Zainab al-Ghazali: Pioneer of Islamist Feminism

By Pauline Lewis

Abbreviations and Transliterated Arabic Terms

EFU: Egyptian Feminist Union

MLA: Muslim Ladies Association
al-da’wah: Call or Mission. Used to describe Islamist activism.
Da’iya(s) Da’iyat(pl): Female participant in al-da’wah
al-Ikhwan: Brotherhood or Brothers. Used to refer to the Muslim Brotherhood
Kafir(s) Kafirun(pl): Apostate. Used to criticize Nasser and other Muslims accused of
renouncing Islam
Mujahid(m) Mujahida(f) Mujahideen(pl):Fighter, one who strives. Often used in the religious
sense, referring to one who fights in the path of God.
Umma: Nation. Used generally to refer to the entire Islamic community.

Introduction—Why Zainab al-Ghazali

The year is 1966. A middle-aged woman sits in an Egyptian military prison, awaiting the
torture sessions that have become part of her daily routine. She recites verses from the Qur’an,
sentences of classical Arabic which have been repeated endlessly, but which never lose meaning.
Bismillah al-Rahman al Raheem.1 She is among the top leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood, a
social organization which seeks to Islamize Egyptian society and government. She is imprisoned
on charges of sedition and conspiring to assassinate President Gamal ‘Abd al-Nasser. She denies
these charges, and while other members of the Brotherhood are weakened into submission
through torture, every crack of the whip only serves to strengthen her resolve.
The year is 1981. A woman in her mid-sixties sits at a publishing desk for al-Da’wah
magazine, a publication of the Muslim Brotherhood. She is the editor of a women’s column for
the magazine, and writes articles on the domestic nature of females and on the importance of
motherhood and wifedom for Muslim women. When she is not writing, she lectures on the
Islamic call, al-da’wah, the social movement whose participants seek Islam as a way of life, not
merely a religion. Bismillah al-Rahman al Raheem. She speaks publicly on the important role
which mothers and wives have in forwarding the Islamic nation. Return to the home, she
encourages her female audience, and do not work outside the home unless there is dire need.
These are two stories, but they speak of only one woman. She is Zainab al-Ghazali,
leader of The Muslim Brotherhood and one of the most controversial female Muslim figures of
the 20th century. Born in 1917 into the household of a local religious leader, she was inculcated
with the importance of religion in everyday life. From an early age her father encouraged her to
be a strong woman, and a leader who embraced Islam and the indigenous traditions of Egypt.2 al-
Ghazali emerged into Egyptian society at a time of great upheaval for women and the nation as a
whole. The Wafd revolution of 1919 had granted Egypt nominal independence from Great

1
Arabic for “In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate.” An Islamic benediction often used to begin
prayer or a public speech.
2
Valerie Hoffman, "An Islamic Activist: Zaynab Al-Ghazali," in Women and the Family in the Middle East, ed.
Elizabeth Fernea (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985).

1
Britain, but the nationalist movement continued to fight for true sovereignty throughout al-
Ghazali’s formative years. The nationalist movement was largely dependent on the mobilization
of Egyptian women, whose participation marked a dramatic shift in social norms regarding
women and their role in public life. The late nineteenth century had witnessed an awakening of a
feminist conscious among men and women within the elite classes of Egypt. This phenomenon
was largely a nationalist reaction against colonial arguments that often used the “oppression” and
“subjugation” of Muslim women as a cause for British control of Egypt. However, this colonial
mission to “emancipate” the women of Egypt was more a tool of political propaganda than it was
a feminist crusade. Lord Cromer—the British counsel of Egypt during the early twentieth
century—must have been concerned for the political emancipation of only Egyptian women, as
he was a well-known staunch opponent of the women’s suffrage movement back in Great
Britain.3 Disproving the widespread belief that Egyptian women were helpless and desperate for
the guidance of British tutelage, female activists began to mobilize behind the nationalist
movement. Continuing the previous movements for women’s political and educational rights—
led by such activists as Nabawiyya Musa and Malak Hifni Nasif4—the nationalist movement
proved to be another medium in which Egyptian women could assert their social agency. The
mass participation of women within the nationalist movement changed the traditional gender
landscape, as women moved from the margins to the heart of society. It was no longer a question
of whether or not women should be freed from the traditional patriarchy that governed Egyptian
society—not unlike the British society of Lord Cromer—but rather what path should such an
emancipation follow.
This awakening, nahdah, resulted in the establishment of two schools of thought
regarding the advancement of women: those who sought “westernization” of society, and those
who sought “Islamization.”5 Each feminist camp viewed the other as the enemy. Although
cautious of attacking Islam, “westernized” feminists argued that incorrectly-interpreted Islamic
traditions were the root of the women’s oppression, citing the seclusion of women, harem, to be
a religious institution. On the other hand, the Islamists viewed the subjugation of women to be a
product of the lack of religion in society. They contrasted the lack of women’s education with
the Qur’anic stipulated rights of education for women. These “westernized” and “Islamist”
feminist movements were not the cleanly formed binary that their titles suggest. The
“westernized” feminists, led by Huda Sha’wari and the Egyptian Feminist Union, considered
themselves to be indigenous Muslim reformers who were not “betraying” their culture to British
imperialism. Likewise, “Islamist” feminists, represented by Zainab al-Ghazali, were not devoid
of influence from European encounters. It is likely that most Egyptians subscribed partially to
aspects of both camps. While the “westernized” and “Islamist” feminists can not be so easily
separated, historical hindsight has proven that the “westernized” feminism of Sha’wari achieved
a monopoly over the Egyptian women’s movement during the first half of the twentieth century.
However, it now appears that the feminism of al-Ghazali has gained popularity amongst the

3
Leila Ahmed, In Women and Gender in Islam (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).

4
For more information see Beth Baron, The Women’s Awakening in Egypt (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1994).
5
This paper will assert that both schools of thought espoused a type of feminism, as they both were dedicated to the
improvement the status of women and her empowerment in society. See section on
Definition of Terms.

2
contemporary women of Egypt. This is a phenomenon that demands a re-inspection of the life
and work of one of the first Islamist feminists.6
Entering the fertile scene of the Egyptian nationalist/women’s movement, Zainab al-
Ghazali gained an early exposure to women’s activism and participation in public space. Joining
the Egyptian Feminist Union when she was no more than eighteen, she was exposed to the
ideology of Egyptian women who favored emulation of the west and a secularization of women’s
roles in society. However, al-Ghazali quickly became frustrated with the EFU’s methods,
believing that its members rejected Islam as a guide to defining the role of women in society.7
She quit the organization, and went on to establish the Jamiat Al-Sayyidat-al-Muslimeen, or,
Muslim Ladies Association in 1936. Correcting what al-Ghazali had seen to be the fatal flaw of
the EFU, she and the MLA encouraged women to seek religion as a means to personal agency
and as a source of advancement. While al-Ghazali insisted upon the independence of the MLA
from the Muslim Brotherhood, she was closely affiliated with the larger Islamist organization
and was among the top leaders within the Egyptian da’wah movement.
While specifically concerned with the role of women in society, al-Ghazali dedicated
herself to the da’wah movement as a whole. She criticized “westernized” feminists for devoting
themselves only to “women’s issues,” arguing that not only was it impossible to separate the
issues of women from those of society at large, but that in fact such specifications only
weakened the community and ignored comprehensive ailments of society.8 As a da’iya9, al-
Ghazali was passionate about spreading Islam to all sectors of society, as well as devoted to
teaching the benefits that she believed Islam would bring to Egypt. While she had been married
at a young age, she quickly divorced her husband whom she remembered as trying to impede her
da’wah activities.10 With no children from her first marriage, she was able to fully devote herself
to the work of the MLA and the Muslim Brotherhood until she married again. Her steadfast
dedication to al-da’wah was again demonstrated by her insistence that the contract for her
second marriage stipulate that her new husband could not prohibit or prevent al-Ghazali’s
activism. Such actions prove not only her commitment to the Islamist movement, but also
demonstrate her beliefs in the personal agency of wives, and women. With a tamed husband and
no children, al-Ghazali was able to fully dedicate herself to the life of public leadership at which
she excelled.
After the military coup of 1952, the newly empowered secular-nationalists—led by
Gamal ‘Abd al-Nasser—targeted the Muslim Brotherhood and its Islamist ideology as a threat to
their newly secured power. Accused of sedition, hundreds of Muslim Brothers were imprisoned
or assassinated, crippling the leadership apparatus of the organization. Accused of conspiring to
assassinate the president, al-Ghazali herself was incarcerated in a military prison before being
transferred to the all-women’s prison of al-Qanatir. Before her transfer, she was subjected to
heinous torture and inhumanity, described in her memoir Return of the Pharaoh. Her leadership
within the Brotherhood had made her a target, and she bravely withstood the consequences of
such activism.

6
Soroya Duval, "New Veils and New Voices: Islamist Women's Groups in Egypt," in Women and Islamization, ed.
Karin Ask and Marit Tjomsland (Oxford: Berg, 1998).
7
Hoffman, An Islamic Activist,234
8
Ibid.,235
9
A female participant in da’wah
10
Hoffman, An Islamic Activist,237

3
 Because of her commitment to the da’wah movement, al-Ghazali is considered amongst
many Islamists to be a mujahida—a fighter in the path of God. She is remembered as a bold,
courageous, and outspoken woman who thrived in the male-dominated scene of politics and
religious activism. Therefore, it may seem slightly incongruous to recall that this mujahida is the
same woman who exhorted women to remain in the home, and take up the domestic roles of wife
and mother. It is the recollection of this anecdote which richens the story of al-Ghazali. For at
face value it seems that by promoting domesticity for women, she somehow rejected the life of
public activism which she led.
As an editor for a column within al-Da’wah magazine, al-Ghazali had the opportunity to
write numerous articles to women who wished to contribute to, or participate within, the Islamist
movement. Given the life choices and experiences of the author, one might expect that such
articles would promote the public activism and participation of women within the da’wah
activities. Indeed, al-Ghazali encouraged her female—and male audience—to dedicate
themselves to Islam and the Islamization of society. However, for her female readers, al-Ghazali
specified that their participation be defined primarily within their natural roles as mothers and
wives of the male fighters, al-mujahideen. While she herself acted on the stage of the da’wah
movement, it seems she preferred that other women to work behind the scene. While she herself
lived a life amongst men in the public sphere of politics and leadership, she encouraged Muslim
women to return to domesticity, protecting and maintaining the base of Islamic society: the home
and family. While contemporary western feminists may praise her life as having defied
patriarchal social structure and for having claimed a public space, al-Ghazali rejected those
western feminists, believing them to be corruptive to tradition and religion.
This perceived disjuncture between the rhetoric and action of al-Ghazali is the root of the
controversy that surrounds her. However, it is also the key to understanding the ideological
syncretism that she represents. Scholars in search of recognizable traces of western feminism in
the Islamic world are tempted by al-Ghazali’s life of activism and leadership, but are befuddled
by her subscription to the cult of domesticity. Even more problematic for some is the fact that al-
Ghazali is not an anomaly within the community of Egyptian Muslim women. Her ideological
blend of conservatism, nationalism, feminism, and spirituality may be the guiding principle of
many Islamist women today. She, and her inheritors, are conservative in their efforts to maintain
religious and social traditions amidst the changing landscape of a modernizing society. They
subscribe to nationalist sentiments in their rejection of western imperialism and its legacy,
supporting the independence of Egyptians and complete sovereignty of Muslims. Thirdly, it is
impossible to deny the sinews of feminist thought within the discourse of al-Ghazali, as she
demanded the respect and rights of women within Islam and society as a whole. Finally, al-
Ghazali and her successors are unwavering in their commitment to Islamism, striving for the
panacea believed to be found in a collective and individual return to religion. While this paper
will not address the future generations of Islamist women, the research of other scholars—such
as Duval, Mahmoud, Abu-Lughod—has revealed the continuation of al-Ghazali’s ideological
syncretism within both the Islamist and the women’s movement of Egypt. Understanding al-
Ghazali is key to understanding the Islamists women of contemporary Egypt, their international
counterparts, and their commitment to an ideology which seems at best contradicted and at worst
misogynist to the ethnocentric eyes of some western feminists.

4
Definition of Terms

The rising popularity of Islamism in Egypt has proved the impossibility of sidestepping
the arguments of al-Ghazali and her inheritors, as ignoring their voices would result in a
comprehensive ignorance of the current social reality. Rather than make this egregious error,
scholars must strive to accept the arguments of al-Ghazali as being representative of a
mainstream approach to feminism in contemporary Egypt. This use of the word feminism is
deliberate, despite the reservations that certain parties may have regarding its application to
Islamist activists. Some western feminists may cringe at the prospect of widening the definition
so as to include women whom they have stereotyped as being conspirators to their own
subjugation. However, as Saba Mahmoud has argued, it is impossible to expect one culturally
specific definition of feminism to be applied to a separate society, whose own history and
anthropological experience demand a feminism of its own.

“In the 1970’s, in response to the call by white middle-class feminists to

dismantle the institution of the nuclear family, which they believed to be a key
source of women’s oppression, Native-and African American feminists argued
that freedom, for them, consisted in being able to form families, since the long
history of slavery, genocide, and racism had operated precisely by breaking up
their communities and social networks.”11

Likewise, al-Ghazali—and many other female Islamist activists—rejected the term of “feminist”
due to its association with western imperialism and sexual promiscuity. Leila Ahmed is one such
scholar who has researched the reluctance of Muslim Arab women to use this term.

“Colonialism’s use of feminism to promote the culture of the colonizers and

undermine native culture has ever since imported feminism in non-western
societies the taint of having served as an instrument of colonial domination…”12

However, despite such reservations, it is clear that there are female activists from various
cultures and times who have dedicated themselves to the improvement of the status of women
and their empowerment in society. While their means may differ, this shared goal of gender
justice allows for a new definition of feminism which can be found in a multi-cultural and
international setting. It is my hope that through the analysis of the life and work of al-Ghazali,
not only will I reconcile the perceived disjuncture between her life and works, but I will also aid
in another reconciliation. By widening the definition of feminism, I hope to prove al-Ghazali’s
subscription to a breed of feminist thought, and that she and her “westernized” counterparts are
not as estranged as they mutually consider themselves to be. A feminism which takes into
consideration the historical, cultural, and political backgrounds of different societies will no
longer be a monolithic and exclusive ideology, but rather a multi-cultural federation of feminist
thought.
As just exhibited by the term “feminism,” many words prevalently used in this paper may
carry the unwanted weight of previous experience and presuppositions. Before continuing, it is

11
Saba Mahmoud, Politics of Piety (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).
12
Ahmed, 167

5
important to define a number of terms used prevalently. The hope is not to conclusively define
their meaning in the abstract, but rather in the specific context of this paper.

Feminism: An awareness for the need of gender justice; dedicated to the improvement of the
status of women and their social empowerment.

Western/Westernized: A socially constructed term derived from the assumption of a binary

relationship between the “East” and “West”. When used by imperialist,
it is often meant to denote cultural superiority in contrast to barbarity.
When used by the imperialized, it is often associated with foreign
hegemony and in contrast to indigenous sovereignty.13

Islamism: A modern socio-political movement which hopes to Islamicize society either

gradually through education and social activism, or rapidly through a violent
overthrow of the state and the implementation of sharia, or Islamic law.
The goal of this paper is to shed light on a figure who has been shrouded in controversy,
and to expand the narrow understanding of feminism which has previously precluded the
existence of an Islamist feminist. However, this paper does not intend to slap a label of
“feminist” on al-Ghazali, a label which she would have resented and which would also fail to do
justice to the complexity of her character and experience. In order to prevent such an outcome,
this paper will attempt to analyze the life and works of this woman within the context which that
lived, and the cultural norms which guided her life. Short of a full biography of al-Ghazali, this
paper will attempt to break down the perceived disjuncture between the experiences that shaped
her life, and the writings which defined her legacy.
Chapter One addresses the various influences that contributed to the formation of al-
Ghazali’s public personality and complex ideology. While not excluding other possibilities, this
chapter targets the three main influences of al-Ghazali: the early Egyptian feminist movement,
the gender discourse of Sayyid Qutb, and Sufi traditions. By displaying these various sources of
conservatism, nationalism, feminism, and spirituality, this chapter hopes to lay the groundwork
for untangling the various tensions found within her discourse. Her actual arguments will be the
subject of Chapter Two, where a number of al-Ghazali’s writings are analyzed, drawing out the
central tenets of her work. I will assert that her arguments rested evenly on three critical points:
the Muslim woman is fundamental to the success of Islamic society, she must fulfill her
responsibilities in Islamic da’wah, and she must reject the evils of western imperialism that
remained after the collapse of the formal colonial apparatus. The third Chapter examines the
response which the life and work of al-Ghazali rendered in both Arab-Islamic journals and
amongst feminist scholarship. By collecting the various interpretations of al-Ghazali, this chapter
aims to create a more comprehensive understanding of this controversial figure. Through the
various adulations or condemnations of her work, a better understanding will be created: a
conglomerate which is bigger than the sum of its parts. This final chapter also seeks to examine
these various methods of interpretation in order to better determine a proper method of debating
and discussing the subject of feminism in an Islamist context.

