrants that require a solvent other than water to remove the excess
penetrant. These penetrants are usually visible in nature, commonly dyed a bright red color that will contrast well
against a white developer. The penetrant is usually sprayed or brushed onto the part, then after the penetrant dwell
time has expired, the part is cleaned with a cloth dampened with penetrant cleaner after which the developer is
applied. Following the developer dwell time the part is examined to detect any penetrant bleed-out showing through
the developer.

Water-washable
Water-washable penetrants have an emulsifier included in the penetrant that allows the penetrant to be removed
using a water spray. They are most often applied by dipping the part in a penetrant tank, but the penetrant may be
applied to large parts by spraying or brushing. Once the part is fully covered with penetrant, the part is placed on a
drain board for the penetrant dwell time, then taken to a rinse station where it is washed with a course water spray to
remove the excess penetrant. Once the excess penetrant has been removed, the part may be placed in a warm air
dryer or in front of a gentle fan until the water has been removed. The part can then be placed in a dry developer
tank and coated with developer, or allowed to sit for the remaining dwell time then inspected.

Post-emulsifiable
Post-emulsifiable penetrants are penetrants that do not have an emulsifier included in its chemical make-up like
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water-washable penetrants. Post-emulsifiable penetrants are applied in a similar manner, but prior to the water-
washing step, emulsifier is applied to the surface for a prescribed period of time (emulsifier dwell) to remove the
excess penetrant. When the emulsifier dwell time has elapsed, the part is subjected to the same water wash and
developing process used for water-washable penetrants. Emulsifiers can be lipophilic (oil-based) or hydrophilic
(water-based).

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT):

Fig : Magnetic particle testing

Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or more magnetic fields to locate surface and near-surface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic field can be applied with a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. When
using an electromagnet, the field is present only when the current is being applied. When the magnetic field
encounters a discontinuity transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines produce a magnetic flux
leakage field of their own as shown in above figure . Because magnetic flux lines don't travel well in air, when very
fine colored ferromagnetic particles ("magnetic particles") are applied to the surface of the part the particles will be
drawn into the discontinuity, reducing the air gap and producing a visible indication on the surface of the part. The
magnetic particles may be a dry powder or suspended in a liquid solution, and they may be colored with a visible dye
or a fluorescent dye that fluoresces under an ultraviolet ("black") light.

MT Techniques:

Most field inspections are performed using a Yoke, as shown at the right. As shown in Figure 2(a), an electric coil is
wrapped around a central core, and when the current is applied, a magnetic field is generated that extends from the
core down through the articulated legs into the part. This is known as longitudinal magnetization because the
magnetic flux lines run from one leg to the other.

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 Yokes

When the legs are placed on a ferromagnetic part and the yoke is energized, a magnetic field is introduced into the
part as shown in (b). Because the flux lines do run from one leg to the other, discontinuities oriented perpendicular to
a line drawn between the legs can be found. To ensure no indications are missed, the yoke is used once in the
position shown then used again with the yoke turned 90 o so no indications are missed. Because all of the electric
current is contained in the yoke and only the magnetic field penetrates the part, this type of application is known a s
indirect induction.

Prods:

Prod units use direct induction, where the current runs through the part and a circular magnetic field is generated
around the legs as shown in Figure 3. Because the magnetic field between the prods is travelling perpendicular to a
line drawn between the prods, indications oriented parallel to a line drawn between the prods can be found. As with
the yoke, two inspections are done, the second with the prods oriented 90 o to the first application.
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Coils:

Electric coils are used to generate a longitudinal magnetic field. When energized, the current creates a magnetic field
around the wires making up the coil so that the resulting flux lines are oriented through the coil as shown at the right.
Because of the longitudinal field, indications in parts placed in a coil are oriented transverse to the longitudinal field.

Heads:

Most horizontal wet bath machines ("bench units") have both a coil and a set of heads through which electric current
can be passed, generating a magnetic field. Most use fluorescent magnetic particles in a liquid solution, hence the
name "wet bath." A typical bench unit is shown at the right. When testing a part between the heads, the part is
placed between the heads, the moveable head is moved up so that the part being tested is held tightly between the
heads, the part is wetted down with the bath solution containing the magnetic particles and the current is applied
while the particle are flowing over the part. Since the current flow is from head to head and the magnetic field is
oriented 90o to the current, indications oriented parallel to a line between the heads will be visible. This type of

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inspection is commonly called a "headshot."

