FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

NAME GROUP EXPERIMENT DATE PERFORMED SEMESTER PROGRAMME

: SITI FATIMAH BINTI NGAGIMAN (2011683532) : EH 221 2B (GROUP 6) : SOAP AND DETERGENT : 25TH MAY 2012 : 02 : FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING AND PROCESS (EH 221)

NO

TITTLES

1. ABSTRACT 2. INTRODUCTIONS 3. AIMS 4. THEORY 5. APPARATUS 6. METHADOLOGY/ PROCEDURES 7. RESULTS 8. CALCULATIONS 9. DISCUSSIONS 10. CONCLUSION 11. RECOMMENDATIONS 12. REFERENCES 13. APPENDIX TOTAL MARKS REMARKS: CHECKED BY:

ALLOCATED MARKS (%) 5 5 5 5 5 10 10 10 20 10 5 5 5 100

MARKS

--------------------------------------DATE

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012 ABSTRACT:

The experiment which is to prepare the soap and detergent had been conducted on 25th May 2012. Basically, the experiment used to prepare the soap and thus, to compare the properties between the soap that had been prepared early with the synthetic detergent in the form of precipitation, emulsification and cleaning abilities. Based on the experiment that had been conducted, it can be concluded that the soap has the properties of emulsifying oil whereas the detergent has not. This is because the soap has the abilities of forming precipitates and it can be seen clearly in the soap solution while doing the experiment. Whereas the detergent has not forms precipitates at all. Thus, the experiment is completed and successfully conducted.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012 INTRODUCTION:

Soaps and detergents are used frequently in our daily life. We use them in many kinds of ways. We use them to wash our hands and clean our clothes without ever really paying attention on how they work. Beneath the plain white surface of a bar of Ivory soap lies an intrigung history and a powerful chemistry. Actually, it is hard to say when soap was first invented. Some hypothesize believe that the soap had been invented by the Babylonian in 2800 BC where soap have been excavated in clay cylinders and the Phoenicians around 600 BC. By 1500 BC Egyptians medical scrolls recommend a soap made from alkaline salt and animals and vegetables oil for skin conditions. In the early history, soap was used for the purpose of cleaning textile fibres such as wool and cotton in preparation for the dyeing process instead of personal hygiene. Later, the ancient Roman discovered the cleaning power of soap accidently. At Mount Sapo, where it a place for the animals were sacrificed, rain mixed animal fats, wood ashes and clay in to the soil. Then, incidently, women washing their clothes by the stream found it was much easier to wash their clothes with some of this clay mixture. Legend links Mount sapo with the process of soap making saponification. Interestingly, although Romans are famous for their baths, they actually did not use soap to wash. But they coated themselves in oils and after that used a scraping tool called a strigil to clean their bodies. However, bars of soap were found in the ruins of Pompeii and the archeologists believe soap was used for the laundry and occasionally on the body.

Figure 1.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

Soap making was an established craft in Europe by the 7th century and soap making center flourished in France, Spain and also Italy. In the New World, soap makers found work in Jamestown as early as 1608. Besides, most of the early settlers made their own soap by boiling ashes and animal fats. As world growth, the soap industry continued to grow fairly steadily until the 20th century. While in 1916, there was a chemical break through that promised to change the role of soap for years to come. Thus, the Germans, suffering from a shortage of materials, resorted to synthetic detergent. As a result, it was succesful and by 1946 laundry detergent became available to the entire American population. In 1953, sales of detergent surpassed those of soap. Actually, soap and detergents are very similar in their chemical properties which is same function used to wash and clean a dirt. However, there is a significant difference between them where the soaps are produced from the natural products while the detergents are synthetic or man-made. In todays progressive world of science and technology, soap is manufactured much like it was back then where the fats and oils are technically heated with the presence of strong base which commonly used is sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide to produce fatty acid salts and glycerol in a process termed as saponification process. As a matter of fact, the salt of a fatty acid is the soap, which is a soft and waxy material that brush up the ability for cleaning purpose of water. While processing of soap, a positive ion, usually Na+ or K+ and a negative ion usually the anions of long-chained carboxylic acids yielded by the hydrolysis of either animals or vegetables fats. Futhermore, the soap tends to decrease its melting point due to the presence of double bond which known as unsaturated with fatty acids materials. Thus, the compounds are in liquid form at room temperature. Technically, the vegetable fats are relatively unsaturated and liquid under the ordinary conditions, whereas animals fats are relatively more saturated and solid or more-solid at the same temperature. Thus, double bonds are said to lower the melting point of a fatty acid chain because its cis-conformation chain by a Van der Waals attraction. Hence, a lower temperature is required for these materials to form a solid crystal lattice. If now we can see, there a variety of detergents can be found today, which generally contain surfactants, a builder and other additives such as bleaching agents and enzymes. The surfactants are the parts that are responsible for the cleaning properties of