13
Lila Abu-Lughod criticizes the East and West Binary as basing itself on the false notion that “…take the form of
narratives of cultural domination versus resistance, cultural loyalty versus betrayal, or cultural loss versus
preservation.” See Lila Abu-Lughod, Remaking Women (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 16.

6
This examination of al-Ghazali will be in itself a study of how to discuss a figure such as she.
Feminist, Islamist, or both; al-Ghazali deserves to be remembered as a multi-dimensional
talented figure whose legacy should not be limited by the intellectual prejudices of others. This
paper argues that rather than acting as proof of a contradicted woman, the seeming disjuncture
between the actions and words of al-Ghazali is proof of the ideological syncretism that defined
her life.

Chapter One: Arriving at al-Ghazali: Social Intellectual and Religious Influences

“It will be a long time before any true idea of the dignity of woman enters the debased minds of Arab
Mohammedans.”14 –Rev. Henry Harris Jessup. D.D, 19th century American Missionary

Jessup’s quote sums up the Euro-American stereotypes surrounding Arab-Muslim

women during the late nineteenth century. These women were pictured as victims, oppressed by
culture and religion alike, and doomed to a lifetime of ignorance and subjugation. What is most
pernicious about this understanding of Arab-Muslim women is that it seeks to target Arab-
Islamic culture as being particularly misogynist, as though the treatment of Egyptian women in
the late nineteenth century were any worse than that of contemporary Great Britain or the United
States. As British commanders used the “oppression” of Egyptian women as a basis for colonial
rule, British imperialism and Egyptian nationalism both became intrinsically tied to the question
of Egyptian women. As the forces of colonialism and nationalism played tug of war for public
favor, cries for feminist reform were often countered by pleas to conserve cultural traditions and
religious authenticity. Zainab al-Ghazali would come to espouse an ideology that attempted to
synthesis conservatism, nationalism, feminism, and spirituality. Such an ideology was not simply
created in her lifetime, but was the culmination of a series of historical influences which pre-date
the subject of this paper. By examining the roots of her ideology, this chapter will target three
main sources of influence on the life and works of this woman: the debates of early Egyptian
feminism, the gender discourse of Sayyid Qutb, and the traditions of Egyptian Sufism.

The Debut of Egyptian Feminism

The Egyptian encounter with Europe aroused a number of pressing questions for the
nation. As the encounter was largely defined by a colonial relationship, many Egyptians
questioned the nature of this seemingly omnipotent colonial power. Was western influence to be
a blessing that delivered the modernity and advances developed in Europe? Or, was western
influence an insidious poison that produced mindless puppets who would happily sacrifice their
traditions and sovereignty to their imperialist masters. Most Egyptian reformist of the late
nineteenth century compromised these two interpretations, arguing that while Egypt should seek
to model itself after Europe’s technological advances and militaristic superiority, it should not
lose its distinct heritage as an Arab-Muslim state.15
Many aspects of society were considered by these reformists: education, law, military,
dress-code, and the role of women. The latter two became, perhaps, the most inflammatory
subjects, as the British command frequently pointed to the “oppression” of Egyptian Muslim

14
Henry Harris Jessup, The Women of the Arabs (New York Dodd: and Mead Publishers, 1873).
15
Soha Abdel-Kader, Egyptian Women in a Changing Society, 1899-1987 (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers,
1987),53.

7
women as a primary reason for colonialism of the country.16 Likewise, the Egyptian nationalist
movement depicted the nation as a woman, evoking the conflation of patriotism with protection
of one’s women.17 The institution of the harem was often targeted as the epicenter of the
misogyny in the Islamic world, both by western Orientalists and by Muslim reformists. Based on
the Islamic and Ottoman traditions of the seclusion of women, these harems were the housing
units for the wives of the Sultans and Ottoman elite. Reserved purely for women, with the
exception of male eunuchs, the harem could be seen as both a social, gregarious setting for elite
women, and also as a prison preventing the participation of those women in public life.18 Soha
Abdel-Kader espouses the first argument, pointing to the various memoirs and diaries of elite
Egyptian women which told of the social interaction of the harem and failed to mention any
sentiments of oppression. However, Margot Badran disagrees, arguing that the subjugation and
oppression of the harem would lead directly to the early Egyptian feminist movements.19 The
true experience of life in the harem is therefore difficult to discern. However, what we do know
is that the image of the harem became the symbol of the marginalized Muslim woman, and thus
became the target for both Orientalists and also for Egyptian reformists who sought to modernize
their nation.

Qasim Amin: Indigenous Feminist or Colonial Patriarch?

This relationship between modernity and the status of women is seen quite clearly
through the experience of Qasim Amin, author of Tahrir al-Mara/The Emancipation of Women.
Published in 1899 in Cairo, this book was a denouncement of the treatment of women in
Egyptian society, a glorification of the “gender equality” of Europe, and a call for Egyptians to
liberate their women by ending a number of religious and cultural traditions. Amin was highly
critical of polygamy, seclusion of women, veiling, lack of women’s education, and of laws that
made divorce easily available for men. He believed that the status of women in a certain society
was a clear indicator of the level of civilization which that society had reached.20 Thus, while he
specifically criticized the treatment of women in Egyptian society, he kept no secrets about his
disgust of Egyptian society as a whole. This is clearly demonstrated by Amin’s argument that the
despotic nature of Egyptian society was conducive to this subjugation of women.21 Therefore,
Amin argued, if Egyptians wished to attain the political freedoms and advancements of European
society, Egyptian women must be ready to adopt the social norms and cultural mores of the
sophisticated Europeans.
Like previous reformists, Amin did not advocate a complete break with Egypt’s Islamic
past. Despite whatever radical suggestions Amin may have issued in regards to polygamy,
women’s education, and seclusion, he maintained that Islamic law could be compatible with
modernization through reinterpretation, ijtihad, of the Qur’an.22 But as it was in its current state,

16
Ibid., 57
17
Nadje al-Ali. Secularism, Gender and the State in the Middle East. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2000), 44
18
Ibid., 29
19
Margot Badran, "Huda Sha'rawi and the Liberation of the Egyptian Woman." (Oxford University, 1977). cited in
Abdel-Kader, 22
20
Juan R. Cole, "Feminism, Class, and Islam in Turn of the Century Egypt," International Journal of Middle East
Studies, no. 13 (1981), 395.
21
Ibid., 396
22
Abdel-Kader, 44

8
Amin argued that Egyptian Muslim society deprived the woman of the rights and respect to
which she was entitled, and which her European counterparts received.

“Freedom for men is countered by enslavement for women; education for men is
countered by ignorance for women. Men develop their rationality and mental
faculties, leaving for women only idiocy and retardation…The whole universe is
for men, while women occupy only the peripheries and dark corners”23

However, Amin’s convincing words should not be taken out of context, lest we forget the
complexity of his person and argument. He was an elite Egyptian of Turkish background, who
had studied at length in France, and who was considered by many to be a colonialist mouthpiece.
Furthermore, one can read in his writings a tone which is utterly patriarchal, in which the
emancipation of women is viewed in terms of what profits it will bring to men, rather than what
moral obligation it should render upon society.

“Our present situation resembles that of a very wealthy man who locks up his
gold in a chest. This man unlocks his chest daily for the mere pleasure of seeing
his treasure. If he knew better, he would invest his gold and double his wealth in a
short period of time.24

Such a statement supports al-Ghazali’s future argument that western approaches to “women’s
liberation” were based on a capitalist greed to exploit women as commodities.
Additionally, modern critics—such as Leila Ahmed—have suggested that Amin simply
aimed to rearticulate in indigenous terms the imperialist notion that Arab-Muslim women lived
in oppression in order to further assert the backwardness of Egyptian society.

“In calling for women’s liberation the thoroughly patriarchal Amin was in fact
calling for the transformation of Muslim society along the lines of the Western
model and for the substitution of the garb of Islamic-style male dominance for
that of Western-style male dominance.”25

As it becomes more difficult to assess the true reasons behind Amin’s calls for liberation, it
becomes easier to understand the knot of issues surrounding the question of women during this
period of reform. Even for those who may have been legitimately concerned with the status of
Egyptian women, it seems that achieving reform without being stigmatized as “western” or
without compromising feminist goals was nearly impossible.
Amongst the most vocal of Amin’s critics was Ta’lat al-Harb, who preached against
Amin’s encouragement of western emulation. Instead of resorting to a foreign culture to gain
inspiration for the role of women in society, al-Harb argued that Egypt should look to its
traditional Islamic heritage for guidance. In a clear attack against Amin’s arguments, al-Harb
declared the utter importance of both seclusion of women and the veil. Criticizing Amin’s

23
Qasim Amin, "Tahrir Al-Mar’a/Emancipation of Women," (Cairo: Dar al-Ma’arif, 1970). cited in Abdel-Kader,
21
24
Qasim Amin, The Liberation of Women, trans. Samiha Sidhom Peterson (Cairo: The American University in Cairo
Press, 1992), 13.
25
Ahmed, 161

9
Qur’anic interpretation, al-Harb argued that the Qur’an is unequivocal in its message that women
must practice veiling, including covering the hands and face—a practice which Amin had
deemed unnecessary.26 al-Harb supported the expansion of women’s education, but qualified that
their education should not compromise his strict belief in the importance of seclusion.
Additionally, such an education should be largely religious and encouraging of the traditional
female role of a domestic, modest, and subservient wife and mother.27 al-Harb truculently
denounced Amin’s support of the entrance of women into the public sector, arguing that this
would violate the sacred principle of seclusion. Although clearly critical of Amin’s theories on
the treatment of women, al-Harb is perhaps even more condemning of Amin as a westernized
fraud. As Abdel-Kader explaines, “al-Harb branded the movement for the emancipation of
women as just another plot to weaken the Egyptian nation and to transfer the immorality and
decadence prevalent in the West to Egyptian society.”28 The dependence on anti-western rhetoric
to form an argument is a theme which characterized al-Harb, and which would continue to
characterize Islamists such as Sayyid Qutb and Zainab al-Ghazali.
The debate between Amin and al-Harb can be understood as an early confrontation
between the forces of “westernized” and “Islamist” thought. It was not a confrontation between
feminism and anti-feminism, as both Amin and al-Harb supported the continuation of patriarchal
societies.29 Just as Amin and al-Harb differed on the methods of preserving male dominance—
Amin encouraged the adoption of British patriarchy while al-Harb urged a continuation of the
Islamic system—later feminists would debate which ideology would best serve to overturn such
structures.

Huda Sha’wari and Westernized Feminism

If al-Ghazali may be considered the feminist complement to al-Harb’s Islamic patriarchy,

than certainly Huda Sha’wari would be the feminist complement to Amin’s embracement of
“westernized” patriarchy. Born in 1879 into the harem of Sultan Pasha, her elite status provided
her with an education of French, Turkish, piano, and the Qur’an. Despite her privileged
upbringing, Sha’wari recalls an unhappy childhood; a melancholy caused from an early
recognition of the social discrimination between girls and boys. She recalled that her brother was
given many more opportunities than she, and began to realize that this preferential treatment was
on the basis of his male sex.30 For Huda, one of the most influential moments was her marriage
at thirteen to a gentleman in his forties, Ali Sha’rawi. Like most marriages amongst the Egyptian
elite, she had no choice in the arrangement, and her new life as a young wife was unbearable.31
In what Sha’wari wrote on her marital relationship, it is clear that this period of her life
reinforced her frustrations with gender inequalities.
As a young woman, Sha’wari began to interact with French women living in Cairo,
eventually coming to participate in various salons that aimed to be a place where women could
discuss various social and political issues.32 Topics such as universal suffrage, seclusion, and
divorce laws took primacy at such discussions. In addition to the opening of a dialogue on such
26
Cole, 402
27
Ibid., 403
28
Abdel-Kader, 62
29
Ahmed, 163
30
Abdel-Kader,82
31
Ibid.,82
32
Abdel-Kader,83

10
issues, these meetings were also important simply for the development of public networks and
social communities which had been unavailable to women in the harem. This dialogue between
European, Arab, and Turkish women was one of Sha’rawi’s early exposures to western
feminism. Sha’rawi’s decision to unveil—an action which distinctly separated her feminism
from the future Islamist feminism—has been attributed to the influence of Eugenie Le Brun, a
French feminist who was quite close with Sha’rawi.33 It is important to recognize that Sha’rawi,
as a member of the upper echelons of Egyptian society, welcomed the association and affiliation
with European culture. As the Egyptian elite often gained from the imperialist experience in
Egypt, they were more inclined to emulate or praise European culture as more highly
sophisticated than that of the indigenous, poorer classes. 34 This is not to say that elite Egyptians
were somewhat less authentic than their middle and lower class counterparts, but rather that
many affluent Egyptians assumed the adoption of western-type thought and behavior to achieve
progress and advancement.
Sha’rawi and other women activists were heavily involved in the revolution of 1919, and
often saw their own struggle for gender equality in terms of the nationalist struggle for
independence.35 When the revolution failed to repay with suffrage the women whom had fought
for its success, Sha’rawi decided to establish the Egyptian Feminist Union, an organization
which would continue the struggle for gender equality. While the nationalist struggle had been
achieved, the women of the EFU were unable to give up their fight for the goal of erasing their
“disadvantage status.”36 Their emphasis on equality in both the private and public spheres is not
only what made them unique in Egypt, but what demonstrated the influence of western feminist
on Sha’rawi’s ideology. While this adoption of a western tone may have been welcomed by
much of the elite, it was the reason why others rejected Sha’rawi and her notions of feminism.
Sha’rawi and her followers claimed that they were not attempting to change the sharia, and that
they all considered themselves to be good Muslims who were merely fighting for their “usurped
Islamic rights”. However, Sha’rawi’s association with the west seemed to critics that her
feminism was yet another colonial instrument.37
One such critic of this western influence was Zainab al-Ghazali, who at one point was a
member of the EFU. Her decision to leave the organization seems to have been largely because
of her disappointment that the EFU based itself on what she saw as western feminism, a concept
which she felt was neither necessary nor appropriate for an Islamic society. She disagreed
greatly with the approach that members of the EFU took in their struggle for women’s rights.

“She campaigned for women and the nation in Islamist terms, whereas the other
feminists at the time campaigned for women’s rights and human rights in the
language of secularism and democracy. Whereas these feminists consistently
stressed the superiority of the West in their feminist goals and actions, al-Ghazali
was committed to indigenous culture and to pursuing feminism within Islam”38

33
Margot Badran. Harem Years: The Memoirs of an Egyptian Feminist. (New York: Feminist Press, 1987), cited in
Duval, NewVeils, 66.
34
Ahmed, 147
35
Abdel-Kader,88
36
Ibid.,92
37
Ibid., 95
38
Miriam Cooke, Women Claim Islam (New York: Routledge, 2007),105.

11
al-Ghazali accused Sha’rawi and the EFU of attempting to ape the west, invoking the same
accusations that al-Harb had thrown at Amin. Additionally, al-Ghazali and al-Harb both
depended disproportionately on criticizing the arguments of their intellectual enemies. Despite
her disapproval of EFU methods, it will be seen in al-Ghazali’s work that the Egyptian Feminist
movement had a profound influence on developing both her antagonism towards the west, and
also her insistence that women’s rights be secured through Islam alone.