Central Conductor:

When testing hollow parts such as pipes, tubes and fittings, a conductive circular bar can be placed between
the heads with the part suspended on the bar (the "central conductor") as shown in Figure 6. The part is then wetted
down with the bath solution and the current is applied, travelling through the central conductor rather than through
the part. The ID and OD of the part can then be inspected. As with a head shot, the magnetic field is perpendicular
to the current flow, wrapping around the test piece, so indications running axially down the length of the part can be
found using this technique.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT):

Ultrasonic testing uses the same principle as is used in naval SONAR and fish finders. Ultra-high frequency
sound is introduced into the part being inspected and if the sound hits a material with a different acoustic impedance
(density and acoustic velocity), some of the sound will reflect back to the sending unit and can be presented on a

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visual display. By knowing the speed of the sound through the part (the acoustic velocity) and the time required for
the sound to return to the sending unit, the distance to the reflector (the indication with the different acoustic
impedance) can be determined. The most common sound frequencies used in UT are between 1.0 and 10.0 MHz,
which are too high to be heard and do not travel through air. The lower frequencies have greater penetrating power
but less sensitivity (the ability to "see" small indications), while the higher frequencies don't penetrate as deeply but
can detect smaller indications.

The two most commonly used types of sound waves used in industrial inspections are the compression (longitudinal)
wave and the shear (transverse) wave, as shown in above figure . Compression waves cause the atoms in a part to
vibrate back and forth parallel to the sound direction and shear waves cause the atoms to vibrate perpendicularly
(from side to side) to the direction of the sound. Shear waves travel at approximately half the speed of longitudinal
waves.

Sound is introduced into the part using an ultrasonic transducer ("probe") that converts electrical impulses
from the UT machine into sound waves, then converts returning sound back into electric impulses that can be
displayed as a visual representation on a digital or LCD screen (on older machines, a CRT screen). If the machine is
properly calibrated, the operator can determine the distance from the transducer to the reflector, and in many cases,
an experienced operator can determine the type of discontinuity (like slag, porosity or cracks in a weld) that caused
the reflector. Because ultrasound will not travel through air (the atoms in air molecules are too far apart to transmit
ultrasound), a liquid or gel called "couplant" is used between the face of the transducer and the surface of the part to
allow the sound to be transmitted into the part.

UT Techniques:
Straight Beam:-

Fig: Straight Beam

Straight beam inspection uses longitudinal waves to interrogate the test piece as shown at the right. If the
sound hits an internal reflector, the sound from that reflector will reflect to the transducer faster than the sound
coming back from the back-wall of the part due to the shorter distance from the transducer. This results in a screen
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display like that shown at the right in Figure 11. Digital thickness testers use the same process, but the output is
shown as a digital numeric readout rather than a screen presentation.

Angle Beam:

Angle beam inspection uses the same type of transducer but it is mounted on an angled wedge (also called a
"probe") that is designed to transmit the sound beam into the part at a known angle. The most commonly used
inspection angles are 45 o, 60o and 70o, with the angle being calculated up from a line drawn through the thickness of
the part (not the part surface). A 60o probe is shown in above Figure. If the frequency and wedge angle is not
specified by the governing code or specification, it is up to the operator to select a combination that will adequately
inspect the part being tested.

In angle beam inspections, the transducer and wedge combination (also referred to as a "probe") is moved
back and forth towards the weld so that the sound beam passes through the full volume of the weld. As with straight
beam inspections, reflectors aligned more or less perpendicular to the sound beam will send sound back to the
transducer and are displayed on the screen.

Immersion Testing

Immersion Testing is a technique where the part is immersed in a tank of water with the water being used as the
coupling medium to allow the sound beam to travel between the transducer and the part. The UT machine is
mounted on a movable platform (a "bridge") on the side of the tank so it can travel down the length of the tank. The
transducer is swivel-mounted on at the bottom of a waterproof tube that can be raised, lowered and moved across the
tank. The bridge and tube movement permits the transducer to be moved on the X-, Y- and Z-axes. All directions of
travel are gear driven so the transducer can be moved in accurate increments in all directions, and the swivel allows
the transducer to be oriented so the sound beam enters the part at the required angle. Round test parts are often
mounted on powered rollers so that the part can be rotated as the transducer travels down its length, allowing the full
circumference to be tested. Multiple transducers can be used at the same time so that multiple scans can be
performed.

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Through Transmission:

Through transmission inspections are performed using two transducers, one on each side of the part as shown in
Figure 13. The transmitting transducer sends sound through the part and the receiving transducer receives the sound.
Reflectors in the part will cause a reduction in the amount of sound reaching the receiver so that the screen
presentation will show a signal with a lower amplitude (screen height).

Phased Array:

Phased array inspections are done using a probe with multiple elements that can be individually activated. By
varying the time when each element is activated, the resulting sound beam can be "steered", and the resulting data
can be combined to form a visual image representing a slice through the part being inspected.

Time of Flight Diffraction:

Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) uses two transducers located on opposite sides of a weld with the transducers set
at a specified distance from each other. One transducer transmits sound waves and the other transducer acting as a
receiver. Unlike other angle beam inspections, the transducers are not manipulated back and forth towards the weld,
but travel along the length of the weld with the transducers remaining at the same distance from the weld. Two
sound waves are generated, one travelling along the part surface between the transducers, and the other travelling
down through the weld at an angle then back up to the receiver. When a crack is encountered, some of the sound is
diffracted from the tips of the crack, generating a low strength sound wave that can be picked up by the receiving
unit. By amplifying and running these signals through a computer, defect size and location can be determined with
much greater accuracy than by conventional UT methods.