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

that particular detergent. Some of them may be cationic, ionic and non-ionic. The builders indeed are compounds responsible for removing the corresponding calcium and also the magnesium ions in hard water. Furthermore, there are two detergents which may not be safe as it may concern, mostly that contains phosphates. Such detergents will end up in wastewater and cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants. When those die, bacteris that present in the dead matter consume oxygen which then results in the lack of oxygen left for the fish and other aquatics lives.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012 AIMS AND OBJECTIVE:

For this experiment, we conducted to achieve the objective which are to prepare a soap by using the mineral oils. Besides, the experiment is conducted to study and compare the properties between the soap and synthetic detergent in the form of precipitation, emulsification and also cleaning abilities.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012 THEORY:

Soap is a mixture of sodium salts of various naturally occuring fatty acids. Air buubles added to a molten soap will decrease the density of the soap thus it will float on the water. If the fatty acid salt has potassium rather than a sodium, a softer lather is the result. This is because the bar soap produced in the presence of sodium hydroxide while the liquid soap is formed in the presence of potassium hydroxide. Theorytically, the soap is produced by a saponification or basic hydrolysis reaction of a fat or oil. Currently, sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide is used to neutralize the fatty acid and convert it to the salt. In the other words, soap is a generic term for the sodium or potassium salts of long-chain organic acid which is fatty acid that are made from naturally occuring esters in animal fats and also the vegetable oils. All organic acid contain the RCOOH functional group, where R is the shorthen notation for the complex hydrocarbon which famously known as alkyl group. The term for R is used because the group can be very large and for the addition for each chain has a litter effect for the chemical reactivity. While for the ester it contain RCOOR functional group. A soap is the sodium or potassium salt of a long chain fatty acid. The fatty acid usually contain 12 to 18 carbon atoms which can be expressed as term R. Solid soap usually consists of sodium salts of fatty acids whereas liquid soaps usually are potassium salts of fatty acid. Besides, the few examples of soaps are sodium fatty acid such as lauric (vegetable oil), palmitic (palm oil), and stearic (animal fat). Furthermore, the hydrocarbon chain in the soap may contain saturated and unsaturated chains. Sodium salts are usually solid therefore, most bars of soap are sodium salts. While potassium salts are the basis of liquid soaps, shaving cream, and greases. Triglycerides is formed by the combination of three molecules of fatty acid which are fats and vegetable oils. Triglycerides included in the ester group which is RCOOR which derived from three fatty acids. A triglyceride made from three lauric acid molecules which shown as below: General overall hydrolysis reaction: Fat + NaOH glycerol + sodium salts/ fatty acid

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

Figure 2

- the hydrolysis of triglycerides

For the figure above, it formed by the saponification of a triglyceride with the sodium hydroxide. Actually, saponification is a process that produce soap usually from fats and lye. In the other words, saponification involves base hydrolysis of triglycerides, which are esters of fatty acid to produce a product which is sodium salt od a carboxylate. Besides, saponification processes also produce glycerol. The mechanism by which esters are cleaved by base involves nucleophilic acyl substitution. Then the hydroxide anion, OH- adds to attacks the carbonyl group of the ester. Then the intermediate product is formed is orthoester.