Sayyid Qutb

al-Ghazali’s belief that feminist goals could be achieved through Islam is simply an
extension of the Islamist theory. If all ailments in society can be cured by a return to Islam, than
so too may women gain the respect and rights she deserves through Islamization. One of the
great theoreticians of this philosophy, and likewise, one of al-Ghazali’s greatest influences, was
Sayyid Qutb. Although today he is largely remembered as influencing Ayatollah Khomeini and
the leaders of al-Qaeda, his discourse was much richer and more diverse than encouraging
violent revolutions. A leading intellect of the Muslim Brotherhood, Qutb was a prolific writer,
publishing a number of works of Qur’anic exegesis and on social commentary of Islamic life. In
his book, Social Justice in Islam, Qutb devotes several pages to describing what he believes to be
the role of women in an Islamic society. Written in 1945, this work contains the main arguments
which al-Ghazali would later come to espouse as head of the Muslim Ladies Association and as a
spokeswoman for the Islamist movement. Given the close contact between the two leaders of al-
da’wah, it is likely that Qutb’s work directly influenced the creation of al-Ghazali’s discourse.
Examining Qutb’s work, one finds his section on gender equality tucked between
chapters on general equality in Islam and in an Islamic society. This context demonstrates Qutb’s
belief that gender equality is neither more nor less important than the equality of other
relationships in society. According to Qutb, men and women share an equal status in the eyes of
God, yet the issue of gender equality is not of great importance which must be elaborated upon.
In this document, Qutb aims to achieve three goals. The first is to prove that first and foremost,
Islam values a kind of equality between the sexes. The second is that there are acceptable reasons
and circumstances that may prevent equality from prevailing all of the time. The third goal is to
counterattack the west and argue that, in fact, it is they who deprive women of their entitled
respect.
Qutb firmly believes that Islam grants women equality with men. He not only explicitly
states this in the opening paragraph, but he also makes it the overall theme of the chapter. In
order to support his argument, Qutb relies heavily on various suras, or chapters, of the Qur’an.

“Whoever does good works, man or woman, and is a Believer—such shall enter
into Paradise and shall not be wronged one jot.”
“Whoever does good works, man or woman, and is a Believer—we shall make
them live a good life, and we shall give them their reward for the best that they
have done.”39

Qutb argues that these suras clearly indicate that God does not discriminate between the sexes,
and that in the eyes of God, men and women are equal.

39
Sayyid Kotb, Social Justice in Islam, trans. John B. Hardie (New York: Octagon books, 1980), 50.

12
 In addition to spiritual equality, Qutb also insists that Islam granted women intellectual
equality and financial independence. In the Qur’an, God commanded both men and women to
strive for knowledge. Likewise, both men and women had the privilege of owning and
administering property, and the responsibility of paying the zakat, or alms. These three pillars of
spirituality, intelligence and finance are the bases of Qutb’s claim that there is gender equality in
Islam.
Qutb seeks to defend Islam against the western attacks that it is a misogynist religion.
Therefore, he focuses on the issue of equality as it seemed to be the central issue of western
feminism. However, aside from the three aforementioned spheres, it appears that gender equality
is not a value that Qutb holds to be important in Islam. Qutb argues that it is only natural that
men and women should not considered equal in certain situations. He insists that physical
differences, cultural practices, and differing responsibilities between men and women call for
unequal participation from each gender. But while Qutb makes it seem that equality is the rule—
perhaps to meet western standards of feminism—his proof seems to suggest that gender equality
is not the central factor in Islamist feminism. Qutb’s method of speaking in terms of western
feminism is rejected by al-Ghazali, who de-emphasizes the question of equality when speaking
of the rights and status of women. Instead of holding Islam accountable to the arbitrary
stipulations of western feminism, al-Ghazali seeks to define a feminism that is derived from the
indigenous culture. Qutb does not attempt such re-definition, and therefore his defense of Islam
is in terms of equality and other western feminist ideals. Thus, while Qutb was a great influence
on al-Ghazali and the development of her discourse, she adjusts the vocabulary of her argument
to better suit Islamist feminism, rather than oblige western audiences.
According to Qutb, the physical and emotional discrepancies between men and women
preclude any possibility of true gender equality, and any effort to create such an unnatural
phenomenon would prove disastrous. For instance, Qutb grapples with the problematic sura
which calls men to dominate women.

“Men are the overseers over women because of what Allah has bestowed of His
bounty on one more than another.”40

Qutb goes on to argue that the explanation for this blatantly unequal gender relationship lies in
the fact that the different social roles given to men and women have produced various emotional
dispositions in each sex. As it is customary for women to be the caretakers of children, he argues,
they have developed into more passionate, emotional creatures than their pragmatic, professional
husbands.

“So when man is made to oversee woman, it is by reason of physical nature and
custom that this ordinance stands.”41

By using his own bio-sociological explanation for the development of men and women, Qutb
intends to prove that the control which men have over women is an inequality that is simply
unchangeable and socially necessary.
Continuing his effort to explain certain inequities in Islam, and in specifically the Qur’an,
Qutb confronts the issue of gender discrimination in the courtroom. It has been interpreted from

40
Ibid., 50
41
Ibid., 50

13
the Qur’an, that the word of two women is equal to the word of one man. Therefore, when giving
evidence in a trial, there must be two female witnesses if they wish to testify.

“In this verse itself the explanation is made clear; by the nature of her family
duties the growth of the woman’s spirit is towards emotions and passions, just as
in man it is towards contemplation and thought..”42

Again, Qutb defends this sexist discrimination through the existence of physiological
discrepancies between the sexes, even if he has no scientific evidence to back up his claim.
In addition to these physical differences that call for modified treatment, Qutb also notes
social responsibilities which call for an unequal relationship between the sexes. Faced with the
notorious law of inheritance, Qutb argues that there is a sound reason why the man receives
twice as much as a female inheritor.

“He marries a woman, and he undertakes to maintain her and their children; he
has to bear the responsibility of the whole structure of the family. So it is no more
than his right that for this reason…he should have the share of two women.”43

As shown by various examples above, Qutb assumes the social roles of men and women to be so
concrete that they are as unchangeable as the physiology of men and women. Since it is assumed
that the man must be the provider of the household—and that the woman must be dependent
upon him—then it is likewise logical that the man should receive twice the inheritance as the
woman.
Throughout Qutb’s presentation of the acceptable inequities between men and women,
his purpose has always been two-fold. The first is to assert that these inequities are natural, and
that they are permanent. Not even a religion as enlightened as Islam would dare, or wish to alter
such differences between men and women. God created men and women to be different, to be
two halves of a whole, but not necessarily two identical halves. Secondly, Qutb continuously
tries to downplay the significance of these instances of discrimination. His argument focuses on
the belief that these are rare occasions, exceptions to the overall rule of gender equality in Islam.
This of course creates confusion for the reader; does Qutb support gender equality, or not? His
determination to prove that Islam espouses gender equality would point to the fact that he
supports the notion, yet his emphasis on innate differences between the genders points to his
acceptance of a degree of gender discrimination. This confusion proves the problems which arise
from Qutb’s attempt to frame Islamic feminism in accordance with the stipulations of western
feminism—a mistake which al-Ghazali learned to avoid.
Perhaps aware of the trap in addressing gender equality, Qutb moves on to another issue
which more clearly points out what Islam guaranteed female believers. Qutb, like many Islamic
scholars, argues that Islam brought many new rights to the women of seventh century Arabia. He
strains to emphasize the fact that before Islam, female infanticide was common and that the
coming of Islam brought an end to the practice.

“Islam was opposed to the idea that girl child was a disaster, and that she was
better put away while she was still an infant; it was implacably opposed to the

42
Ibid., 51
43
Ibid., 51

14
 custom of burying daughters alive, which was current in the life of some of the
Arabian tribes.”44

By pointing out various ways in which Islam improved the life of women in early Arabia, Qutb
hopes to support his previous assertion that they are valued members of society. Being a valued
member of society does not equate to being equal with men, and Qutb avoids the topic which
proved so troublesome.
Qutb again attempts to prove the respect that female Muslims receive, using marriage
rights as an example. Qutb asserts that Islam assures women consensual marriage and that they
can demand a dowry. Additionally, women have certain financial and physical rights which must
be respected both in married life and in divorce. By focusing on the improvements that Islam
brought to the women of seventh century Arabia, Qutb implies that Islam will also bring rights to
the women of the twentieth century. Yet, while Qutb seems to imply that the improved status of
the women of seventh century Arabia would be good enough for the women of modern Egypt,
al-Ghazali further explains how Islam is still the source of women’s rights in modern day
Egypt.45
Qutb’s avoidance of the issue of gender equality continues in his discourse regarding the
comparison of the treatment of women in the west and in Islamic societies. He begins this
section of his argument by stating that whatever rights or privileges Islam guarantees female
believers, it does so purely out of righteousness, and not with ulterior motives. This noble
purpose is in stark contrast to the supposed “rights” which the west has granted women, such as
the right to work outside the home, which was in fact a capitalist attempt to exploit the
“liberated” women. These poor women had not only been forced to work due to their indolent
husbands, but also they were now being exploited by the cruel corporations of the USA and
Europe.
Qutb’s attack on western society continues as he moves to one of his strongest attacks
against the west: France had not yet granted women the right of administering their property
without the consent of a guardian. Qutb assails these primitive laws, boasting that Islam had
granted such a right hundreds of years earlier. Instead of instigating laws which would be
beneficial to the women of France, the lawmakers were instead giving them other rights of which
Qutb strongly disapproved.

“At the same time France grants to women the right of every kind of unchastity,
public or private. This “privilege” is the only one which Islam denies to its
women-folk, just as it denies it to men…”46

According to Qutb’s interpretation, the west is the true misogynist force in the world, and Islam
is the true source of respect for women.
Qutb continues his prosecution of western misogyny, stating that women are purposely
hired for positions in which their beauty may be objectified. He targets workplaces such as
embassies and newspapers as being the scenes of ogling and inappropriate treatment of women.
Qutb accuses both the executives and the women for participating in such an improper
professional scene.

44
Ibid., 51
45
See Chapter II, on “Muslim Woman”
46
Kotb., 53

15
 “All of them are merely attempting to make use of women; and they know what
success a woman can have in these fields. They know, too, what she must give to
achieve her success.”47

These blunt words reveal Qutb’s true feelings on women working outside the home. He states
that not only will men try to take advantage of working women, but that those women are willing
to sacrifice their honor in order to rise in the professional world. Therefore, in the mind of Qutb,
any woman who either chooses or is forced to work outside of the home has to relinquish her
honor, in either a small or a large way. For even if she “gives nothing”, which Qutb quotes as
being “an absurd supposition”, her honor would still be ripped apart by the hungry eyes which
feast upon her.48 Thus is the fate of working women, and according to Qutb, it is therefore clear
why Islam encourages its female followers to remain in the private sphere. Here is where Qutb
and al-Ghazali differ greatly. While al-Ghazali maintains that a woman’s primary duty is with
her children, husband, and home, she also vehemently defends that Islam grants women the right
to work in the public sphere.49
Continuing his attack on the treatment of women outside of Islam, Qutb contrasts the
rights of women in Islam with those in communism. His condemnation of the communist system
in terms of gender equality is very similar to his castigation of the treatment of women within the
capitalist system. He argues that the only reason for women working outside of the home is
because of their selfish and idle husbands.

“The essential fact is that men refused to support women, and that hence women
were compelled to work like men and in masculine circles, in order to live.”50

Communism and capitalism—both centered on material wealth—are unable to consider what

Qutb describes as “the generous and humane aspects of true human life.”51 Women work
because society has been so reduced to a “dog-eat-dog” mentality, resulting in the end of proper
gender relationship and the destruction of the traditional home.
In Qutb’s final paragraph, he reneges on his previous statement and argues that Islam has
always given women the right to work, even before communism and capitalism did so. However,
where the capitalists and communists have continued to denigrate the women of their societies
through exploitation and objectification, Islam is incapable of stooping to such a level. The
mistake which the west made was it its belief that material equality should be the yardstick of
gender relations, and therefore it has focused needlessly on issues such as equal job opportunities
and equal pay. Qutb argues that the west does not think of society as a whole, but gets caught up
on individual success and wealth. For this flawed focus, the society—and the women of that
society—suffer severe consequences. Islam does not make such mistakes, as it clearly makes the
aim of both men and women to be the harmony of society as a whole.

47
Ibid., 53
48
Ibid., 53
49
Hoffman, An Islamic Activist, 236
50
Kotb, 54
51
Ibid., 54

16
 “..Islam looks at life from many sides, and envisages for individuals duties which
differ one from other, but which are all mutually connected and ordered; within
this scheme is envisaged the respective duties of men and women, and it lays on
each of them the charge of fulfilling a duty primarily towards the growth and the
advancement of life as a whole.”52

In his final paragraph, Qutb clarifies his stance on the notion of gender equality. In his opinion,
men and women are not physically, psychologically, or emotional equal, and therefore should
not be treated as such. This does not mean that one is better than the other, or that one is more
important in the eyes of God. Quite the contrary, Qutb argues that these two different halves are
both necessary to create the harmonious society for which God intended on earth. Qutb realizes
that it is difficult for the west to comprehend that two beings considered unequal may be valued
equally, but for this he faults the west for its own ignorance.
This passage by Qutb is one of the most detailed opinions on gender relations by a leader
of the Muslim Brotherhood. Unfortunately, it is only a few pages, and there are a great deal of
points that go unexplained, and an even larger amount of questions which remain unanswered.
To which French laws was Qutb referring as permitting women to be unchaste in public and
private? Who is to decide which pre-Islamic customs are permanent—such as a patriarchal
family—and which are to be overturned—such as female infanticide? This last question is
perhaps the most problematic, for Qutb lists “customs” as one of the exceptional factors that
prevent total gender equality. If it is merely these customs that prevent women from gaining
equality, why is Qutb implying that culture should trump the equality granted by Islam? These
pitfalls of his argument are largely due to his decision to argue for the rights of women in Islam
through the lens of western feminism. Therefore, as will be seen in the second chapter, al-
Ghazali’s alterations to the language of Islamist feminism allow her to successfully avoid the
weaknesses of Qutb’s argument.
Despite these contradictions and vagaries, Qutb presents the reader with a concise and
well organized argument on the question of gender relations in Islam. Although at times he
stumbles over the western feminist issue of gender equality, in the end it is clear that Qutb
believes that while spiritual equality is guaranteed in Islam, total gender equality is neither
possible nor desired. While al-Ghazali will avoid Qutb’s mistake of emphasizing the question of
equality, her argument clearly rests on a number of points developed by Qutb. Like Qutb, she
insists that Islam guarantees the spiritual equality of women, that a woman’s primary role should
be that of mother and wife, and that the western feminist movement devalues and denigrates
women.

Egyptian Sufism

Qasim Amin, Huda Sha’rawi, and Sayyid Qutb are all likely influences of al-Ghazali, and
indeed are critical to the development of her discourse. However, there remains one influence
which may not seem quite as obvious, but which played an irreplaceable role in al-Ghazali’s
understanding of her own spirituality. This final influence was modern Egyptian Sufism, and the
various ideals which al-Ghazali derived from Islamic mysticism. Sufism is a broad and diverse
topic, and the modest objective of the next few pages is not a full examination of the hundreds of
years of Sufi tradition. Rather, this section hopes to target certain characteristics of Sufism and
52
Ibid., 54

17
explore how these particular traits reoccurred in the behavior and works of al-Ghazali. In doing
so, it will become apparent that Sufism was an active influence in her life. This paper will
explore specifically three pieces of evidence which prove the Sufi influence in al-Ghazali’s life:
her emphasis on devotion to a spiritual leader, the construction of herself as a saintly figure, and
her view that she was an exception to both the norms of Islamic tradition and the rules of the
state.
When looking at Egypt during the first half of the twentieth century, one must not
overlook the importance of Sufism in daily life. It is true that the Sufi orders were not the social
force which they once had been, even one hundred years before in the early nineteenth century.
Before the rule of Muhammad Ali (d.1849) Sufi orders had been largely responsible for
providing the religious practices, social structure, and most importantly the education of local
communities.53 Sufis were viewed as authentic religious authorities, whose legitimacy seemed
even higher when compared to the political and spiritually-dead caliphate of the nineteenth
century.54 The reforms of Muhammad Ali succeeded in centralizing rule in Egypt, but cultural
and religious practices remained largely particular to various towns and cities, where they were
influenced by the individual authority of Sufi spiritual leaders. Therefore, while the government
may have replaced Sufism in its responsibilities of education, Sufi leaders remained popular
alternative sources for spiritual guidance in Egypt during the early twentieth century.
This devotion to a spiritual leader often came above all other commitments. As outlined
above, Sufism provides alternative religious authorities, or as the rulers might see it, alternative
allegiances.55 How can there be a united nation when its citizens are Sufis who commit
themselves fully to God and are fully devoted not to their caliph, khedive, or president, but only
to their Sufi master? For this devotion to his or her Sufi master is indeed one of the most
distinctive attributes of Sufism. Insubordination towards one’s master is unthinkable, as one’s
teacher is “thought to be connected by a chain of grace or blessing and sometimes blood-kinship
to a founding Saint.”56
Zainab al-Ghazali exhibited this extreme devotion to her own spiritual guide, Hasan al-
Banna, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood. In her memoir, Return of the Pharaoh, she relates
her decision to finally submit to al-Banna’s wishes that she relinquish full control of the MLA,
allowing it to merge with the Muslim Brotherhood.