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Radiographic Testing (RT):

Industrial radiography involves exposing a test object to penetrating radiation so that the radiation passes through the
object being inspected and a recording medium placed against the opposite side of that object. For thinner or less
dense materials such as aluminum, electrically generated x-radiation (X-rays) are commonly used, and for thicker or
denser materials, gamma radiation is generally used.
Gamma radiation is given off by decaying radioactive materials, with the two most commonly used sources
of gamma radiation being Iridium-192 (Ir-192) and Cobalt-60 (Co-60). IR-192 is generally used for steel up to2-1/2
- 3 inches, depending on the Curie strength of the source, and Co-60 is usually used for thicker materials due to its
greater penetrating ability.
The recording media can be industrial x-ray film or one of several types of digital radiation detectors. With
both, the radiation passing through the test object exposes the media, causing an end effect of having darker areas
where more radiation has passed through the part and lighter areas where less radiation has penetrated. If there is a
void or defect in the part, more radiation passes through, causing a darker image on the film or detector, as shown in
above figure.

RT Techniques:
Film Radiography
Film radiography uses a film made up of a thin transparent plastic coated with a fine layer of silver bromide on one
or both sides of the plastic. When exposed to radiation these crystals undergo a reaction that allows them, when
developed, to convert to black metallic silver. That silver is then "fixed" to the plastic during the developing process,
and when dried, becomes a finished radiographic film.

To be a usable film, the area of interest (weld area, etc.) on the film must be within a certain density (darkness) range
and must show enough contrast and sensitivity so that discontinuities of interest can be seen. These items are a
function of the strength of the radiation, the distance of the source from the film and the thickness of the part being
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inspected. If any of these parameters are not met, another exposure ("shot") must be made for that area of the part.

Computed Radiography:

Computed radiography (CR) is a transitional technology between film and direct digital radiography. This technique
uses a reusable, flexible, photo-stimulated phosphor (PSP) plate which is loaded into a cassette and is exposed in a
manner similar to traditional film radiography. The cassette is then placed in a laser reader where it is scanned and
translated into a digital image, which take from one to five minutes. The image can then be uploaded to a computer
or other electronic media for interpretation and storage.

Computed Tomography:

Computed tomography (CT) uses a computer to reconstruct an image of a cross sectional plane of an object as
opposed to a conventional radiograph, as shown in Figure 9. The CT image is developed from multiple views taken
at different viewing angles that are reconstructed using a computer. With traditional radiography, the position of
internal discontinuities cannot be accurately determined without making exposures from several angles to locate the
item by triangulation. With computed tomography, the computer triangulates using every point in the plane as
viewed from many different directions.

Digital Radiography:

Digital radiography (DR) digitizes the radiation that passes through an object directly into an image that can be
displayed on a computer monitor. The three principle technologies used in direct digital imaging are amorphous

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 silicon, charge coupled devices (CCDs), and complementary metal oxide semiconductors (CMOSs). These images
are available for viewing and analysis in seconds compared to the time needed to scan in computed radiography
images. The increased processing speed is a result of the unique construction of the pixels; an arrangement that also
allows a superior resolution than is found in computed radiography and most film applications.

INTRODUCTION TO ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING:

Acoustic Emission Testing (AE):

Acoustic Emission Testing is performed by applying a localized external force such as an abrupt mechanical load
or rapid temperature or pressure change to the part being tested. The resulting stress waves in turn generate short-
lived, high frequency elastic waves in the form of small material displacements, or plastic deformation, on the part
surface that are detected by sensors that have been attached to the part surface. When multiple sensors are used, the
resulting data can be evaluated to locate discontinuities in the part.

Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the generation of transient elastic waves produced by a sudden redistribution of
stress in a material. When a structure is subjected to an external stimulus (change in pressure, load, or temperature),
localized sources trigger the release of energy, in the form of stress waves, which propagate to the surface and are
recorded by sensors. With the right equipment and setup, motions on the order of picometers (10 -12 m) can be
identified. Sources of AE vary from natural events like earthquakes and rockbursts to the initiation and growth of
cracks, slip and dislocation movements, melting, twinning, and phase transformations in metals. In composites, matrix
cracking and fiber breakage and debonding contribute to acoustic emissions. AE‟s have also been measured and
recorded in polymers, wood, and concrete, among other materials.
Detection and analysis of AE signals can supply valuable information regarding the origin and importance of a
discontinuity in a material. Because of the versatility of Acoustic Emission Testing (AET), it has many industrial
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applications (e.g. assessing structural integrity, detecting flaws, testing for leaks, or monitoring weld quality) and is
used extensively as a research tool.
Acoustic Emission is unlike most other non destructive testing (NDT) techniques in two regards. The first
difference pertains to the origin of the signal. Instead of supplying energy to the object under examination, AET simply
listens for the energy released by the object. AE tests are often performed on structures while in operation, as this
provides adequate loading for propagating defects and triggering acoustic emissions.
The second difference is that AET deals with dynamic processes, or changes, in a material. This is particularly
meaningful because only active features (e.g. crack growth) are highlighted. The ability to discern between developing
and stagnant defects is significant. However, it is possible for flaws to go undetected altogether if the loading is not
high enough to cause an acoustic event. Furthermore, AE testing usually provides an immediate indication relating to
the strength or risk of failure of a component. Other advantages of AET include fast and complete volumetric
inspection using multiple sensors, permanent sensor mounting for process control, and no need to disassemble and
clean a specimen.
Unfortunately, AE systems can only qualitatively gauge how much damage is contained in a structure. In order to
obtain quantitative results about size, depth, and overall acceptability of a part, other NDT methods (often ultrasonic
testing) are necessary. Another drawback of AE stems from loud service environments which contribute extraneous
noise to the signals. For successful applications, signal discrimination and noise reduction are crucial.