Figure 3

- the mechanism of ester (1)

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

At this stage, the alkoxide is more basic than the conjugate base of the carboxylic acid, and hence the proton is transfer rapidly and directly it form a stabe carboxylic acid compound.

Figure 4

- the mechanism of ester (2)

After that, it continue by reaction between the RCOOH with the alkoxide anion and then formed a product of carboxylic anion and a alcohol. But with the presence of NaOH, the carboxylic acida are converted to their sodium salts which is RCOO-Na+. The saponification of triglyceride produced 3 fatty acid which is soap and the glycerol but the alkyl group in the triglyceride may or may not have the same chain length which known as the number of carbons.

Figure 5

- the hydrolysis of triglycerides

Since the cleansing action of soaps depend upon the fact that they ionize readily in water, how can you imagine if the ionic at the end molecule is lost its charge. Thus, the soap would no longer clean and emulsify the oil and dirt. But in facts, it would happen in

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

hard and acidic water. This is because the hard water contain metal cations such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ that will react with the charged ends od the soaps and directly form the insoluble salts. As the conclusion, the synthetic detergent were developed to overcome this kind of problems. Actually, the detergent has a similar to a soaps in having an ionic and nonpolar end but it have a different structure which have sulfonate end. The difference in polar groups is one of the key distinctions between a soap and a synthetic detergent. The synthetic detergent form micelles and cleanse in the same manner as soaps but if it released into rivers and lakes it can cause explosive growth of algae. Thus, it can cause decay of the aquatic ecosystem due to deoxygenation from the decomposition of dead algae. A micelle is a spherical shape that is formed resulting from the negatively charged heads on the soap molecules. They then orient between them, where the non polar tails rearrange towards the centre of the micelle and then the hydrophilic site facing the water. In the presence of oil and dirt, the non-polar head interact with them and gathered it to the centre of the micelle. Technically, this is how the soap works. When rinsed with water, the micelle together qith the dirt washed away. Soap is theoretically acting as an emulsifying agent, where emulsion is the dispersion of a liquid in asecond immiscible liquid.

Figure 6

- the micelle of the soap

The structure below is a sodium lauryl sulfonate that contain in the synthetic detergent. In facts the sulfonic acids are more stronger than carboxylic acids, hence the synthetic detergent does not form any precipitate in the acidic solution. Besides, in the

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

hard water, the detergent do not form insoluble salts compare with the soap. As a conclusion, the synthetic detergents remain soluble in both acidic and hard water.

Figure 7

- the structure for synthetic detergent

REAGENTS:
1. Vegetable oil, 2. Ethanol 3. 6M sodium hydroxide 4. Saturated sodium chlorde 5. Synthetic detergent (dynamo) 6. CaCl2 solution 7. MgCl2 solution 8. FeCl2 solution 9. Mineral oils 10. 1M hydrochloric acid 11. Tomato sauces.

APPARATUS:
1. Erlenmeyer flask 2. Measuring cylinder 3. Beakers 4. Magnetic stirrer 5. Glass rod 6. Retort stand and clamp 7. Vacuum filtration apparatus 8. Filter paper 9. pH meter

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

10. test tubes with racks 11. dropper 12. petri dish 13. cloth strips

PROCEDURES: PART A: SOAP PREPARATIONS:

1. 12.5 ml of vegetable is placed in a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask. 10mL of ethanol and 12.5mL of 6M sodium hydroxide solution are added to the flask. The mixture is stirred using a stirring bar to mix the contents of the flask. The alcohol is carefully smelled by wafting it towards our nose. 2. The 250 mL of flask is heated in a 600mL boiling water bath.

Figure 8

- heating the mixture in the boiling water bath

3. The mixture is stirred continuously during the heating process to prevent the mixture from foaming. If the mixture should foam to the point of nearly overflowing, the flask is removed from the boiling water until the foaming subsides, then the heating is continued. The mixture is heated for 20-30 minutes or until the alcohol odor is no longer detectable.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

4. The paste like mixture is removed from the water bath and the flask is cooled in a ice bath fro 10-15 minutes.

5. While the flask is cooling, the vacuum filtration apparatus is assembled as shown in the figure below. The vacuum filtration secured to a ring stand with a utility clamp to prevent the apparatus from toppling over.