“I believed that he (al-Banna) was the Imam that all Muslims must pledge
allegiance to…I felt that al-Banna was stronger than me and franker in
disseminating and announcing the truth.”57

al-Ghazali expounds, describing the note which she sent to al-Banna, in which she further
expressed her obedience to his word alone. Pledging her total servitude to God, she goes on to
swear her belief that al-Banna is the “only person who can do to this Ummah something for the
Call to Allah in a way that pleases him.”58 Her diction reveals complete spiritual subservience to
this man who she considered to be both stronger and closer to God than she. Similarly, al-
53
Richard Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 23.
54
Ibid., 215
55
Ibid., 216
56
Michael Gilsenan, Saint and Sufi in Modern Egypt. (London: Oxford University Press, 1973 ),5.
57
Zainab Al-Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh, trans. Mokrane Guezzou ( Leicester: Islamic Foundation Press, 1994),
26.
58
Ibid.,27

18
Ghazali tells of how before marriage, she forced her second husband to recognize the importance
of her commitment to not only her mission, but also to al-Banna. “I have sworn an oath of fealty
to Hasan al-Banna that I shall die in God’s path…”59 To al-Ghazali, al-Banna was more than a
teacher. He was a conduit between herself and God, the only one who could truly reveal to her
what her mission was to be, and the only person on earth who could exercise any authority over
this bold woman. This unquestionable devotion to al-Banna is the first of three indicators which
demonstrate the influence of Sufism in the life of al-Ghazali.
The second Sufi trait that is revealed by the life and works of al-Ghazali, is the institution
of sainthood. As stated before, the aim of this section is not to define or outline the history of
Sufi sainthood. Let it be sufficient to say that it is a common theme in Sufi traditions that a
master be considered much more than just an exceptionally pious man or woman, but that he or
she may indeed be considered a saint. However, it must be noted that the term “saint” does not
correspond directly to the same term used in Christian traditions. Michael Gilsenan argues that
the whole notion of sainthood is “bound up, not with vague ideas of other-worldly holiness, but
with the capacity for significant action in the world.”60 In his book, Gilsenan notes that
selflessness and even self-neglect are of utmost importance for saints. Remarking on the
leadership behavior of one Sufi master, Gilsenan notes the way in which a master would place
“himself always at the disposal of his followers, without any thought for his own personal
comfort.”61 Equally important, according to Gilsenan, was the asceticism of Sufi saints. Gilsenan
argues that this asceticism was to be praised “both in terms of rigorous practices of devotion
entailing a degree of physical suffering, and as an inward form of spiritual self-discipline”62
This is not to say that the performance of miracles is not of utmost importance in Sufi
sainthood. Valerie Hoffman argues that, in fact, the ability to work miracles is critical to the very
definition of sainthood. “Sainthood in Egypt is primarily a function not of virtue but of power.
The ability to work miracles is a necessary attribute for a saint.”63 While not always the case,
many of the miracles attributed to Sufi saints involve the enduring of great pain, or even the
unlikely survival of fatal scenarios. In her book, Hoffman gives a number of legends of how
Sufi saints remained unscathed after submerging their hands into boiling molasses, or remained
un-poisoned after handling numerous snakes and scorpions.64 Through Gilsenan and Hoffman,
one is able to achieve a general sense of the criteria needed to be considered a Sufi saint in
Egypt: the ability to perform miracles and participation or activism in the local community of
followers.
This conception of sainthood is a major theme in the writings of al-Ghazali, largely in
describing herself. She tells of how she was a spiritual leader for both the women of the MLA
and also for the male youth of the Muslim Brotherhood. Meeting Gilsenan’s requirement that a
saint be dedicated to action and that she be a model for others, her memoir recollects how she
received troubled pupils in her home even in the middle of the night.65 Even after she was
imprisoned, her leadership continued. Sitting in her prison cell, she would hear the screams of
tortured Muslim Brothers. She recalls how she would comfort them with her words, and

59
Cooke, Women Claim, 101
60
Gilsenan, 45
61
Ibid.,15
62
Ibid.,15
63
Valerie Hoffman, Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt (Columbia: University South Carolina Press,
1995), 98.
64
Ibid., 99
65
al-Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh, 39

19
encourage them with her own resoluteness in the face of torture. These events also allowed for
al-Ghazali to meet the second criterion for sainthood: the enduring of great pain and the
escapement of physical harm. In her memoir, she recalls her first interrogation session. After
verbal and physical abuse, the guards set the prison dogs upon her.

“The dogs were unrelenting, digging their teeth into my scalp, my shoulders,
back, chest…I repeatedly invoked my Lord…’Oh Lord!.. Bestow on me Your
Tranquility’…I expected that my clothes would be thoroughly stained with
blood…But, incredulously, there was not a single blood-stain on my clothes…My
God be exalted!”66

Just as previous saints escaped death by snakes, and burns from boiling molasses, al-Ghazali
managed to avoid serious harm from the vicious dogs. The integrity of this story is not important,
as neither is the accuracy of the hundreds of similar stories of the miracles of saints. What is
important is recognizing that al-Ghazali truly believed that through her piety and righteousness,
God prevented any harm from coming to her. Cooke refers to al-Ghazali’s phrasing as “the
language of Sufi saints”, remarking on the parallel themes found in these hagiographies.67 Cooke
goes on to argue that al-Ghazali even viewed this torture “as a means to her goal of salvation”.
Her ability to withstand such pain—either through her own steadfastness or through divine
intervention—gave hope to the other tortured brothers and sisters of the movement.68 Having an
understanding of the Sufi conception of sainthood, it is impossible to read al-Ghazali’s writings
and not recognize the references to these Sufi themes of miracles and selfless leadership.
The final aspect of Sufism which is manifested in the life of al-Ghazali, is the idea of an
exceptional believer. At the heart of Sufism is the idea that the relationship between God and the
believer comes before all else. Likewise, Sufism can be seen as an exercise of individualism, not
a practice of the community. As Hoffman puts it, “Sufis aim to transform the individual through
a combination of divine grace and strenuous personal effort…Their concern is the reform of the
individual, not of society at large.”69 For Sufis, personal spiritual advancement trumps every
social construct, whether it be from the national government, or even from religious authority.
As an example of this belief in being exceptional, Hoffman points to the issue of strict
gender segregation: a generally accepted tenet of Islamic tradition. Hoffman points out that many
Sufis do not abide by this rule, as both male and female Sufis socialize and practice together.
Hoffman explains that many Sufis see themselves as exceptions to the general rules of society,
even religion. For them, she continues, there is no need for such strict morality codes because
they have already surpassed the obstacle of natural temptation that would otherwise require
religious control.

“But having been made free from fleshly attachments, the Sufi can interact with
other people without fear of temptation. For the sake of the weak man, women
should not expose themselves to public view; but for the spiritual man, there is no
temptation.”70

66
Ibid., 51
67
Cooke, Women Claim, 84
68
Ibid., 95
69
Hoffman, Sufism, 363
70
Ibid., 250

20
This is just one example of how Sufis could consider themselves to be exceptionally pious; able
to raise above the common believer. Their spiritual enlightenment thus exempts them from the
social rules meant to control those less-exceptional believers. Hoffman points out that for this
reason, Sufi behavior is often considered strange or unorthodox, but that the community must
simply accept that such behavior reflects not a lack of belief, but rather the supreme spirituality
of the believer.71
al-Ghazali certainly partakes in what could be described as strange or unorthodox
behavior, both in defiance of Islamic traditions and also of the Egyptian government. The latter
is less impressive, as there were many people, both Islamists and not, who resented the brutal
tactics of Nasser’s regime. al-Ghazali’s refusal to cooperate with the laws of the state is less an
indicator of Sufi influence as it is a reflection of the oppression and injustice which occurred
during his rule. However, it is al-Ghazali’s behavior, which seems to disobey certain Islamic
traditions, that really points to her decision to view herself as an exceptional believer.
Primarily, she was a public, outspoken woman who not only dedicated her life to
activism, but who also threatened her husband with divorce if he prevented her from living a life
of public activism. From the surface, one can immediately see certain contradictions between
her own life and the domestic role which she encouraged upon other Muslim women. For al-
Ghazali, her non-compliance with a self-acknowledged norm for Muslim women was, in fact, the
“strange” and “unorthodox” behavior that Hoffman referred to in her analysis of Sufis. It is clear
that from al-Ghazali’s point of view, she had complete faith that her actions were the correct and
pious ones, even if they did not fit in with prescriptions for the majority of the community. While
most Muslim women should abide by the traditional Islamic definition of the role of women, the
piety of al-Ghazali allowed her to rise above and face the struggle, or jihad, which her
community faced.72 This decision to view herself as an exception to the rule appears as a direct
result of the Sufi influence in her life.
al-Ghazali’s ideological syncretism of nationalism, conservatism, feminism, and
spirituality have roots in the history of early twentieth century Egypt. At that time, both
reactionary patriarchs and radical feminists conflated the movements of nationalism and
feminism. Patriarchs, such as Amin, associated improvement of the nation with the “liberation of
women”, whereas westernized feminists like Sha’rawi demanded that the newly granted rights of
nationhood be applied to women as well. As colonialists—and those who espoused colonialist
attitudes—attacked Islam for depriving women of their rights, Qutb sought to argue that women
could find all of their rights in the indigenous source of their religion. Finally, Sufism provided
al-Ghazali with the spiritual independence and confidence which would allow her to submit
herself to God and not to the patriarchal hierarchy which confined the lives of other women. al-
Ghazali’s combination of these various influences would come to create a discourse that was
both reactionary in its methods of employing conservative and spiritual rhetoric, yet
revolutionary in seeking nationalist and feminist goals.

Chapter Two: Textual Tensions: Navigating Islamist Feminism

Whether she was writing in her magazine column, giving a public lecture, or answering
questions at an interview, Zainab al-Ghazali was clear and consistent on three following points

71
Ibid., 242
72
Cooke, Women Claim, 103

21
regarding Muslim women and their role in society. The Muslim woman is fundamental to the
success of Islamic society. She must fulfill her responsibilities in Islamic da’wah. Finally, she
must reject the evils of western imperialism that remain after the collapse of the formal colonial
apparatus. All three of these points are prevalent in her works, and provide the framework for
understanding her message on the behavior, obligations, and societal role expected of Muslim
women.
According to al-Ghazali, the Muslim woman is not a marginalized individual in society.
Rather, she is the fundamental building block of the entire civilization. She should be rightfully
acknowledged and appreciated as the teacher of the nation, the builder of society, and the mother
of the future Muslim generations. Given this incredible responsibility, the Muslim woman must
make sure to be educated, righteous, and religious in order to insure that the foundation she
provides will produce a strong Muslim society.

“Women must be well educated, cultured, knowing the precepts of the Quran and
the Sunna, knowing world politics, why we are backward, why we don’t have
technology. The Muslim woman must study all these things, and then raise her son
in the conviction that he must possess the scientific tools of the age, and at the
same time he must understand Islam, politics, geography, and current
events…Islam does not forbid women to actively participate in public life…as
long as that does not interfere with her first duty as a mother…”73

While al-Ghazali assures the reader that Islam does not forbid the participation of women in
public life, she remains explicit in pronouncing their foremost role to be that of domestic
caretaker.
al-Ghazali glorifies motherhood, purporting it to be not only the natural role for women,
but also crucial to the success of the Islamic Society. An educated woman will produce an
educated populace, just as a corrupted woman will produce corruption. Using al-Ghazali’s logic,
the Muslim woman retains full control over the direction of the community.

“It may take generations for Islam to rule. We are not rushing ahead of ourselves.
On the day that Islam rules, Muslim women will find themselves in their natural
kingdom, educating men.”74

According to al-Ghazali’s theory, the stereotypes that Muslim women are disempowered and
marginalized in society seem erroneous. Quite the contrary: as the educators, builders, and
mothers of society, al-Ghazali envisions women to play a fundamental role in the community.
Building off of her opinion of the role of women in society, al-Ghazali maintains that
Muslim women have an equally crucial part to play in al-da’wah. The Islamist mission will
never be accomplished if Muslim women ignore their duty in the struggle to rectify the corrupted
Islamic nation. al-Ghazali even contends that the duty of da’wah for Muslim women is greater
than that of men.

73
Hoffman, An Islamic Activist, 236-37
74
Al Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh, 134

22
 “The Brotherhood considers women a fundamental part of the Islamic call. They
are the ones who are most active because men have to work. They are the ones
who build the kind of men that we need to fill the ranks of the Islamic call.75

This quote could be interpreted in two ways, both of which would be equally supported by al-
Ghazali’s opinion of the role of Muslim women in society. One could interpret her words as a
call for women to actually participate in the da’wah movement. This would be supported by the
clear evidence of her own life: her experience as a socio-political activist and as a Muslim
woman. The second interpretation would be to recall her belief in the educating nature of
women, an interpretation which would limit a woman’s role in al-da’wah. She would work
behind the scenes, properly raising and educating the men who would then struggle for the
Islamic call. Both are possible, and perhaps they are not mutually exclusive. While the specific
role of women in Islamic da’wah is unclear, it is unequivocal that al-Ghazali demands women to
participate in the struggle.
The final emphasis in al-Ghazali’s work is her absolute denunciation of western
imperialism and its continued social and cultural influence. She is extremely critical of what she
believes to be efforts to weaken, control, and exploit Muslims around the world. Such goals are
met—according to al-Ghazali—through the imperialist falsehoods of capitalism, secularism, and
western feminism. All three are equally reprehensible, and all are bound inextricably to one
another. Capitalist greed has broken the morals and fortitude of any remnants of religion, and has
transformed western women into commodities. Misled by the falsehoods of “equality” and
“liberation”, western women have sold their honor for wages, and have destroyed society with
their negligence of marital and maternal duties. al-Ghazali argues that the west is now attempting
to export their wicked ways to the Islamic nation, leading many Muslim women astray.

“For a few limited pennies we have sold our motherhood and then we ask about
the role of women in society? What kind of a society is this where the home that
forms the seed of the society has been ruined by tearing women between home
and the workplace. 76

al-Ghazali denounces western feminism for plotting to destroy the fabric of Muslim society. The
efforts to “liberate” the Muslim woman are nothing more than concentrated efforts to weaken the
community, and retard the prosperity of the Islamic nation.
al-Ghazali laments those who misinterpret this anti-Muslim conspiracy as the “liberation”
of women. She blames the “backwardness” of Muslims on “the imagining of issues invented by
the enemies of Islam in order to attract the Muslim people’s attention away from the large issue
of returning Islam to its former pride and glory…”77
al-Ghazali’s understanding of western influence—political, economic and social—to be
malicious helps explain her dislike of “westernized” feminism. Despite her criticism, al-Ghazali

75
Hoffman, An Islamic Activist, 236-37
76
Al-Ghazali, “Dawr al-Mar’a fi Bina’ al-Mujtama/The Role of Woman in the Building of Society”, unpublished
paper presented at the Conference of Muslim Women, Lahore, November 1985, 4, cited in Azza Karam. Women,
Islamisms and the State ( New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc, 1998), 210
77
Al-Ghazali, Ayyam min hayati/Days of My Life. (Cairo: Dar Al Shuruq, 1986), 44, cited in Karam, Women,
Islamisms, 209

23
embraces a number of the tenets of feminism. She demands equal value of women in society,
promotes the participation and activism of women in movements of social justice, and clearly
has no objection with women acting as leaders within the community. Therefore, while she may
agree with the spirit of the feminist movement, her distrust of western imperialism—past and
present—forces her to reject the ideology as another pre-packaged product of the west. The spirit
of feminism may arise from within Islam, but there is no possibility of it arriving as an
international import, stamped with a foreign name. While these three points may act as a general
guideline for understanding the message of al-Ghazali, a closer examination of three of her
works will further illustrate her understanding of the role of the Muslim woman in society.

Return of the Pharaoh

In her autobiography, Return of the Pharaoh, al-Ghazali tells her personal accounts of the
days before, and the months within one of Nasser’s military prisons. It is the only known source
that divulges al-Ghazali’s personal story of al-da’wah and persecution. Likewise, it is the only
source which clearly presents—albeit without acknowledging—the apparent paradox found
between her rhetoric and her personal life. In her memoir, al-Ghazali is explicit about her
religious motives, social goals, and high opinion of herself. Whether intending to glorify God, or
herself, the writing portrays al-Ghazali as a devoutly religious woman who gave her all to al-
da’wah. Envisioned as an exemplary figure in her leadership, piety, and courage, al-Ghazali
guarantees herself a sacred place amongst those who fought in the path of God.