Guided Wave Testing (GW):

Guided wave testing on piping uses controlled excitation of one or more ultrasonic waveforms that travel along the
length of the pipe, reflecting from changes in the pipe stiffness or cross sectional area. A transducer ring or exciter
coil assembly is used to introduce the guided wave into the pipe and each transducer/exciter. The control and analysis
software can be installed on a laptop computer to drive the transducer ring/exciter and to analyze the results. The
transducer ring/exciter setup is designed specifically for the diameter of the pipe being tested, and the system has the
advantage of being able to inspect the pipe wall volume over long distances without having to remove coatings or
insulation. Guided wave testing can locate both ID and OD discontinuities but cannot differentiate between them.
Laser Testing Methods (LM);
Laser Testing includes three techniques, Holography, Shearography and Profilometry. As the method name implies,
all three techniques user lasers to perform the inspections.
LM Techniques:
Holographic Testing
Holographic Testing uses a laser to detect changes to the surface of a part as it deforms under induced stress which
can be applied as mechanical stress, heat, pressure, or vibrational energy. The laser beam scans across the surface of
the part and reflects back to sensors that record the differences in the surface created by that stress. The resulting
image will be a topographical map-like presentation that can reveal surface deformations in the order of 0.05 to 0.005

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microns without damage to the part. By comparing the test results with an undamaged reference sample, holographic
testing can be used to locate and evaluate cracks, delaminations, disbonds, voids and residual stresses.

Laser Profilometry:

Laser Profilometry uses a high-speed rotating laser light source, miniature optics and a computer with high-speed
digital signal processing software. The ID surface of a tube is scanned in two dimensions and the reflected light is
passed through a lens that focuses that light onto a photo-detector, generating a signal that is proportional to the
spot's position in its image plane. As the distance from the laser to the ID surface changes, the position of the focal
spot on the photo-detector changes due to parallax, generating a high resolution three-dimensional image of the part
surface that represents the surface topography of the part. This technique can be used to detect corrosion, pitting,
erosion and cracks in pipes and tubes.
Laser Shearography:
Laser Shearography applies laser light to the surface of the part being tested with the part at rest (non-stressed) and
the resulting image is picked up by a charge-coupled device (CCD) and stored on a computer. The surface is then
stressed and a new image is generated, recorded and stored. The computer then superimposes the two patterns and if
defects such as voids or disbonds are present, the defect can be revealed by the patterns developed. Discontinuities as
small as a few micrometers in size can be detected in this manner.
Leak Testing (LT):
Leak Testing, as the name implies, is used to detect through leaks using one of the four major LT techniques: Bubble,
Pressure Change, Halogen Diode and Mass Spectrometer Testing. These techniques are described below.
LT Techniques Bubble Leak Testing

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Bubble Leak Testing, as the name implies, relies on the visual detection of a gas (usually air) leaking from a
pressurized system. Small parts can be pressurized and immersed in a tank of liquid and larger vessels can be
pressurized and inspected by spraying a soap solution that creates fine bubbles to the area being tested. For flat
surfaces, the soap solution can be applied to the surface and a vacuum box can be used to create a negative pressure
from the inspection side. If there are through leaks, bubbles will form, showing the location of the leak.

Pressure Change Testing:

Pressure Change Testing can be performed on closed systems only. Detection of a leak is done by either pressurizing
the system or pulling a vacuum then monitoring the pressure. Loss of pressure or vacuum over a set period of time
indicates that there is a leak in the system. Changes in temperature within the system can cause changes in pressure,
so readings may have to be adjusted accordingly.

Halogen Diode Testing:

Halogen Diode Testing is done by pressurizing a system with a mixture of air and a halogen-based tracer gas. After a
set period of time, a halogen diode detection unit, or "sniffer", is used to locate leaks.

Mass Spectrometer Testing:

Mass Spectrometer Testing can be done by pressurizing the test part with helium or a helium/air mixture within a test
chamber then surveying the surfaces using a sniffer, which sends an air sample back to the spectrometer. Another
technique creates a vacuum within the test chamber so that the gas within the pressurized system is drawn into the
chamber through any leaks. The mass spectrometer is then used to sample the vacuum chamber and any helium
present will be ionized, making very small amounts of helium readily detectable.

Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL):

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 Magnetic Flux Leakage detects anomalies in normal flux patterns created by discontinuities in ferrous material
saturated by a magnetic field. This technique can be used for piping and tubing inspection, tank floor inspection and
other applications. In tubular applications, the inspection head contain is made up of drive and sensor coils and a
position transducer that is connected by cable back to the power source and signal processing computer. This head

is placed around the pipe or tube to be inspected and the drive coil is energized, creating a magnetic field in the part.
As the head travels along the length of the part, variations in the wall thickness due to corrosion, erosion, pitting etc.,
will cause a change in the magnetic flux density can be picked up by the sensor and sent back to the computer. The
location of this signal is sent by the position transducer so that the area detected can be marked for further evaluation.
This technique can be done without removing the insulation, resulting in a fast, economic way to inspect long runs of
pipe or tubing.

Tank floor inspection applies the same principle, but uses a series of magnetic field generators ("bridges")
and sensors (as shown in Figure 16) located side by side across the front of a vacuum sweeper-like machine. The
bridges generate a magnetic field that saturates the tank floor, and any reduction in thickness or loss of material due
to pitting or corrosion will cause the field to "leak" upwards out of the floor material where it can be picked up by the
sensors. On very basic machines, each sensor will be connected to an audio and/or visual display that lets the
operator know there is an indication; more advanced machines can have both visual displays and recording capability
so that the results can be stored, analyzed and compared to earlier results to monitor discontinuity growth.

Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR):

Neutron radiography uses an intense beam of low energy neutrons as a penetrating medium rather than the gamma-
or x-radiation used in conventional radiography. Generated by linear accelerators, betatrons and other sources,
neutrons penetrate most metallic materials, rendering them transparent, but are attenuated by most organic materials
(including water, due to its high hydrogen content) which allows those materials to be seen within the component
being inspected. When used with conventional radiography, both the structural and internal components of a test
piece can be viewed.

Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR):

Thermal/Infrared Testing, or infrared thermography, is used to measure or map surface temperatures based on the
infrared radiation given off by an object as heat flows through, to or from that object. The majority of infrared
radiation is longer in wavelength than visible light but can be detected using thermal imaging devices, commonly
called "infrared cameras." For accurate IR testing, the part(s) being investigated should be in direct line of sight with
the camera, i.e., should not be done with panel covers closed as the covers will diffuse the heat and can result in false
readings. Used properly, thermal imaging can be used to detect corrosion damage, delaminations, disbonds, voids,
inclusions as well as many other detrimental conditions.
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Vibration Analysis (VA):
Vibration analysis refers to the process of monitoring the vibration signatures specific to a piece of
rotating machinery and analyzing that information to determine the condition of that equipment. Three types of
sensors are commonly used: displacement sensors, velocity sensors and accelerometers.
Displacement sensors uses eddy current to detect vertical and/or horizontal motion (depending on
whether one or two sensors are used) and are well suited to detect shaft motion and changes in clearance
tolerances.
Basic velocity sensors use a spring-mounted magnet that moves through a coil of wire, with the outer case
of the sensor attached to the part being inspected. The coil of wire moves through the magnetic field, generating
an electrical signal that is sent back to a receiver and recorded for analysis. Newer model vibration sensors use
time-of- flight technology and improved analysis software. Velocity sensors are commonly used in handheld
sensors.
Basic accelerometers use a piezoelectric crystal (that converts sound waves to electrical impulses and
back) attached to a mass that vibrates due to the motion of the part to which the sensor casing is attached. As the
mass and crystal vibrate, a low voltage current is generated which is passed through a pre-amplifier and sent to the
recording device. Accelerometers are very effective for detecting the high frequencies created by high speed
turbine blades, gears and ball and roller bearings that travel at much greater speeds than the shafts to which they
are attached.

Guided Wave Testing (GW):

Guided wave testing on piping uses controlled excitation of one or more ultrasonic waveforms that travel
along the length of the pipe, reflecting from changes in the pipe stiffness or cross sectional area. A transducer ring
or exciter coil assembly is used to introduce the guided wave into the pipe and each transducer/exciter. The control
and analysis software can be installed on a laptop computer to drive the transducer ring/exciter and to analyze the
results. The transducer ring/exciter setup is designed specifically for the diameter of the pipe being tested, and the
system has the advantage of being able to inspect the pipe wall volume over long distances without having to
remove coatings or insulation. Guided wave testing can locate both ID and OD discontinuities but cannot
differentiate between them.

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NDT Method Summary

No single NDT method will work for all flaw detection or measurement applications. Each of the methods has
advantages and disadvantages when compared to other methods. The table below summarizes the scientific
principles; common uses and the advantages and disadvantages for some of the most often used NDT methods.