Figure 9

- the vacuum filtration apparatus

6. A piece of filter paper is weighed to the nearest 0.001g and the mass is recorded. The filter paper is placed inside the Buchner funnel. The paper is moistered with water so that it fits flush in the bottom of the funnel. 7. Once the flask has cooled, 150 mL of saturated sodium chloride NaCl solution is added to the flask to salt out the soap.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

8. The water at the aspirator is slowly turned on. The mixture from the flask is poured into the Buchner funnel. Once all of the liquid has filtered through the funnel, the soap was washed with 10 mL of ice-cold water. The suction filtration is continued until all of the water is removed from the soap. 9. The soap is removed from the funnel and pressed between two paper towels to dry it. The filter paper and dried soap are weighed and the mass is recorded to the nearest 0.001 g and the mass of the soap determined by difference and then the mass is then recorded.

PART B:

COMPARISON

OF

SOAP

AND

DETERGENT

PROPERTIES

(PRECIPITATION AND EMULSIFYING ) 1. A stock soap solution is prepared by dissolving 2g of the prepared soap in 100 mL of boiling distiiled water. The mixture is stirred until the soap has dissolved and the solution is allowed to cool. 2. Step 1 is repeated using 2 g of synthetic detergent. When both solution are cool, the pH of each solution is determined using pH meter. 3. Three test tubes are labelled as test 1, 2 and 3. 4 drops of minerals oil are added to each test tube. 5 mL of distilled water is added to test tube 1. 5 mL of stock solution is added to test 2 and 5 mL of synthetic detergent is added to test tube 3. 4. Each solution is mixed by shaking and let stand for three to five minutes. The solution, if any that emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer is noted. 5. The mixtures are poured into the Waste Container. The three test tubes are cleaned and dried. 6. Three more test tubes are labelled as test tube 1,2 and 3. 2mL of stock solution is placed in each of the three test tubes. 2mL 1% CaCl2 solution is added to test 1. 2mL of 1% MgCl2 solution is added to test tube 2 while 2mL of 1% FeCl2 solution is added to test tube 3. Each test tube is shaken to mix the solutions. The observations are recorded. 7. 4 drops of mineral oils are added to each of the test tubes in step 6. Each test tube is shaken to mix the solutions and the solutions are left to stand for three to five minutes. The solutions, if any, that emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer is noted.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

8. Step 6-7 is repeated using 2 mL of stock detergent solution. The solutions that precipitated are observed. 9. The solution, if any, that emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer is noted. 10. The mixtures are poured into the Waste Container. The test tube are cleaned and dried. 11. 5 mL of stock soap solution is poured in cine clean test tube and 5 mL of stock detergent solution in a second test tube. 1M HCl is added one drop at a time to both solution until the pH in each tube is equal to 3. The number of drops of acid added to each mixture is counted. Any precipitate formed in either mixture is observed. 12. 1 drop of mineral oil is added to each test tube in step 11. Each test tube is shaken to mix the solution. Any emulsification formed in either mixture is observed.

PART C:

COMPARISON OF CLEANING ABILITIES OF SOAP AND DETERGENT.

1. The three beakers are cleaned, dried and labeled. Then 20 mL of stock soap solution that from step 1 is placed in the first beaker. After that, 20 mL of stock detergent solution from step 2 is placed in the second beaker. 20 mL of tap water is added in a third beaker. 2. Three cloth test strips that have been soaked in tomato souce are obtained and then one strip is placed in each of the beakers. Repeatedly, each solution is stirred with a stirrer bar for 5 minutes. 3. The cloth strips is removed from the soap and detergent solution and then the excess water is squeezed out. Each cloth strip is observed and compared to determine their relative cleanliness.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012 RESULTS:

PART A : SOAP PREPARATION. Mass of filter paper Mass of petri dish + filter paper Mass of petri dish +filter paper + soap Mass of soap recovered 0.4692 g 2.0632 g 51.2267 g 49.1635 g

PART B Test (1)

: COMPARISON OF SOAP AND DETERGENT PROPERTIES. : The comparison of the pH value of soap and detergent. Soap prepared 2.0808 g 10.086 Dynamo 2.0810 g 8.050

Name of the sample Mass pH value

Conclusion: The soap that had been prepared is more basic that the detergent because the pH value of soap is more than the detergent

Based on the result above, between soap and detergent, the pH value of detergent is 8.050 while the soap is 10.086. Thus, the soap prepared is more basic compare to the detergent.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

Test (2) : The comparison of emulsification of soap and detergent.