A Leader among Men

Her autobiography opens with a car accident; an assassination attempt on al-Ghazali by

Nasser’s secret police. This political incident sets the tone for the entire memoir. As the subject
of an assassination plot, it seems that the Nasser state considered al-Ghazali a threat. This status
as an enemy of the state was not only welcomed by al-Ghazali, but she indeed wore it as badge
of honor. The Muslim Brothers frightened Nasser, for no matter how many brothers were
imprisoned, tortured or executed, leaders like al-Ghazali would continue to call Muslim men,
women and youth to Islamic da’wah against the secular police state. While the assassination
attempt was a failure, it serves as a reminder to al-Ghazali—and to the reader—of the
government’s fear of this formidable woman. While recovering in hospital, an aide warned her
that Nasser not only hated her as a political opponent, but that he couldn’t even bear to hear the
sound of her name.78 Nasser had made it his mission to dissolve her organization and to
politically paralyze this woman whom he so deeply feared. al-Ghazali received this news like a
hardened veteran, welcoming her adversary.

“Praise be to Allah that he fears me and detests me. I too detest him, for Allah.
Nasir’s despotism only serves to increase our persistence to please our
consciences and live for the fulfillment of our mission…”

It is difficult to assess the validity of al-Ghazali’s claim that Nasser considered her a top threat to
his security. In an Islamic resistance movement, there are clear advantages to being perceived as
a fighter of the enemy, and such a reputation would undoubtedly have suited al-Ghazali. Being
78
al-Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh, 7

24
immortalized as driving fear into the hearts of the kafirun79 might be the dream of most Islamist
activists. In summing up her experience as a leader of Islamic da’wah, al-Ghazali considers
herself as responsible for co-leading the movement which stripped Nasser of his power.80 Her
words convey a feeling of confidence that she, accompanied by ‘Abd al-Fattah Isma’il, had
brought the powerful Nasser and his brutish comrades to their knees.
In her memoir, al-Ghazali strives to emphasize her leadership within the da’wah
movement. In addition to pointing out Nasser’s personal hatred of her—which conveys her
centrality within the movement—she mentions her key role in reviving the Muslim Brotherhood
after the imprisonment of its leadership core. She describes how young men and women would
come to her house for religious guidance, and how she would welcome them at all hours of the
night.81 Her intimacy with al-Banna is also an indicator of her status within the movement. She
tells of a time in February, 1949 when she hurriedly was asked to arrange for al-Banna to leave
the country in order to prevent his assassination. While such efforts were too late—al-Banna was
shot and killed immediately following the warning—it can be assumed that the task of saving the
life of the spiritual leader of the Muslim Brotherhood would not be given to anyone but an
individual high in the chain of command.82
al-Ghazali became increasingly involved with projects of the Muslim Brotherhood,
largely focusing on garnering financial and social support for the families of imprisoned or
executed Muslim Brothers. However, her initial charity work began to transform into a full effort
to revive the dissolved and paralyzed organization. Covertly working with ‘Abd al-Fattah
Isma’il, she pledged herself to Islamic da’wah: educating Muslim youth on their duties to God,
alleviating the suffering of the families of the Muslim Brothers, and struggling against the tactics
of the dictatorship.

“…A pledge of allegiance that we will fight in His sake and won’t languor until
we unite the ranks of Ikhwan, and isolate all those who do not want to work for
Him, no matter what their position or weight.” 83

From 1957 until her imprisonment in 1965, al-Ghazali was the third piece of the tripartite rule of
the Muslim Brotherhood, along with ‘Abd al-Fattah Isma’il and Sayyid Qutb.84 Her role as a
leader within the da’wah movement made her a threat against the state, and thus a target for
persecution.
Despite these references within her memoir, it remains difficult to ascertain exactly how
much control al-Ghazali attained within the Islamist movement. However, what is clear is that al-
Ghazali considered herself to be one of the few core members who helped the Ikhwan survive the
years of persecution. Her memoir leaves no question that this woman understood herself to be an
indispensable leader within the faction.

Chosen for Piety

79
Kafirun means literally “Apostates” in Arabic. Nassr and his secular government were often referred to as kafirun.
80
al-Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh, 171
81
Ibid., 39
82
Ibid., 27
83
Ibid., 35
84
Mokrane Guezzou, Return of the Pharaoh, xxiii

25
 In addition to considering herself a leader of the Islamist movement, al-Ghazali’s
memoir emphasizes the extent to which she also viewed herself as a moral guide; a remarkably
pious individual even under extreme duress. Most obvious is her strict adherence to religious
doctrine. Almost every page mentions al-Ghazali praying, praising God, referencing the Prophet,
quoting the Qur’an, or preaching to her followers and tormenters alike.
While indicative of her piety, these Muslim norms are not what strongly enforce the
image of al-Ghazali as a remarkably pious, saint-like figure. The proof comes from her visions of
the Prophet and her prophetic dreams that indicate to the reader that she is no ordinary Muslim,
but rather a chosen exemplar. In the days awaiting her sentencing, a sentence which she
expected to end her life, al-Ghazali had a vision. The Prophet had visited her, and asked her to
climb up a steep mountain. Along the way, she met a number of female companions from the
MLA, and she asked each companion if she would join the journey on the path of God. The
dream affected al-Ghazali profoundly, and she recalled the serenity that transpired afterwards.

“The feeling which now came over me was one of unencumbered peace, rest and
tranquility. This vision had washed away all the pain and driven away all the fear
and sorrow in my heart.”85

That vision had confirmed for al-Ghazali that which she had always known; she walked in the
path of God and his Messenger. A vision of the prophet should not be taken lightly, and al-
Ghazali’s faith—and reputation—are reinforced by this sacred transaction.86
Her second and third dreams were not of Muhammad, but are indeed prophetic visions
themselves. The night of the execution of Sayyid Qutb, al-Ghazali had a vision of her late
colleague. In her dream, Qutb reassures her, saying “Know that I was not with them, I was in
Madinah in the company of the Prophet (peace be upon)’87 Upon awakening, al-Ghazali
proclaimed to her cell mate, Qutb’s sister, Hamdidah, that these visions were “a consolation, a
strengthening from Allah.”88
Shortly after her visions of Qutb, al-Ghazali experienced another set of dreams which
were equally, if not more powerful in convincing her of her own religious prowess. Days after
her sentencing, al-Ghazali dreamt of her husband’s face in the newspaper obituaries. Incredibly,
a few days later, she read of her husband’s actual natural death. al-Ghazali learned that her
husband had been presented the choice of divorcing her, or being sentenced to twenty-five years
hard labor. In her memoir, she makes clear that she understood the necessity of her aging
husband’s decision to divorce his wife rather than face certain death in prison himself. She
emphasizes the fact that despite marital divorce, she and he were still comrades in their
commitment to al-da’wah. Upon learning the date of the divorce, al-Ghazali was shocked to
realize that it had occurred on the same day that she had received another vision of the Prophet.

“I recalled the vision that Allah had favored upon me…I had seen the Prophet
(peace be upon him) wearing white clothes…I was standing with ‘A’ishah (may
Allah be pleased with her)…She was advising me about something when the

85
al-Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh, 154
86
Gilsenan,35
87
al-Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh, 166
88
Ibid., 166

26
 Prophet (peace be upon him) came up to us, and called: ‘Have patience
‘A’ishah… ‘A’ishah was pressing my hand…and asked me to be patient.”89

These visions of the prophet, and prophetic dreams of the future are proof to al-Ghazali—and her
audience—that she was an embodiment of piety and of religious strength. The aforementioned
miracles of escaping dog attacks unscathed and of surviving hours of torture are complimented
by her spiritual fortitude. Her memoirs make clear her belief that God protected her as a reward
for her righteousness.
But it is not only the prophetic visions, and divinely granted immunity which prove al-
Ghazali’s religious fortitude. Instead, her piety is most emphasized through contrast, in
comparing herself to other female prisoners. After her torturous stay at the military prison, she
was transferred to the all-female prison of al-Qanatir. While relieved to be out of the hands of
her tormenters, al-Ghazali remarks that what she viewed in this prison was even more horrific
than the whips and ropes which she had left behind. In the new prison, al-Ghazali was faced with
hundreds of Muslim women who had forgotten, or had sold, their faith and honor.

“Here we were in front of a straying herd lost in the dungeons of Jahiliyya.

Women who claimed to be liberated, were rather slaves to whims and desires.
Their crimes had submerged them entirely and they had forgotten their humanity,
purity, honour [sic] and dignity. Nothing but animals with no meaning to their
lives except eating and intercourse.90

al-Ghazali’s reaction of shock and horror prompted her to ask the guards to re-transfer her, as she
could not bear to remain in the company of such women.91 When the request was refused, she
remained disdainful of any close contact with those “animals.” Unlike al-Ghazali, these women
had been led astray by the temptations of sexuality and the fallacy of feminist liberation. Unlike
al-Ghazali, these women were “blind animals led by blind men on a road which zigzagged
endlessly before them.”92 Who were these blind men, leading astray these corrupted Muslim
women? al-Ghazali labeled the culprits as “Those who want corruption on earth, the people of
atheism and falsehood, of evil and crime”93 This was a direct accusation against the secularists of
Egypt, arguing that it was they who had corrupted women and defiled Islam. But just as al-
Ghazali fought the secularists in their attempt to create a Godless state, so too would she defy
them in their efforts to corrupt her and her Muslim sisters. The female kafirun surrounding her
in prison serve to remind the reader of the religious fortitude of al-Ghazali, and her piety in the
face of Godlessness.

Courageous Women in Corrupt Times

Such notions of the religious and moral superiority of al-Ghazali are omnipresent in her
memoir, usually placed in contrast to the corruption of Nasser and his prison guards. al-Ghazali’s
confidence in her own righteousness encouraged an audacity which contradicts the stereotypes of

89
Ibid., 169
90
Ibid.,175
91
Ibid., 176
92
Ibid., 176
93
Ibid., 176

27
a modest, reserved Muslim woman. In the opening pages, al-Ghazali boasts that the MLA never
acquiesced to the demands of the state, nor in fact did she ever consider the group to be within
state regulation. al-Ghazali argued that the kafir government had no legitimate sovereignty in
Egypt, and therefore was in no position to place demands on the MLA, its members, or any
Egyptian Muslim at all.94 al-Ghazali proudly remembers how the MLA was exceptional
amongst other Egyptian groups in its defiance of the dictatorship. Whereas most people were too
frightened to speak their mind and ostentatiously oppose the state to which they secretly objected
to, the MLA refused to quietly oblige.

“The Muslim Ladies did not stand by as spectators, but spoke frankly about the
events which were going on, seeking Allah’s pleasure, even if in the process it
upset many people.”95
al-Ghazali and her group refused to compromise their morality, even if it cost them dearly. She
relates how even after the military decree to prevent publication of their magazine, not one
member willingly participated in the eventual closing down of headquarters.96
al-Ghazali’s boldness took on new meaning once she was imprisoned for conspiracy
against Nasser. Before, non-compliance resulted in the closure and dissolution of her
organization. Now, refusing the demands of the prison guards translated into floggings,
starvation, and dog attacks. It was in prison where al-Ghazali’s courage was truly tested and
proven to be remarkable. Over and over al-Ghazali was threatened with torture and death if she
did not admit to conspiring to kill Nasser. Consistently, she chose torture over lying to save
herself. Repeatedly she was cajoled to give names of brothers who were involved in the plot, and
persistently she refused, insisting that there was neither plot nor conspirators to divulge. al-
Ghazali did not refrain from criticism or condemnation of her accusers or torturers, even if such
words resulted in further flogging. In one audacious moment, she dryly asked the man claiming
to be the prosecuting attorney if the whips used against her were “from the law-school
curriculum?”97
In her memoir, there is never a moment of despair, nor a hint of a loss of faith. al-Ghazali
remains as steadfast in her recollection of the terrible ordeal as she purports herself to have been
during the experience. In fact, al-Ghazali asserts that it was not she who was afraid of the whips
of her torturers, but it was in fact the torturers who feared her.

“I looked at both men with contempt and disgust. I do not know if they felt the
contempt in my looks or were stupid enough not to notice it…Yes, they seemed
stupid to me, like dirt-stained flies. They thought they were frightening me, but I
felt sure that it was they who were afraid of me.”98

As before, she was confident that she was walking the righteous path. She, not Nasser or his
guards, would triumph in the end. If she were to die in God’s struggle, she knew that she would
be remembered as a courageous martyr, and not as a compromising coward.

94
Ibid., 12
95
Ibid., 14
96
Ibid., 13
97
Ibid., 63
98
Ibid., 77

28
 In one remarkable scene, al-Ghazali’s tormentors sent a soldier to rape her. This
abhorrent form of torture was clearly targeted at al-Ghazali’s honor, an incredibly sacred
possession for Muslim women. al-Ghazali asserts that Nasser had ordered the guards to torture
her more harshly than they would a man.99 Using rape as a form of torture seems to corroborate
such a claim. In telling the story of the attempted rape, al-Ghazali recalls the poor soldier who
was ordered to commit the atrocity. He was reluctant to do the deed, yet unwilling to die for
having disobeyed his orders—the fate of the first young soldier sent to rape al-Ghazali. As the
young man began to move towards her, she was shocked by her own actions of self-defense.

“Before I knew it, my hands were firmly around his neck. ‘Bismillah, Allahu
Akbar’, I shouted, and sank my teeth into the side of his neck. The man slipped
out of my hands, white foam…frothed from his mouth…I was safe. Allah, the
Exalted, had infused in me a strange force. A force sufficient to overcome this
beast.”
Whether or not her courage was divinely inspired, it is clear that these experiences, as well as
other experiences in al-Ghazali’s memoir, are marked by significant bravery in the face of
danger. She refused to buckle where many had collapsed, and her ability to withstand the
pressure of intimidation and torture are emphasized in the text.
al-Ghazali not views herself as a courageous person, but specifically as a courageous
woman. Gender roles and expectations—and disappointments—of male bravery are infused in
the text. Her own ability to withstand torture is thus magnified, as her feminine courage is
juxtaposed by the masculine weakness of those Muslim Brothers who cried for mercy. In
particular, al-Ghazali is disgusted by a male member of the Ikhwan, ‘Ashawari, who was not
strong enough to withstand the torture. He saved his skin by playing along with the witch hunt;
giving names and detailing non-existent plots of sedition. al-Ghazali recalls when she was re-
introduced to her former brother of al-da’wah, how disgusted she felt by his appearance. While
she was decrepit from the starvation and harsh beatings, he was freshly showered, clean shaven,
and wearing silk pajamas.100 Where she, a woman, had stood strong—he had crumbled under
pressure. al-Ghazali bemoaned the cowardice of his actions, but furthermore, she was ashamed
that a Muslim man had lost his honor.101 For when she was reunited with a tattered, yet unbroken
‘Abd al-Fattah, his unfaltering masculinity comforted al-Ghazali:

“The steadfast manhood displayed by ‘Abd al-Fattah gave me a sense of peace.

For it emanated from the iman (faith) in Allah that is in him. I said secretly to
myself: ‘Praise be to Allah, Allah has real men. May You protect them for your
own da’wa. If ‘Ashawari has betrayed us, there are still patient, believing people;
leaders of the way and seekers of the truth.’”102

In regards to courage, her memoirs are modest, yet unequivocal: al-Ghazali was courageous
where others were cowards. Her resolution was strong, and it would not be weakened by
intimidation, torture, rape, or even by the limited expectations of her own sex.

99
Ibid., 84
100
Ibid., 114
101
Ibid., 116
102
Ibid., 116

29
Nawah Bait Muslim: Toward a Muslim Household.

In the late 1970s’s and early 1980’s, al-Ghazali worked as an editor for the Muslim
Brotherhood periodical, al-Da’wah/The Islamic Call. She managed a column of the monthly
magazine entitled, nawah bait muslim/Toward a Muslim Household. The icon of the section is a
drawing of a Muslim family: parents and two children. The mother is veiled, the father is
bearded and wears a head covering, and the two jointly raise a copy of the Qur’an. Next to the
mother is her veiled daughter, and next to the father stands the son. This icon reveals the aim of
the column: to rightly guide the Muslim family in its efforts to live according to word of God.
This drawing also depicts the parents as having equal responsibility in the Islamic education of
their children, as the husband and wife stand on equal ground, and whose arms both raise the
holy book. The content of this column will support the icon’s assertion of the importance of both
sexes in the raising of a Muslim family, but will challenge any assumptions of gender equality
which the reader may have induced from the caricature.