Scientific Principles of various NDT Methods

Penetrant Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic Eddy Current Radiographic

Testing Testing Testing Testing Testing

Scientific Scientific Scientific Scientific Scientific

Principles Principles Principles Principles Principles

Penetrant solution is A magnetic field is High frequency Alternating electrical X-rays are used to
applied to the surface established in a sound waves are sent current is passed produce images of
of a precleaned component made into a material by use through a coil objects using film or
component. The from ferromagnetic of a transducer. The producing a magnetic other detector that is
liquid is pulled into material. The sound waves travel field. When the coil is sensitive to radiation.
surface-breaking magnetic lines of through the material placed near a The test object is
defects by capillary force travel through and are received by conductive material, placed between the
action. Excess the material, and exit the same transducer or the changing radiation source and
penetrant material is and reenter the a second transducer. magnetic field detector. The
carefully cleaned material at the poles. The amount of energy induces current flow thickness and the
from the surface. A Defects such as crack transmitted or in the material. These density of the
developer is applied or voids cannot received and the time currents travel in material that X-rays
to pull the trapped support as much flux, the energy is received closed loops and are must penetrate affects
penetrant back to the and force some of the are analyzed to called eddy currents. the amount of
surface where it is flux outside of the determine the Eddy currents radiation reaching the
spread out and forms part. Magnetic presence of flaws. produce their own detector. This
an indication. The particles distributed Changes in material magnetic field that variation in radiation
indication is much over the component thickness, and can be measured and produces an image on
easier to see than the will be attracted to changes in material used to find flaws and the detector that often
actual defect. areas of flux leakage properties can also be characterize shows internal
and produce a visible measured. conductivity, features of the test
indication. permeability, and object.
dimensional features.

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Main Uses of various NDT Methods

Penetrant Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic Eddy Current Radiographic

Testing Testing Testing Testing Testing
Main Uses Main Uses Main Uses Main Uses Main Uses

Used to locate cracks, Used to inspect Used to locate surface Used to detect surface Used to inspect almost
porosity, and other ferromagnetic and subsurface defects and near-surface flaws any material for
defects that break the materials (those that in many materials in conductive surface and subsurface
surface of a material can be magnetized) including metals, materials, such as the defects. X-rays can
and have enough for defects that result plastics, and wood. metals. Eddy current also be used to locates
volume to trap and in a transition in the Ultrasonic inspection inspection is also used and measures internal
hold the penetrant magnetic permeability is also used to to sort materials based features, confirm the
material. Liquid of a material. measure the thickness on electrical location of hidden
penetrant testing is Magnetic particle of materials and conductivity and parts in an assembly,
used to inspect large inspection can detect otherwise characterize magnetic and to measure
areas very efficiently surface and near properties of material permeability, and thickness of materials.
and will work on most surface defects. based on sound measures the
nonporous materials. velocity and thickness of thin
attenuation sheets of metal and
measurements. nonconductive
coatings such as paint.

Main Advantages of various NDT Methods

Penetrant Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic Eddy Current Radiographic

Testing Testing Testing Testing Testing

Main Advantages Main Advantages Main Advantages Main Advantages Main Advantages
Large surface areas or Large surface areas of Depth of penetration Detects surface and Can be used to inspect
large volumes of complex parts can be for flaw detection or near surface defects. virtually all materials.
parts/materials can be inspected rapidly. measurement is
inspected rapidly and superior to other Test probe does not Detects surface and
at low cost. Can detect surface and methods. need to contact the subsurface defects.
subsurface flaws. part.
Parts with complex Only single sided Ability to inspect
geometry are routinely Surface preparation is access is required. Method can be used complex shapes and
inspected. less critical than it is for more than flaw multi-layered
in penetrant Provides distance detection. structures without
Indications are inspection. information. disassembly.
produced directly on Minimum part
surface of the part Magnetic particle Minimum part preparation is Minimum part
providing a visual indications are preparation is required. preparation is
image of the produced directly on required. required.
discontinuity. the surface of the part
and form an image of Method can be used
Equipment investment the discontinuity. for much more than
is minimal. just flaw detection.
Equipment costs are
relatively low.

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Main Dis-Advantages of various NDT Methods

Penetrant Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic Eddy Current Radiographic

Testing Testing Testing Testing Testing
Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages
Detects only surface Only ferromagnetic Surface must be Only conductive Extensive operator
breaking defects. materials can be accessible to probe materials can be training and skill
inspected. and couplant. inspected. required.
Surface preparation is
critical as Proper alignment of Skill and training Ferromagnetic Access to both sides
contaminants can magnetic field and required is more materials require of the structure is
mask defects. defect is critical. extensive than other special treatment to usually required.
technique. address magnetic
Requires a relatively Large currents are permeability. Orientation of the
smooth and nonporous needed for very large Surface finish and radiation beam to non-
surface. parts. roughness can Depth of penetration volumetric defects is
interfere with is limited. critical.
Post cleaning is Requires relatively inspection.
necessary to remove smooth surface. Flaws that lie parallel Field inspection of
chemicals. Thin parts may be to the inspection thick section can be
Paint or other difficult to inspect. probe coil winding time consuming.
Requires multiple nonmagnetic direction can go
operations under coverings adversely Linear defects undetected. Relatively expensive
controlled conditions. affect sensitivity. oriented parallel to the equipment investment
sound beam can go Skill and training is required.
Chemical handling Demagnetization and undetected. required is more
precautions are post cleaning is extensive than other Possible radiation
necessary (toxicity, usually necessary. Reference standards techniques. hazard for personnel.
fire, waste). are often needed.
Surface finish and
roughness may
interfere.