Test 1 Name Sample Test Test 1 Distilled water

Test 2 Test 2 Stock soap 4 drops mineral oils + 5 mL stock soap

Test 3 Test 3 Stock detergent 4drops mineral oils + 5 mL synthetic detergent

4 drops mineral oils + 5 mL distilled water

Observation

The solution form 2 The solution become The solution is pale layer with water at the milky and not form blue in color and bottom while oil at any layer. the upper part form 2 layer with the oil at the upper part Yes No

Emulsification

No

Emulsification can be described as the solution that form is in a single layer. Thus, based on the test above, the emulsification had occured in the stock soap solution which is form milky in solution. While the distilled water and stock detergent do not occur any emulsification because there are oil layer at the upper part of the solution for both samples.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

Test (3) : The comparison of properties of soap and detergent in hard solution.

The solution of soap with 1) FeCl2, 2) MgCl2 and 3) CaCl2. System Soap Precipitate Synthetic detergent 2 mL CaCl2 + 4 Colourless drops oils mineral with white No Yes Oil emulsified Soap Synthetic detergent Form layer single

precipitate and No Yes Form 2 layers and the oil at the upper part in and No Yes Form layer single

2 mL MgCl2 + 4 Milky drops oils

mineral have a white precipitate

2 mL FeCl2 + 4 Orange drops oils mineral solution have

orange

precipitate

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

Based on the test above, the soap have the precipitate of properties if compare with the synthetic detergent that does not formed any precipitate although react with either CaCl2, MgCl2 nor FeCl2. From the result above, we can observe that when soap mixed with CaCl2, the soap solution change to colourless with the present of white precipitate while the synthetic detergent change color into light blue and does not have oil emulsified. When mixed with MgCl2, the soap become milky solution and also presence the white precipitate while the synthetic detergent only change in very light blue color and consist of oil emulsification in the form of 2 layers. Lastly, the soap change into orange color in solution with the presence of orange precipitate while compare to the synthetic detergent it only change into yellowish color and does not form any precipitate and also oil emulsified. Test (4) : The comparison of soap and detergent in acidic solution by using 1M HCl Sample Initial pH Final pH Drops of 1M HCl Observations Soap 8.821 3.010 28 drops The solution become milky while droping the HCl solution. Add the mineral oil for both samples Observations Form white precipitate Not change Synthetic detergent 5.860 3.015 16 drops The solution is clear and not form any precipitate

For the test in the acidic solution we can observe that the soap has a high value of pH reading compare with the synthetic detergent and the soap formed the precipitate when react with the acid and not for the synthetic detergent.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

Test (5) : Cleaning comparison of a soap and detergent

The cleaning ability by 1) tap water, 2) synthetic detergent and 3) soap Samples Tap water Synthetic detergent Cleanliness Observation Not clean No effect the solution Very clean Not effect the solution Slightly clean The solution seen have a precipitate Soap

For the test above, it more concentrate to determine the relative cleanliness for the tap water, synthetic detergent and soap. Based on experiment conducted, the synthetic detergent shown the high relative cleaanliness compare with the soap and the tap water. The relative cleanliness can be conclude as: tap water < soap < synthetic detergent

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012 DISCUSSION:

In the saponification process, the fatty acid carboxylate ions are formed in the presence of the strong base which is used sodium hydroxide, NaOH for this experiment. Then, these carboxylate ions are the conjugate bases of the fatty acids therefore, it is able to accept a proton to formed the stable compound. When it placed into water, these conjugate bases are able to accept the proton from any souces including the water. For the hard water, it can be known as the water that consist of calcium ion, Ca2+ and magnesium ions, Mg2+. These ions are leached from the ground water flowing over rock formations containing limestone and also other minerals. Thus, the hard water interferes with the cleaning action of soap. That why when the soap is react with the mineral ions that contain in the hard water, it will formed the precipitate. So that, the precipitate leaves a deposit on clothes, skin and hair. The synthetic detergents have undeniably replaced soap for many cleaning jobs around the home. Thus, the development of synthetic detergent by chemist actually was a great advantage for people with relatively hard tap water in their homes. However, although the synthetic detergent have the advantages compare to the soap, but there is a significant issue regarding the use of synthetic detergent that is the biodegradability of some of its components. In fact, many of the surfactants initially used in detergents were not biodegradable whereas soaps are biodegradable, apparently can be degraded by bacteria. From the observations obtained from the experiement, the soap form the precipitate in all of the solutions added which are CaCl2, MgCl2 and FeCl2 as well emulsifies the oil. So that, this may not appear as a good characteristics for the soap as the cleaning agent if there formed precipitate and emulsifies oil on the cloth. Furthemore, compare to the detergent, it is a better cleaning agent because it not formed any precipitate while react with the mineral that may be contains in the hard water. Besides, this is because the detergent can cleaned without involving any precipitate or oil emulsification.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

CONCLUSION: Followed by the objectives of the experiment which are to prepared the soap and used to compare the properties of soap and detergent which are precipitation, emulsification and cleaning abilities. thus, the soap is succesfully prepared and all the comparison of properties had been observed and recorded. For the test 1 which is to compare the pH value of soap prepared with the detergent. The soap has a high value of pH reading if compare with the detergent which the reading recorded is 10. 086 while the pH value for detergent that had been recorded is 8.050. Thus, it can be concluded that the soap is more alkaline than the detergent. Next for the second test, which is to compare the oil emulsification for the 3 kinds of samples which are distilled water, soap solution and also synthetic detergent. From the observations, the distilled water and the synthetic detergent do not emulsified the oil while the soap emulsified the oil which formed the solution milky. Thus, this can be concluded that the soap is not the good cleaning agent which has the properties of emulsification of oil. In addition, for the test 3 and 4 which are to compare the soap and detergent in the formed of precipitation and emulsification in the hard and acidic solution. From the experiment conducted, it can be concluded that the soap has the properties of emulsifying oil whereas the detergent has not. Besides, the soap solution seen clearly can be observed formed the precipitate when react with the hard water and also the acidic solution whereas the detergent does not form any precipitate in all tests that had been conducted in the experiment. For the lastly test which is cleaning abilities between 3 types of samples which are tap water, soap and detergent. From the result and figure above, we can make a conclusion that the synthetic detergent is the most good of cleaning agent compare to the tap water and soap which do not clean the cloth strips that contain tomato sources cleanly.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012 RECOMMENDATIONS:

There are a few recommendations that will significantly produce better observations which will not deviate much from the theoretical observations. Firstly, the experiment should be repeated twice in order to get more accurate observations. This is because if the experiments are conducted twice, thus the observations might be more convincing when the average is taken. The most important, use a safety equipment and avoid contact with any chemical reagents involved. If there a contact with the chemical, directly wash the hands and dont forget to wash hand agains before leaving the laboratory. While doing the experiment, focus and recorded any change of the solution and for the color change prepared the white paper as the background. Thus, the color change can be observed clearly and then it must be recorded.

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING May 25, 2012

REFERENCES: 1. Experiment in General Chemistry Featuring Measuring Net, Bobby Shanton, Lin Zhu, C.H.Atwood, 2005, Brooks/Cole Laboratory Series,USA. 2. Organic Chemistry(third editions), R.T.Morrison & R.N.Boyd,1973, Allyn and Bacon,Boston. 3. Fundamentals of General, Organic and Biological Chemistry (third edition), J.McMurry, M.E. Castellion,1999.Prentice Hall,Inc.Upper Saddle Rier,New Jersey.