“The Muslim Woman”

In an issue from January, 1981, al-Ghazali wrote an article entitled, “al-Mara al-Muslima/
The Muslim Woman”. While the name seems to target the Muslim woman, the article makes
clear that al-Ghazali believes that the fate of the entire Muslim community is at stake, as the
umma rests on the shoulders of its women. This article is about the bigger picture, about the
battle between the feminist imperialists of the west and the Islamic nationalists who wish to
protect their women as one strategy in defending their own sovereignty. al-Ghazali is appalled at
the number of Muslim women who have confused liberation with equality, and who have
replaced their religion with the false feminist ideology propagated by the west. She confronts the
Muslim women who desire to work outside the home and juggle the responsibilities of parenting
and working. She accuses such women of blindly dragging down society with their negligence.
Referring to the Egyptian feminist movement of Huda Sha’rawi—which encouraged women to
gain independence and equality—al-Ghazali argues that while such women believe themselves
to be in a state of awakening, they are in fact clouded by western deceit. Of the western feminist
movement, al-Ghazali asks if it is achieving greatness, or wrecking havoc.

“Is it for her to raise up her house, her children, and her husband to the peak of
understanding and to a better social standing? Or, is this movement dissolving the
Muslim woman in her imitation of the western woman who is lost and who has
become an object of pleasure, unprotected, and whose home is unguarded, and
whose privacy has been violated!”103

In al-Ghazali’s opinion, the movement that had claimed to improve society and the status of
women, in fact, had produced the opposite effect. The imitation of the west in politics, behavior
and dress had poisoned the umma and condemned Muslims to the same unfortunate lot of
western secular atheists. Feminism, as a western import, is destroying the very fabric of Muslim
society. In one sentence, al-Ghazali addresses what she sees as the heart of the issue: “As a
women regresses, society regresses.”104

103
Zainab al-Ghazali, “al Mara al Muslima/The Muslim Woman”, in al Da’wah, No. 57 ( Jan 1981)
104
Ibid.

30
 al-Ghazali is not satisfied with merely criticizing the westernized feminist movement, but
goes on to offer advice as to how the women of the umma can manage the disastrous effects of
this “foreign” phenomenon. Her solution to the problem is seeped in conservative, nationalist,
feminist and spiritual décor, fitting for a disease she believes to be brought by radical, imperialist
atheists. In order to battle the poisonous effects of westernized feminism, al-Ghazali decrees that
the Muslim community must return to its Islamic roots. Muslim women must model themselves
after the Qur’anic heroines of Hawwa’—wife of Adam, Khadija, ‘Aisha, Fatima, Miriam, the
Queen of Sheeba, and the wife of Pharaoh in the story of Moses.105 These women are all
considered righteous and pious within Islamic traditions, and are therefore models of imitation
for Muslim women today. However, as Barbara Stowasser explores in her book, “Women in the
Qur’an, Traditions, and Interpretation”, these women represent various paradigms for Muslim
women. Did al-Ghazali intend for Muslim women to adopt the strong, aggressive personality of
‘Aisha? Or, would she have preferred for Muslim women to model themselves after Fatima and
Mary, the holy mistresses of motherhood in Islamic tradition. Khadija represents an independent
woman with an entrepreneurial streak, running a caravan business and providing for herself. In
contrast, Hawwa’ is remembered as a compliant companion of Adam, assigned to the domestic
sphere.106With this spectrum of female archetypes to emulate, it is clear that there is not, nor has
there ever been, one “proper” role for the Muslim woman in Islamic traditions. Therefore, al-
Ghazali’s order for Muslim women to return to their Islamic roots does nothing to further define
the proper behavior of a Muslim woman. Instead, it is intended to provide a starting point for an
Islamist discourse that discusses the question of feminism through an indigenous lens.
By returning to Islam, and by casting out the legacy of colonialism—guised as
feminism—the Islamic world would finally have a true revival. But in order to do this, Muslim
women must reject the lies of western capitalism; they must refuse to work outside the home. al-
Ghazali criticizes the supposed benefits of the working woman, and insists that her decision to
work destroys more than her own honor.

“What good comes to a nation in which a woman has to work to feed herself?
That woman is a commodity, and the men suffer from it, and the children suffer
even more.”107

A woman should never choose to work outside the home, opines al-Ghazali, but she should only
do so if the situation necessitates such dire action. With the eloquence of a polished demagogue,
al-Ghazali encourages women to return to their homes, and to their marital and maternal
responsibilities. “Return, my dear, to the home and stay there. Obey your husband and you and
he will be rewarded for your obedience.” To emphasize her point, she recollects an American
television program which had interviewed a thirteen year old boy as to whether or not he
preferred his mother to remain in the home. As is to be expected, the young child agreed with al-
Ghazali, saying that it is “natural” for his mother to stay at home.108
This article is a clear attempt by al-Ghazali to reduce the world to a simple dichotomy
between the west and Islam. While in reality these two terms encompass wildly diverse spaces

105
Ibid.
106
Barbara Stowasser, Women in the Qur’an, Traditions, and Interpretation (New York: Oxford University Press,
1994 ).
107
al-Ghazali, “al-Mara al-Muslima”
108
Ibid.

31
with undefined borders, al-Ghazali seeks to cleanly separate those two “civilizations” in terms of
their treatment of women. Essentially, the west and its feminist sophistry have transformed
women into being more of a commodity than a human being. The woman who worked outside
the home suddenly had a price by which to be bought or sold. In contrast, Islam values and
respects its women. They are exalted as the guardians of the future generation, as educators, and
as mothers. Her dichotomy is harsh, and leaves no room for exceptions. She fails to mention the
existence of Muslims who do not respect women, such as the Saudi government—that she
openly criticized for not having provided adequate education to girls and women.109 She also
fails to mention the large number of women in the United States who do not work, but who
choose or are forced to stay at home. These instances would destroy the clean dichotomy which
al-Ghazali hopes to present. Such examples would demonstrate that there are common issues in
western and in Islamist feminisms, and that they are not so estranged as al-Ghazali would have
them be.
Her efforts to polarize the west and Islam are not unexpected, nor unprecedented. The
tone and context of al-Mara al-Muslima are strikingly similar to Qutb’s Social Justice in Islam
regarding the role of the woman in Islamic Society. Also similar to Qutb is al-Ghazali’s
insistence that returning to Islam will cure the ailments of post-colonial Egyptian society. A total
rejection of the colonial apparatus was needed if there were to be any hope of an Egyptian, and
Islamic revival. And because capitalism, communism, and feminism all came from the west, it
only seemed fitting that they should all be rejected at face value. It did not matter if such
ideologies truly contradicted the tenets of Islam; it was enough that they were a product of the
western empires. For this reason, al-Ghazali’s objection to feminism is mainly with its western
origin, not with any specific anti-Islamic tenets. al-Ghazali does not address which specific
feminist principles contradict Islamic traditions, perhaps an intended negligence that leaves a
crucial question: are feminism and Islam really not so compatible?

“The Muslim Woman and the Liberation of Jerusalem”

al-Ghazali’s article, “al-Mara al-Muslima wa-Tahreer al-Quds/The Muslim Woman and

the Liberation of Jerusalem” was published in her column in the February, 1981 issue of the al-
Da’wah. In recognition of the peculiar title, al-Ghazali began her article by acknowledging the
unapparent relationship that a Muslim woman might have with the “liberation” of Jerusalem.
While it might have seemed strange to the uninformed reader, al-Ghazali insists that the
connection is real and important.

“To the one who is aware and conscientious of his religion, it is understandable
that the grand mission of the liberation of Jerusalem is for the Muslim woman, as
it is for the Muslim man.”110

For many Arab Muslims, the Israeli capture of East Jerusalem was, and continues to be a
devastating loss. In the hands of non-Muslims, Jerusalem has come to represent the pinnacle of
Muslim defeat in world order. Likewise, the image of a re-conquered Jerusalem, back under the

109
al-Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh, 34
110
al-Ghazali, “Al-Mara al Muslima wa Tahreer al Quds,/The Muslim Woman and the Liberation of Jerusalem.” in
al Da’wah, No. 58 (Feb 1981)

32
control of the Muslim community, has become the symbol of hope for an Islamic revival.111
Therefore, this is a subject which would have been quite familiar for the readers of al-Da’wah
magazine. Within the various editions from 1981, many articles and cartoons reflect the Muslim
Brotherhood’s obsession with the re-conquest of Jerusalem. One such cartoon, published as the
cover of the May edition, depicts a bleeding, shackled Dome of the Rock, that is locked in chains
by a star of David. The lock is about to be forcefully struck by an axe, carried by a hidden,
presumably Muslim man. The title of the cartoon commands the reader to “Save the Captured
Mosque.” This cartoon is one of many reminders of the prevalence of the Jerusalem issue in the
psyche of the Muslim Brothers and their followers.
Assuming that her audience was concerned with the “liberation” of Jerusalem, al-Ghazali
argues that this issue should be a concern for not only Muslim men, but also Muslim women.
The issue should be important to all Muslims, irrespective of their nationality, age, or sex. al-
Ghazali asserts that women are just as responsible as men in defending the Islamic nation, and in
fighting in God’s path. This equality is one which is found in religious devotion, and in religious
struggle. Both men and women are essential members of the umma, and therefore they must both
carry the responsibilities that come with such membership.
al-Ghazali points to the fact that Israeli women are active in the efforts of their
community, and that their participation had greatly benefited Israel. If the enemy was fully
utilizing the potential of its population, shouldn’t the Muslim community do the same?

“Oh Muslim youth, the Zionist woman carries weapons and benefits her
government in many different tasks. Isn’t it time that the Muslim Woman dawn
the silken garb of determination and rectifies what has been spoiled by the Zionist
woman?112

Ironically, al-Ghazali seems to be encouraging Muslim women to emulate Zionist women and
their active participation in each woman’s respective struggle. al-Ghazali remains ambiguous as
to the nature of women’s participation and whether it was to be civil or militant. She prefers to
vaguely exhort Muslim women to “be spiritually aware of the Palestinian issue, an issue of the
Muslim nation.”113 The women of the enemy must be met by the women of the righteous if there
is ever to be any hope of victory.
According to al-Ghazali, the “liberation” of Jerusalem and the advancement of the
Islamic nation is a formidable task. It is a mission which all Muslims must undertake, both men
and women. Is this emphasis on the important, equal role of women in the struggle a form of
feminism? After all, al-Ghazali is clearly advocating the full participation of women in jihad as a
prerequisite for success. She continues that women should not remain at the margins of society,
quietly observing the hollow war cries of men. Such inaction and negligence would result only in
failure and loss.

“The thoughts of our men and women are poisoned by the saber-rattling of our
boys and the shyness of our women. In such a state, how will we ever take back
Jerusalem?”114

111
Ira Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies. Second Edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 582.
112
al-Ghazali, “al-Mara al Muslima wa Tahreer al-Quds”
113
Ibid.
114
Ibid.

33
 al-Ghazali appears frustrated with not only the inaction of the Muslim woman, but also
with the spurious masculinity of Muslim men. She attacks them for being nothing more than
young boys—shabab—playing tough, but not producing any real results. This restates a similar
theme found in her previous writing: the importance of masculinity in the Muslim nation. Her
disappointment in the cowardice of ‘Ashawari is remembered by her disappointment in the
pseudo-masculinity of the Muslim shabab. al-Ghazali laments:

“My sons, where are the real men? Real men have a particular power which
others lack. Real men have glory whereas others have loss and humiliation. Real
men have determination, and they have strong women who are able to preserve
their honor, and who provide the bases for building the state.115

Her lament for masculinity compliments her cries for equal participation of women in the
struggle. Men can not fight this battle alone, but neither can women. She has already determined
the importance of the role of women, and she seeks to emphasize that men must not forget their
own role in al-da’wah.
The dual themes of femininity and masculinity are pervasive in this article.
al-Ghazali correlates the loss of Islamic sovereignty with the loss of masculine pride and
feminine honor. al-Ghazali blames Muslims for having lost their power by losing their honor,
and yet clearly she insists that the perpetuating weakness of the Islamic nation prevents Muslim
men and women from restoring that honor. Whoever the enemy is—Israel, the United States, the
Soviet Union—an Islamic loss of political power is met by an equal loss in the honor of both the
men and women of the Muslim community. Therefore, what is at stake is not only the political
and religious gains to be made by the “re-conquest” of Jerusalem, but also the restoration of
masculinity and femininity which such a victory would procure.
Therefore, the title of this article is mildly misleading. Instead of focusing on the role of
the Muslim woman in the “liberation” of Jerusalem, al-Ghazali lectures on the importance of the
re-conquest, and what it would mean for both sexes of the Muslim community. It is her
inclusion of women within this community that distinguishes her article, as she decrees that
Muslims—men and women—should not forget the role which women must play in the struggle.
At every injunction to her audience, or to the Muslim community at large, she chooses to use the
Arabic grammatical construction for both the masculine and feminine plural. Where others may
have left the struggle to the men of the community, al-Ghazali insists that women must not idly
watch as their duties and responsibilities are neglected. For she, not only her men, or her nation,
has much to regain through the “liberation” of Jerusalem.

“Without Muslim men and women, Jerusalem will never return. But with Muslim
men and women, Jerusalem will return and we will be rescued from shame. ...For
is it not time that we return masculinity to our boys, our male youth, and to our
men? Likewise, is it not time that we return humanity and honor to our women?116

al-Ghazali is adamant on the essential role that women have to play in the Islamic struggle, and
on the substantial benefit that they will reap from its success. While focusing on the “liberation”

115
Ibid.
116
Ibid.

34
of Jerusalem, al-Ghazali uses this article to stress the importance of women in Islamic da’wah.
This dual objective is reflected by the title, and enacted by her life.
This chapter reveals al-Ghazali’s true feelings on the nature of the Muslim woman. She is
a powerful member of society, whose prescribed role as a mother and wife ought to empower
her, not oppress her. Furthermore, Islam is the true source of her agency. Within Islam, she may
demand the respects and rights she is entitled to, whether they are that of motherhood and
domesticity, or that of public leadership and Islamic da’wah. While al-Ghazali claims that there
is no need for feminism in Islam, her life and works are a deliberate testament to how the ideals
of feminism can be achieved through Islamist da’wah, according to indigenous means. However,
this feminist interpretation of her work reflects merely one facet of al-Ghazali’s discourse, as a
reader could just as easily withdraw a conservative, nationalist, or spiritual reading of the text.
The following chapter will examine a number of interpretations of al-Ghazali, whose combined
analyses provide a comprehensive understanding of her multi-faceted discourse.

Chapter Three: Interpretations Between Adulations and Condemnations

As the last chapter demonstrated, al-Ghazali was a strong figure who refused to bow
down to oppressive regimes, whether they took the form of secular nationalism, indigenous
patriarchy, or western feminism. She was clearly a mujahida, or, a female fighter.117 A
mujahid—or mujahida—could strive for any goal: justice, equality, or their vision of an Islamic
society. As her writings reveal, Zainab al-Ghazali was indeed a mujahida, struggling for a cause
in which she desperately believed. However, her writing leaves a number of questions regarding
the specifications of her cause. As the following interpretations will demonstrate, her complex
discourse allows the reader to independently determine the true mission of al-Ghazali’s life.
There is no obvious answer, and the variety of following interpretations will prove this
ambiguity and diversity of her discourse.
al-Ghazali’s life and writings expose a woman who could not be defined by a single
cause, or an exclusive ideology. Throughout her writings, one can find the sinews of four
overarching themes: conservatism, nationalism, feminism, and spirituality. While she may not
have explicitly declared her allegiance to each ideal, her actions and words portray a woman who
subscribed to aspects of these four ideologies.
Distinctly conservative, al-Ghazali strove for the return of society to the traditions of
Islam, calling for an end to the radical modernization of the day. Markedly nationalist, she
assailed the remnants of western colonialism and encouraged the solidarity found within the
unity of the Islamic nation. Unequivocally feminist, al-Ghazali bitterly defended the equal rights
of women, insisting upon the importance of her sex in society. Finally, al-Ghazali’s life as a
religious activist and self-recognition as a “soldier of God” confidently point to her subscription
to spirituality, or religion.
These four ideologies are present in the writings of al-Ghazali, and they carry with them
different objectives and their respective implications for the reader. For western feminists, such
pairings as “feminism” and “conservatism” may be at odds. For staunch secularist, the pairings
of “nationalism” and “spirituality” may be equally contradictory. Therefore, instead of enriching

117
Mujahida is the active participle of the Arabic word Jihad, which means “to strive.” Centuries of scholarly debate
within the Muslim community have expanded and contracted the definition to include and exclude various forms of
fighting, but ultimately, the simple verb means to struggle for a cause. For more information, see Michael Bonner.
Jihad in Islamic History. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006)

35
our understanding of al-Ghazali, these four ideologies threaten to confuse the reader. Where
there should be profundity, there are accusations of hypocrisy, or there is a refusal to
acknowledge the presence of all four players. Interpretations on al-Ghazali have been, therefore,
somewhat limited in their understanding of this figure, as they do not fully address the spectrum
of thought within her life and discourse. This chapter will examine a number of these
interpretations in order to create a comprehensive image of al-Ghazali, gained from the
fragmented views of others.
For this examination, it is necessary to consider articles and writings from a linguistically
and geographically diverse set of sources. While this chapter will locate various discourses into
“Feminist Scholarship” and “Arab-Islamic Commentary” it should be duly noted that such an
organization is merely a starting point for analyzing specific discourses. Those interpretations
labeled as “Arab-Islamic” were categorized as such do the language in which they were
published, and the religious emphasis of their writing. Likewise, authors who have
acknowledged themselves to be involved in feminist theory wrote the analyses listed under
“Feminist Scholarship”.118 This is not to say that the two categories are mutually exclusive.
Indeed, two of the three feminist scholars examined in this chapter are from either Arab or
Islamic origins.119 As will be asserted, the categories of “feminist” and “Islamist” are highly
perforated, and specific ideas and ideologies found within each are not confined to one or the
other but rather are shared property between the two.