Reference standards
are needed for setup.

VISUAL TESTING:

Visual inspection is by far the most common nondestructive examination (NDE) technique (Ref. 1). When
attempting to determine the soundness of any part or specimen for its intended application, visual inspection is
normally the first step in the examination process. Generally, almost any specimen can be visually examined to
determine the accuracy of its fabrication. For example, visual inspection can be used to determine whether the part
was fabricated to the correct size, whether the part is complete, or whether all of the parts have been appropriately
incorporated into the device

While direct visual inspection is the most common nondestructive examination technique, many other
NDE methods require visual intervention to interpret images obtained while carrying out the examination. For

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instance,

penetrant inspection using visible red or fluorescent dye relies on the inspector‟s ability to visually identify
surface indications. Magnetic particle inspection falls into the same category of visible and fluorescent inspection
techniques, and radiography relies on the interpreter‟s visual judgment of the radiographic image, which is either
on film or on a video monitor. The remainder of this article provides a summary of the visual testing method,
which at the minimum requires visual contact with the portion of the specimen that is being inspected. In arriving
at a definition of visual inspection, it has been noted in the literature that experience in visual inspection and
discussion with experienced visual inspectors revealed that this NDE method includes more than use of the eye,
but also includes other sensory and cognitive processes used by inspectors. Thus, there is now an expanded
definition of visual inspection in the literature: “Visual inspection is the process of examination and evaluation of
systems and components by use of human sensory systems aided only by mechanical enhancements to sensory
input such as magnifiers, dental picks, stethoscopes, and the like. The inspection process may be done using such
behaviors as looking, listening, feeling, smelling, shaking, and twisting. It includes a cognitive component
wherein observations are correlated with knowledge of structure and with descriptions and diagrams from service
literature.”

Fig: Visual inspection of a torpedo tube aboard a Navy attack submarine

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Fig: An inspector at Tinker Air Force base gets a magnified view of an engine‟s high-pressure turbine area with a new
digital fiber-optic bore scope.

Fig: Part of a routine bridge Fig.: Part of an in-depth bridge Fig: Visual inspection
experiment inside a Boeing 737.
visual inspection

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Types of Visual Inspection
1. Unaided Visual Inspection
2.Aided Visual Inspection

Unaided Visual Inspection

It is also Known as Direct Visual Inspection
It can be accomplished with the help of naked eye
It can done with out the help of optical aids
Defects can be detected are
– Absence of cracks, Corrosion layer, surface porosity, Misalignment of mated parts

Aided Visual Inspection

It is also known as Indirect Visual Inspection
It is performed using optical instruments
This will identify the defects which cannot detect with human eye
It permits visibility to areas are not accessible to human eye

Physical Principles:

The human eye is one of mankind’s most fascinating tools. It has greater precision and accuracy than many of
the most sophisticated cameras. It has unique focusing capabilities and has the ability to work in conjunction with the
human brain so that it can be trained to find specific details or characteristics in a part or test piece. It has the ability to
differentiate and distinguish between colors and hues as well. The human eye is capable of assessing many visual
characteristics and identifying various types of discontinuities1. The eye can perform accurate inspections to detect
size, shape, color, depth, brightness, contrast, and texture. Visual testing is essentially used to detect any visible
discontinuities, and in many cases, visual testing may locate portions of a specimen that should be inspected further by
other NDE techniques.
Many inspection factors have been standardized so that categorizing them as major and minor characteristics
has become common. Surface finish verification of machined parts has even been developed, and classification can be

performed by visual comparison to manufactured finish standards. In the fabrication industry, weld size, contour,
length, and inspection for surface discontinuities are routinely specified. Many companies have mandated the need for
qualified and certified visual weld inspection. This is the case particularly in the power industry, which requires
documentation of training and qualification of the inspector. Forgings and castings are normally inspected for surface
indications such as laps, seams, and other various surface conditions.
Inspection Requirements for visual inspection typically pertain to the vision of the inspector; the amount of
light falling on the specimen, which can be measured with a light meter; and whether the area being inspected is in
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any way obstructed from view. In many cases, each of these requirements is detailed in a regulatory code or other
inspection criteria. Mechanical and/or optical aids may be necessary to perform visual testing. Because visual
inspection is so frequently used, several companies now manufacture gauges to assist visual inspection examinations.
Mechanical aids include measuring rules and tapes; calipers and micrometers; squares and angle measuring devices;
thread, pitch and thickness gauges; level gauges; and plumb lines. Welding fabrication uses fillet gauges to determine
the width of the weld fillet, undercut gauges, angle gauges, skew fillet weld gauges, pit gauges, contour gauges, and a
host of other specialty items to ensure product quality. At times, direct observation is impossible and remote viewing
is necessary, which requires the use of optical aids. Optical aids for visual testing range from simple mirrors or
magnifying glasses to sophisticated devices, such as closed-circuit television and coupled fiber-optic scopes. The
following list includes most optical aids currently in use
• Mirrors (especially small, angled mirrors)
• Magnifying glasses, eye loupes, multilens magnifiers, measuring magnifiers
• Microscopes (optical and electron)
• Optical flats (for surface flatness measurement)
• Borescopes and fiber-opticborescopes
• Optical comparators
• Photographic records
• Closed-circuit television (CCTV) systems (alone and coupled toborescopes/microscopes)
• Machine vision systems
• Positioning and transport systems (often used with CCTV systems).

Image enhancement (computer analysis and enhancement) Before any mechanical or optical aids are used, the
specimen should be well illuminated and have a clean surface. After the eyeball examination, mechanical aids help to
improve the precision of an inspector’s vision. As specifications and tolerances become closer, calipers and
micrometers become necessary. The variety of gauges available help to determine thread sizes, gap thicknesses,
angles between parts, hole depths, and weld features. As it becomes necessary to see smaller and smaller
discontinuities, the human eyes require optical aids that enable inspectors to see these tiny discontinuities. However,
the increased magnification limits the area that can be seen at one time, and also increases the amount of time it will
take to look at the entire specimen. Mirrors let the inspector see around corners or past obstructions. Combined with
lenses and placed in rigid tubes, borescopes enable the inspector to see inside specimens such as jet engines, nuclear
piping and fuel bundles, and complex machinery. When the rigid borescope cannot reach the desired area, flexible
bundles of optical fibers often are able to access the area. Above Figure shows visual inspection using a fiber-optic
borescope. Some of the flexible borescopes have devices that permit the observation end of the scope to be moved
around by a control at the eyepiece end. Some are also connected to CCTV systems so that a large picture may be
examined and the inspection recorded on videotape or digitally. When the video systems are combined with
computers, the images can be improved that may allow details not observable in the original to be seen.

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Practical Considerations:
Visual inspection is applicable to most surfaces, but is most effective where the surfaces have been cleaned
prior to examination, for example, any scale or loose paint should be removed by wire brushing, etc. Vision testing of
an inspector often requires eye examinations with standard vision acuity cards such as Jaeger, Snellen, and color
charts. Vision testing of inspectors has been in use for about 40 years. Although many changes in NDE methods have
taken place over the years and new technologies have been developed, vision testing has changed little over time.
Also, little has been done to standardize vision tests used in the industrial sector. For those seeking certification in the
area of visual testing, the ASNT Level III Study Guide and Supplement on Visual and Optical Testing provides a useful
reference.

Advantages of visual inspection

 It can be a very simple but effective test to perform and often does not need expensive equipment.
 Experienced operators and advanced equipment make it possible for visual inspection to be very sensitive.
 It allows discontinuities to be seen and not be just a blip on the screen.
 Many different surface-breaking discontinuities can be found.
 Training and experience times can be short.
 Virtually any component can be examined anywhere on the surface.

Disadvantages of visual inspection

 Many variables can lead to discontinuities being missed.
 At its worst, it relies totally on the human factor.
 Many organisations pay little attention to the proper training of operators.
 Sub-surface discontinuities will not be seen.

Specific applications:
Video borescopes can be used for many applications requiring remote visual testing, including the aerospace
and power generation industries, engine manufacturing and marine inspections. Video borescope systems can be used
to confirm questionable results of other NDT techniques, for example an indication can be located with ultrasonic
inspection and then visualised with the video borescope.
A major use of video borescopes is to allow several operators or engineers to view a screen simultaneously.
They are also very useful for applications requiring a critical assessment of detail or measurements, such as when
checking coatings and seals, locating corrosion and pitting and burn-through of pipe weld roots. In boiler tubes,
chemical deposits and oxygen pits can be located at an early stage and so help prevent tube failure.
Remote inspection can be performed in locations that would be hazardous to human operators, such as inside
furnaces or high-radiation areas of nuclear power stations, where thorough use is made of visual testing during the
plant shutdowns to test many critical components under high-stress, such as nozzle junctions with the vessel and
cladding on nozzles.
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 Another important area of visual inspection is in the aerospace industry, where remote visual inspection is
performed on otherwise inaccessible areas of the fuselage, where in-service problems such as fatigue cracks or
corrosion can occur on aircraft integrity-critical components, such as pins joining the fuselage to the wings.
Critical visual inspection of hollow helicopter blades is carried out using video borescopes, as well as the
inner surfaces of jet engines and wings. The chemical industry makes wide use of visual inspection to test furnaces,
combustion chambers, heat exchangers, pressure vessels and numerous other areas within the plant. In the automotive
industry, the internal condition of engines can be assessed, such as carbon deposits on valves, broken transmission
gear teeth and gear wear being very easy to find.

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