Arab-Islamic Commentary: Praise for a Warrior

The commentaries for this section came exclusively from Ibn al-Hashami’s book, entitled
Hummum al-Mara al-Muslima wal-da’iya Zaynab al-Ghazali/Concerns of the Muslim Woman
and the dai’ya, Zainab al-Ghazali, which is a published account of an interview with al-Ghazali.
The commentaries are found at the beginning of the book, in an effort to help magnify the
character of al-Ghazali, proving her fame and vast audience. The lack of available Arabic
sources on al-Ghazali proved to be an impediment to a comprehensive analysis of how she is
interpreted by Arab-Muslims within the Middle East, forcing this paper to rely solely on the
following excerpts. It is not to say that the following commentaries are misrepresentative of
popular opinions on al-Ghazali, but rather that they are demonstrative and not conclusive.
While the following sources vary in the extent of their emphases, all of them hail al-
Ghazali as an exceptionally brave woman, and person, who committed herself to al-da’wah
despite the persecution she endured as a result. al-Watan al-Arabi/The Arab Nation, praises the
courage al-Ghazali exhibited during her time in prison where her asceticism and suffering
strengthened her determination to fight in the path of God. This newspaper is not considered a
religious publication, nor is it publicly connected with the Islamist movement. However, the
editors clearly exhibit a respect for this Islamist activist who defied the oppression and
persecution brought by the Egyptian government of Nasser. al-Watan al-Arabi continues in its

118118
For more information on Saba Mahmoud’s involvement in feminist theory, see her homepage at
http://ls.berkeley.edu/dept/anth/mahmood.html For more information on Miriam Cooke, see her homepage at
http://www.duke.edu/web/muslimnets/mcw_bio/ For more information on Azza Karam, see Chapters One and Two
of her book, Women, Islamisms and the State
119
Karam identifies herself as an Egyptian Muslim woman. See Karam, 1998, 33
Mahmoud identifies herself as a Pakistani Muslim woman. See Mahmoud, preface

36
adulation of al-Ghazali by commenting on her perseverance in al-da’wah, even throughout her
later years.

“Now, despite her older age of 73 years, she still travels from place to place,
country to country to give lectures. She also advises young women on the path of
al-da’wah and guide them towards righteousness. Her house is always open,
welcoming all those who seek her advice.”120

al-Watan al-Arabi does not mention al-Ghazali’s discourse of domesticity which has drawn
attention from feminist scholars. In its article on al-Ghazali, this Arabic publication manages to
memorialize al-Ghazali as a mujahida. This article is not interested in debating the complexities
of her personality, the tensions of her arguments, nor the possibilities of feminism found within
her discourse. She is remembered simply as a woman who saw a transgression in society, and
who devoted her life to al-da’wah in order to cure the ailments of her community.
The Islamic magazine, al-Sahwah al-Islamia/The Islamic Awakening, invokes similar
themes in its tribute to al-Ghazali. After recalling the years of deprivation and suffering in
prison, the editor glorifies al-Ghazali for her resilience and dedication to al-da’wah.

“…She came out of those hardships stronger in her faith in God and to the noble
goal which she has dedicated her life. Her life was filled with constant work,
intended for the victory of Islam.”121

She is remembered for her commitment to justice, and by a faith that allowed her to endure the
consequential suffering. This editorial praises her action, yet similar to the commentary in al-
Watan al-Arabi, it does not acknowledge her writings or rhetoric regarding the domesticity of
women.
In the above two articles, al-Ghazali is treated as a fighter for God. In the eyes of these
editors, and perhaps the readers of their magazines, al-Ghazali is best defined as one who fought
for justice, and for al-da’wah. They have boiled down the various dimensions of this multi-
faceted character, and produced a single title in which to encapsulate al-Ghazali: mujahida. From
these articles, the audience would have remained ignorant of the depth of al-Ghazali’s discourse,
and the implications that it has for women and feminist theory.
In a third article, from a separate magazine, al-Ghazali is described in another set of
terms. Instead of using the popular lens of jihad in which to view al-Ghazali, the Islamic
magazine, minar al-Islam/The Pulpit of Islam, praises al-Ghazali on basis of her opinions on the
question of women. In a polemic narrative, the editor describes the sophistry of westernized

120
Unknown author. "Untitled Editorial on Zainab al-Ghazali." al-Watan al-Arabi/The Arab Nation (02/05/1987),
in Ibn al-Hishami (ed.), Hummum al-mara al-muslima wal-da’iya Zaynab al-Ghazali/Concerns of the Muslim
Woman and the da’iya, Zainab al-Ghazali. (Cairo: Dar al-i’tisam, 1990),17

121
Unknown. "Untitled Editorial on Zainab al-Ghazali." al-Sahwah al-Islamia/The Islamic Awakening. no. 157
(12/22/1988), in Ibn al-Hishami (ed.), Hummum al-mara al-muslima wal-da’iya Zaynab al-Ghazali/The Concerns
of the Muslim Woman and the da’iya, Zainab al-Ghazali. (Cairo: Dar al-i’tisam, 1990),18

37
feminist ideology in the Islamic world, and the chaos and social upheaval that it has rendered in
the community.

“Some try—and have long been trying—to describe the (Muslim) woman as a
woman of the “harem”, or that she is a second class citizen, who does not have
any rights outside of concubinage. And now this understanding is beginning to
creep and penetrate into the mindset of society, others are taking on the other
viewpoint, imitating the fashion of the western woman in all her customs, and
ways of life…and the modern woman has begun to scream her demands for
freedom and equality and the right to work and partake in political and social
life.” 122

This critique of the western feminist movement in Egypt is not unlike the critique which al-
Ghazali herself issued towards certain Muslim women who sought to “liberate” themselves. This
shared condemnation of the methods of western feminists in the Islamic context demonstrates
that al-Ghazali was not alone in her discourse. The more voices which cry against western
feminism, the more al-Ghazali becomes a paragon for the application of Islamist feminism, and
the less she can be reduced to a pariah of global feminism.
Indeed, in the eyes of minar al-Islam and its readers, al-Ghazali is the heroine who
rescues Egyptians—men and women—from the destruction that feminists have wrecked.

“…It was necessary that we dissipate these faulted ways of thinking from the
Muslim woman, and our leader who showed us to the paved path amongst the
ragged mountains, was Zainab al-Ghazali.123

Hers was the clear voice of reason and righteousness amidst the uproar of insanity and falsehood.
She is remembered as a savior, and as a leader who came to the need of a troubled nation.
In all three of these articles, al-Ghazali is glorified for her leadership and perseverance in
the face of oppression and social disorder. In none of the found articles from Arab-Islamic
sources is she criticized for perceived inconsistencies or tensions between her life of activism
and her rhetoric of domesticity. This sort of criticism seems to be confined to the camp of
feminist scholarship, whose interpretation will now be discussed.

Feminist Scholarship: Reconciling Differences

For feminist scholars, Zainab al-Ghazali is the monkey wrench in the discussion of
feminist thought in twentieth century Egypt. This is to say that for scholars who analyzed and
loudly applauded the growing stream of western feminist consciousness in Egypt—as
exemplified by Huda Sha’wari and Nawal al-Sa’dawi—al-Ghazali proved to be an exception to
the rule. Where feminist scholars pointed to the increasing number of women unveiling as a sign
of spreading liberation, al-Ghazali staunchly promoted the hijab as a sign of a woman’s modesty
and piety. Where feminist scholars pointed to the mass entry of women into the work force as a

122
Unknown. "Untitled Editorial on Zainab Al-Ghazali." minar Al-Islam/Pulpit of Islam no. 2 (November-
December 1983) in Ibn al-Hishami (ed.), Hummum al-mara al-muslima wal-da’iya Zaynab al-Ghazali/Concerns of
the Muslim Woman and the da’iya, Zainab al-Ghazali. (Cairo: Dar al-i’tisam, 1990), 19
123
Ibid.

38
sign of progress, al-Ghazali encouraged Muslim women to remain at home. One such scholar,
Azza Karam, succinctly described the quandary. “al-Ghazali’s basic tenets regarding the role that
Muslim women should occupy is a secular feminists’ nightmare.”124 While secular feminism
may resent al-Ghazali’s utilization of religion in empowering women, it is necessary to examine
al-Ghazali’s life and works with a lens other than that provided by western feminist history. Was
she not a powerful woman who rose to leadership in a conservative male hierarchy? Did she not
dedicate herself to society, shirking traditional roles of obedient wife and mother? Did she not
argue vehemently for the participation of women in society and for the full recognition of their
equal rights and liberties? These distinctly feminist aims complicate the belief that she was
against the spirit of the feminism, a reputation that she herself promulgated. For feminist
scholars, al-Ghazali presented an unexplainable yet undeniable compilation of conservative,
nationalist, feminist, and spiritual ideologies.
When examining the research and analysis which feminist scholars have attempted, there
appears to be two main strategies in reconciling the seemingly irreconcilable ideologies which
al-Ghazali promoted. The first, and easiest conclusion for many scholars to draw is that of
hypocrisy. al-Ghazali lived a life which seemed contrary to the one which she preached, and this
can only be described as hypocritical. The second conclusion which scholars draw is that al-
Ghazali operated by way of ulterior motives. al-Ghazali lived in a conservative community, and
the only way she could continue to live as a forceful, independent woman was if she couched her
argument in traditional, patriarchic language. These two methods are often interwoven, as
individual scholars admit their own perplexity suffered from studying the life and works of al-
Ghazali.
Miriam Cooke is a prominent scholar of women in Islam, and her work “Women Claim
Islam” is a collection of essays on various Muslim women and the diverse issues of their worlds.
Cooke devotes a chapter of her book to al-Ghazali, entitled “A Muslim Sister”. The chapter, and
the star character, are seen by the author as anomalies to the other stories of Muslim women who
struggle against the conservative patriarchs of their communities. al-Ghazali is seen as an
exception to the rule, and her life and work are viewed as a conundrum which must be explained.
Cooke does not intend to criticize al-Ghazali, but it is clear that Cooke considers the behavior of
this paradoxical da’iya to be in desperate need of explanation. As Cooke notes in an essay on al-
Ghazali, “She uses the rhetoric of domesticity while subverting its meaning through her
behavior.”125 This statement was taken out of context, and does not fully represent Cooke’s final
argument. However, it does display the initial difficulty which she and other feminist scholars
find when analyzing al-Ghazali. For when there is such a disjuncture between what we read of
her life, and what we read of her opinions, hypocrisy seems to be the only viable explanation.
Cooke continues to point out the incongruity of her life and words.

“She may claim in interviews and write in Islamic journals that women should
restrict themselves to the home, but in her life, and significantly in writing her
life, she marginalizes domesticity and glorifies political activism.”126

While Cooke convincingly establishes the disjuncture between al-Ghazali’s action and words,
she proposes that such a gap was a deliberate effort on al-Ghazali’s part. According to Cooke,

124
Karam, (1998), 209
125
Cooke, Women Claim, 103
126
Ibid.,103

39
the purposed separation allowed al-Ghazali “to assert autonomy and equality within the highly
patriarchal system of a fundamentalist Islam while holding on to her Islamic credentials.”127 On
one hand, if al-Ghazali had practiced what she preached—domesticity and obedience to male
dominance—she would never have risen to the upper echelons of the Islamist movement, and
would never have gained the podium needed to fulfill her mission. Likewise, had al-Ghazali
preached what she practiced—had promoted marital independence and encouraged women to
dedicate themselves to a cause other than the family—she undoubtedly would have been
considered a threat by the male authorities in the religious movement. Therefore, Cooke asserts,
al-Ghazali pragmatically chose a rhetoric of domesticity which allowed her to live a life of
public activism.
This argument depends on the hope that al-Ghazali’s actions speak louder than her words,
or are meant to be taken as evidence of her true belief. Cooke’s analysis walks a thin line
between objectivity and persuasion. While she intended to exculpate al-Ghazali from
accusations of hypocrisy, Cooke perhaps does not approach the investigation without another
agenda. Cooke’s analysis points to her own hope—as a feminist scholar—that al-Ghazali was
herself a feminist, and that she only couched her rhetoric in conservatism in order to be
welcomed in the religious community. Cooke suggests that perhaps al-Ghazali did not actually
support her emphatic statements on the domestic role of women, but only used them to retain her
leadership and power. Clearly hinting at the political aims of al-Ghazali’s domestic rhetoric,
Cooke jests at the pacifying effect which such words would have on the male Muslim populace.

“Islam welcomes women into public space (al-Ghazali would suggest) but only
after they have been good wives and mothers in private space. The nervous man
who may have balked at the implication that women might be trespassing on his
turf is reassured.”128

Cooke’s argument is entirely plausible, and her effort to understand the nature of the paradox of
al-Ghazali is laudable. However, the mere attempt to discover the unmentioned cause behind al-
Ghazali’s actions risks re-writing history and also threatens to impose western feminism where it
perhaps was not intended. Cooke seems to be suggesting that al-Ghazali must have had ulterior
feminist motives, because if she did not, how can we understand her life of political activism?
This is not the first time in which Cooke has been accused of attempting to derive western
friendly ideals out Arab-Islamic works. In a critique written on Cooke’s “Opening the Gates”129,
Zjaleh Hajibashi criticizes Cooke for what she describes as “well-intentioned ventriloquism
which makes it seem that Middle Eastern women speak to western discursive concerns.”130
While written in response to a different writing, Hajibashi’s concern of imposing western
discourses onto non-western characters is also relevant to Cooke’s interpretation of al-Ghazali.
Like Cooke, other scholars have argued that despite their repulsion to the word
“feminism” many female Islamists have embraced the spirit of the movement. One such scholar
is Azza Karam, who has studied women’s participation in Egyptian Islamist movements. In her
research, Karam addresses the problem of applying the description of “feminist” to female
activists who may reject the term.

127
Miriam Cooke, "Saint or Subversive?" Die Welt des Islams 34, no. No.1 (April 1994).
128
Cooke, Women Claim, 91
129
Miriam Cooke and Margot Badran, (eds.), Opening the Gates (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2004).
130
Zjaleh Hajibashi, "Feminism or Ventriloquism," Middle East Report (Sept-Oct 1991).

40
 “Apparently, the women’s rights terminology is problematic, even where the
actual efforts are not. Whereas the term feminism is refused widely, some of its
meanings and agendas are, nevertheless, adapted by different actors within
different historical and cultural contexts. The rejection of the term feminism does
not mean the absence of a feminist consciousness and agenda.”131

Having interviewed a number of female members of the Muslim Brotherhood, Karam concludes
that while women such as al-Ghazali reject being called feminist, many tenets of feminism are
trans-cultural and are not imposed onto, but rather arise organically out of a number of different
cultures and communities which ostensibly reject the term.
Therefore, it is still erroneous to assume that al-Ghazali’s rhetoric of domesticity was
only a front to gain political power. However, the fear of imposing “Western discursive
concerns” should not prevent scholars from recognizing clear commonalities between the
western feminist movement and its counterpart in the Islamist community.
In the previous quote, Azza Karam appears understanding and flexible as to the
definitions and application of feminist theory in the non-western world. However, she is not so
gracious in her own independent analysis of Zainab al-Ghazali. Like Cooke, she recognizes the
apparent disjuncture, or paradox, between al-Ghazali’s life and her message. However, unlike
Cooke, she does not attempt to reconcile this contradiction by supplanting a hidden feminist
agenda. Nor does she attempt to give any plausible explanation for al-Ghazali’s paradox. Rather,
she simply condemns the disjuncture as hypocrisy and as proof of the illegitimacy of al-
Ghazali’s argument.
Karam’s work, Women, Islamism and the State, devotes a chapter to al-Ghazali as well as
to other Islamists who have devoted a great deal of attention to the role of women in an Islamic
society. Karam spends most of the chapter going through various excerpts from the rhetoric of
al-Ghazali, choosing passages that emphasize domesticity of women, their role as mothers and
wives, and that they are ultimately restricted to the home. After attempting to determine al-
Ghazali’s position in regards to her publications and speeches, Karam begins to contrast the
actual life and actions of al-Ghazali to the rhetoric that she produced. She gives scathing
criticism for the hypocrisy of al-Ghazali, charging that she preached private, domestic lives for
women while she herself lived as a public leader. Karam accuses her of pushing the priority of
motherhood and marriage while she herself divorced her husband for interfering with her
activism.

“Yet she openly admits she was the one who asked her first husband for divorce,
and she stipulated to her second husband that he was not to interfere in her
Islamist activism. In view of this, it becomes increasingly obvious that al-Ghazali
seems to apply double standards: one for herself and the other for other Muslim
women. Her own essentially public role and her private life contradict what she
preaches.”132

It is impossible to ignore these apparent discrepancies between the life and the words of al-
Ghazali. Yet, Karam does not seem interested in learning the reason for the disjuncture, but

131
Azza Karam, "Women, Islamisms, and State," in Muslim Women and the Politics of Participation, ed. Mahnaz
Afkhami and Erika Friedl (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1997), 19.
132
Karam (1998) 213

41
rather is eager to use them as a tool to debunk al-Ghazali’s legitimacy. Where Cooke dances
between objectivity and persuasion, Karam seems to border the line between subjectivity and
ethnocentrism.
Karam claims that the “irony lies not so much in what al-Ghazali preaches, but in her
own lifestyle.”133 It is clear that Karam attacks her for more than merely the supposed
discrepancies. In earlier chapters, Karam commendably admits to her own former prejudices
towards Islamist women, having believed them to be pawns in a system which will ultimately
oppress them.134 Karam also admits that she was greatly humbled by her conversations with a
number of these Islamist women, who to her own surprise, revealed themselves to be powerful,
articulate, thoughtful activists. Karam’s confession to her own prejudices is impressive, and
important in her own scholarship. However, in her discussion of al-Ghazali it seems that she has
not yet removed all prejudices towards Islamist women. In her discussion of al-Ghazali’s
opinions on the proper upbringing of young girls, Karam attacks her for applying double
standards.

“On one hand, the girl has a duty to be religiously active, but on the other hand,
she must also be obedient. Yet it can also be seen as an inculcation of the values
of listening to and obeying one’s elders. What is most interesting is that while al-
Ghazali stresses time and again that there is no separate issue for men and
women, she nevertheless addresses the above specifically for girls. I have yet to
find a similar message dedicated to boys.”135

It is true that al-Ghazali focused most of her energy towards the subject of Muslim women, and it
is also true that al-Ghazali did not believe that the subject of women could be separated from the
subject of the entire Muslim community—one of the bases for her dislike of western feminism.
What is questionable about Karam’s study of al-Ghazali is not the individual facts which she
discusses, but rather the overall picture which she concludes. After reading Karam’s chapter on
al-Ghazali, one is left with an image of the da’iya as a hypocritical, regressive impediment to the
women’s movement within Islamic societies. This conclusion is produced by Karam’s insertion
of various factoids, coupled by her own prejudices, and completed by an overall failure to place
al-Ghazali in the correct context. As Saba Mahmoud argues, “her (al-Ghazali’s ) argument
should be analyzed in terms of the particular field of arguments it has made available to Muslim
women and the possibilities for action these arguments have opened and foreclosed for them.”136
Mahmoud understands what Karam does not: that given the context in which al-Ghazali thrived,
her life and actions were not hypocritical, nor did they produce a paradox.
Mahmoud’s ability to critique al-Ghazali within the proper context is not surprising, as it
follows the premise of her book Politics of Piety. This book is unique in its efforts to understand
the women of Islamist movements—particularly those women involved in the mosque
movement in Cairo—and also to question secular-liberal criticism of these women and
movements. While Mahmoud does not devote much time to the individual figure of al-Ghazali,
she astutely addresses her life as a da’iya and also the debate which surrounds this controversial
figure in feminist scholarship.

133
Ibid.,213
134
Ibid., 133
135
Ibid.,210
136
Mahmoud,183

42
 al-Ghazali first appears in Mahmoud’s book in a section entitled “Women and Da’wa”, as
“she is believed to have been the first prominent female da’iya in Egypt, and her trajectory as a
da’iya exemplifies key developments in the history of women’s da’wa since the 1940s.”137 In
Mahmoud’s opinion, al-Ghazali represents the “intertwined role that secular and religious
institutions have played in the articulation of women’s da’wa.” Her religious upbringing
provided her with the necessary credentials to become a spiritual leader, Mahmoud asserts, while
her disposition towards women’s activism developed out of an exposure to liberal discourse and
the early Egyptian nationalism that encouraged the public participation of women.

“This influence is evident in al-Ghazali’s position that Muslim women should play
an active role in public, intellectual, and political life (such as running for public
office or holding the position of a judge), with the important caveat that these
responsibilities should not interfere with what she considers to be women’s
divinely ordained obligation to their immediate kin.”138

For Mahmoud, al-Ghazali deserves to be memorialized for more than merely the
controversy that her life and message stirred within feminist scholarship. She should primarily be
remembered for her contribution to al-dawah, particularly for the advancements which she
instigated in regards to the role of women in public religious discussion. al-Ghazali’s ascension
to a high profile da’iya and reputable religious leader was no small accomplishment, given the
limited number of women da’iyat today and during her time. Mahmoud also accredits al-Ghazali
with being among the few contemporary women who have written published commentaries on
the Qur’an and hadith.139 Her legacy remains today in the Egyptian contemporary women’s
da’wah movement—the subject of Mahmoud’s study—and in the style and approach of modern
da’iyat. This is true in regards to both doctrinal issues—such as the agreed prohibition of women
imams and women’s delivery of the Friday sermon—and also in regards to how da’iyat approach
the subject of women’s equality.

“Similarly, like al-Ghazali, the da’iyat seldom employ the rhetoric of women’s
equality: while they do invoke the language of rights to justify their access to
sacred knowledge, the female bearer of these rights is not regarded as being on
equal footing with her male counterpart.”140

Clearly al-Ghazali remains an influence in the Islamist movement of Egypt today, both in terms
of her doctrinal positions and in terms of interpreting gender equality. This legacy, which
Mahmoud reveals, increases the importance of understanding al-Ghazali’s discourse as a product
of a common reality for Muslim women, and not as a trivial anomaly or a puzzling hypocrisy.
As previously mentioned, Mahmoud’s critique of al-Ghazali greatly contributes to a
better understanding of this woman, and unravels the paradox which has stumped many scholars.
Breaching the subject, Mahmoud emphasizes the necessity of understanding what she calls the
“doctrinal presuppositions at the core of Zaynab al-Ghazali’s argument.”141 For Mahmoud, there

137
Ibid., 67
138
Ibid., 70
139
Ibid., 68
140
Ibid., 71
141
Ibid., 182

43
are two presuppositions which, if understood, fully explain al-Ghazali’s actions and also
exculpate her of any charges of hypocrisy. The first presupposition is based on the popular
Islamic judicial understanding of a woman’s responsibilities.

“…the position within Islamic jurisprudence…that a woman’s foremost duty is to

her parents before marriage, and to her husband and offspring after marriage, and
that this responsibility is second only to her responsibility toward God.”142

As a woman’s utmost responsibility is to God, if she finds that her husband inhibits or
compromises her spiritual relationship, she must ultimately disobey her husband in order to
fulfill her higher obligation. As Mahmoud argues, “it is within this space that al-Ghazali
formulates her dissent against her husband.”143 As is admitted by al-Ghazali, and widely pointed
out by her scholars, she divorced her first husband for his efforts in preventing her participation
in Islamic da’wah, and forced her second husband to sign an agreement to forever respect her
primary commitment as an activist. It is this aspect of her life that is used as fodder for attacking
her as a hypocrite. However, with her intellectual strategy, Mahmoud has confounded the
arguments of those who attack al-Ghazali for encouraging marital obedience while she herself
was rebellious. For al-Ghazali did not disobey her husband for the sake of money, independence,
or any other cause but that of Islamic da’wah. Mahmoud argues that most critics of al-Ghazali
fail to notice that there is only one excuse for women to not tend to familial duties.

“al-Ghazali does not argue that the pursuit of any kind of work in a woman’s life
permits her to excuse herself from familial duties: only her work “in the path of
God” allows her to do so, and only those situations where her kinship
responsibilities interfere with her commitment to serving God.”144

According to this argument, al-Ghazali committed no act of hypocrisy, nor was there any
disjuncture between her own marital behavior and that which she recommended to other women.
The presupposition that a woman’s utmost loyalty is to God is reflected in current female
members of the Muslim Brotherhood. al-Ghazali’s voice is apparent in the words of one female
member as she expounds on the differences between a woman’s relationship with her husband,
and with God. “No man has the right to deprive a woman from her Islamic mission.
Submissiveness is only to God and not to any human being.”145 This member of the Ikhwan
reinforces her argument—and her connection to the spirit of al-Ghazali—by insisting that it is
actually a woman’s right to divorce a husband who prevents her from her right to participation in
al-da’wah.
In addition to exculpating al-Ghazali on basis of her devotion to God—which allowed her
activism to supercede any marital duties—Mahmoud also points out another presupposition
which allowed al-Ghazali to work publicly, free of guilt. In accepted Islamic jurisprudence,
Mahmoud explains, there is recognition of the differences between the corresponding material
and spiritual responsibilities between men and women regarding the family.

142
Ibid., 182
143
Ibid.,182
144
Ibid.,182
145
Duval, 62

44
 “In this moral universe, while women are responsible for the physical well-being
of both their husbands and children in the eyes of God, they are accountable only
for their own and their children’s moral conduct—not that of their husbands.”146

Free of children, al-Ghazali was therefore also freed of any obligations to remain in the home,
in order to instill children with morality and virtue. This understanding of the limits of a Muslim
woman’s domestic duties is crucial in unraveling the tension between al-Ghazali’s rhetoric and
her own behavior. As Mahmoud argues, it is impossible to analyze, let alone judge, the lifestyle
of Zainab al-Ghazali without approaching the issue on basis of the precepts and terms that she
lived.
In her book, Mahmoud’s seeks to analyze female Islamist activists—including Zainab al-
Ghazali—through understanding the social structures and doctrinal regulations that defined their
world. This manner of scholarship is necessary to prevent both the mistake of “feminist
ventriloquism” as exhibited by Miriam Cooke, and that of contextual insensitivity, as exhibited
by Azza Karam. Rather than searching for ulterior streaks of western feminist discourse, or
condemning what seem to be either hypocritical or misogynist arguments, scholars of al-Ghazali
should take a cue from Saba Mahmoud. Her scholarship achieves both a better understanding of
the motivations and means of al-Ghazali, and also serves to be a model for further research
within the study of women’s religiosity and activism.
From Mahmoud to minar al-Islam, Zainab al-Ghazali has been memorialized in both the
world of feminist scholarship and in the memory of the Arabic-Islamic community. While those
who remember her may disagree on how to interpret al-Ghazali’s message and mission, the
diversity of those opinions reflect a truth about the nature of her discourse. It would be incorrect
to isolate each opinion—producing an understanding of al-Ghazali as purely conservative or
purely feminist. In fragments, each ideal does not encapsulate the ideological syncretism of al-
Ghazali. If we follow Mahmoud’s method of framing al-Ghazali within the context that she
lived, we may understand that she is not defined by the narrow confines of a single ideology.
Rather, the writings of Zainab al-Ghazali reflect a woman who was guided by the ideological
syncretism of conservatism, nationalism, feminism, and spirituality. Perhaps this understanding
of the controversial woman is one upon which all her supporters and critics may be able agree.

Afterword: Woman to Woman

“What do you think of me, of my outfit?” I had just finished interviewing a female
member of the Islamist student group at Birzeit University in the West Bank, and apparently it
was my turn to answer a few questions. Ghada sat in front of me, wearing a floor length mauve
jacket, matched with a light pink hijab. I looked at my own clothing, noted my modest yet
outdated style and simple, un-matched colors, and wondered to myself what sort of image of the
American woman I was representing. So much for the ravishing, barely-clad bomb-shell; I was
more the awkward, frumpy, American college student. “I think that it is a beautiful outfit, I wish
I could coordinate my colors like you!!” It was not that I was purposefully avoiding the root of
her question; rather, I wanted to hear what she thought I might say. I wanted to hear from her
own lips the stereotypes of Muslim women that she suspected were imbedded in the thoughts of
my “western” mind. Ghada laughed, but responded persistently. “Well thank you, but, what I
mean is, do you think that I am oppressed because I wear the hijab?” Her friendly, yet serious
146
Ibid., 182

45
face revealed that she had judged me to not hold such misconceptions, but that she still wanted to
voice her frustrations with the stereotypes of her identity.
The veil was not the subject of this paper, but for many Islamist women, the veil is the
victim of as much misunderstanding as they are. For Ghada, the veil is not a symbol of
oppression or of a marginalized status of women. Rather, the veil is her vehicle to empowerment,
granting her mobility and a means for participation in the public sector. From my discussions
with Ghada I learned that she wanted to speak out against the perception of a misogynist Islam,
as for her, religion is unequivocally a source of agency for women. To emphasize her point,
Ghada gave an example of how being an Islamist activist has not only allowed her access to
public space, but has also forced her to confront the cultural impediments which generally inhibit
Palestinian women. She explained to me how she is active in student government and that often
she is required to stay up late in order to work on various campaigns or projects.

“I would come home late at night, because I was so committed to the campaign.
My neighbors would begin to whisper and gossip about me, insinuating that
perhaps I was up-to-no-good. But I was working for the Islamist party, for Islam
and for da’wah! If those neighbors knew more about Islam, then they would know
that it is my right to stay out late out night, if it contributes to God’s work.”

What would Zainab al-Ghazali have said to Ghada? Undoubtedly, she would have
encouraged her to continue with her da’wah commitments, regardless of whatever traditional
gender roles Ghada may have been challenging. For it is here in the Arab-Islamic world of today,
where Islamist movements are gaining popularity, that we will find the legacies of al-Ghazali.
Within Islamist circles, there are young, educated, articulate women who discover that they are
empowered by Islam. Despite the stereotypes that the hijab—and the women who don it—are an
impediment to feminism, here we find Islamist women who demand the personal agency that
they are entitled to. These women actively seek empowerment, and find it within modes of
spiritualized self-expression. Essentially, here we find feminism: Islamist feminism. Women like
al-Ghazali and Ghada are finding ways to defeat the patriarchies which define their lives.
Essentially, they are finding culturally specific methods to improve their status as women. Is not
such behavior feminist at its roots? It is true that their means and methods are Islamic, but why
should this prevent them the honor of participation in the struggle for women’s rights and
respect? It is one thing if they themselves wish to reject the title of “feminists”, but whose right
is it to deny them the recognition of their feminist project and participation in the international
movement?
Islamist feminists—like Zainab al-Ghazali and Ghada—are faced with two formidable
enemies. The first is the Arab-Islamic patriarchic culture, which seeks to maintain male-
dominance of the public and political sphere. The second is western/westernized feminism,
which attempts to retain a monopoly over the means and methods with which women around the
world seek empowerment. The animosity of the first is expected, as twentieth century histories
have proven the recalcitrance and resistance of various patriarchies to feminist movements. In
contrast, the estrangement and antagonism between western and Islamist feminism is shameful,
as it results only in cultural polarization and mutual loss of a potential ally.
When Ghada inquired about my opinions of the veil, she was testing the waters of my
presuppositions, but she was also extending a hand of friendship. Why was she so eager to ask
me about my thoughts on the hijab? Through my research on al-Ghazali and the Islamist

46
feminism that she espoused, I now clearly understand Ghada’s persistence: it is time for change.
Muslim women can no longer be thought of as the oppressed victims of a misogynist society,
just as American women should not be generalized as promiscuous, corrupted victims of an
equally misogynist society. Ghada seemed prepared to accept me free of the misconceptions that
she had undoubtedly heard about my society. It only seemed fair that I should leave behind my
own stereotypes, reach out, and take her extended hand.

47