frugivore

Frugivores often track ripe fruit abundance closely across local areas despite the ephemeral and typically patchy distributions of this resource. We use spatial auto-and cross-correlation analyses to quantify spatial patterns of fruit abundance and avian frugivory across a 4-month period within a forested 4.05-ha study grid in Puerto Rico. Analyses focused on two tanager species, Spindalis portoricensis and Nesospingus speculiferus, and their principal food plants. Three broad questions are addressed: (1) at what spatial scales is fruit abundance and frugivory patchy; (2) at what spatial scales do frugivores respond to fruit abundance; and (3) to what extent do spatial patterns of frugivory overlap between bird species? Fruit patch size, species composition, and heterogeneity was variable among months, despite fruit patch locations remaining relatively consistent between months. Positive correlations between frugivory and fruit abundance suggested tanagers successfully tracked fruit abundance. Frugivory was, however, more localized than fruit abundance. Scales of spatial overlap in frugivory and monthly variation in the foraging locations of the two tanager species suggested that interspecific facilitation may have been important in determining bird foraging locations. In particular, S. portoricensis, a specialist frugivore, may have relied on the loud calls of the gregarious generalist, N. speculiferus, to find new foraging areas. Such a mechanism could help explain the formation of mixed species feeding flocks and highlights the potential importance of facilitation between species that share resources.

The present study uses differences among frugivore faunas of the southern hemisphere landmasses to test whether frugivore characteristics have influenced the evolution of fruit traits. Strong floristic similarities exist among southern landmasses; for example, 75% of New Zealand vascular plant genera also have species in Australia. However, plants in Australia and South America have evolved in the presence of a range of mammalian frugivores, whereas those in New Zealand, New Caledonia and the Pacific Islands have not. In addition, the avian frugivores in New Zealand and New Caledonia are generally smaller than those of Australia. If frugivore characteristics have influenced the evolution of fruit traits, predictable differences should exist between southern hemisphere fruits, particularly fruit size and shape. Fruit dimensions were measured for 77 New Zealand species and 31 Australian species in trans-Tasman genera. New Zealand fruits became significantly more ellipsoid in shape with increasing size. This is consistent with frugivore gape size imposing a selective pressure on fruit ingestability. This result is not a product of phylogenetic correlates, as fruit length and width scaled isometrically for Australian species in genera shared with New Zealand. Within-genus contrasts between New Zealand and Australian species in 20 trans-Tasman genera showed that New Zealand species have significantly smaller fruits than their Australian counterparts. Withingenus contrasts between New Zealand and South American species in nine genera gave the same result; New Zealand species had significantly smaller fruits than their South American counterparts. No difference was found in fruit size or shape between New Zealand and New Caledonia congeneric species from 12 genera. These results are consistent with the broad characteristics of the frugivore assemblage influencing the evolution of fruit size and shape in related species. The smaller-sized New Zealand frugivore assemblage has apparently influenced the evolution of fruit size of colonizing taxa sometimes within a relatively short evolutionary timeframe.

Les caractères des fruits consommés par les grands oiseaux frugivores syntopiques en forêt guyanaise française. -Les caractéristiques des plantes sur lesquelles les quatre grandes espèces frugivores aviennes de Guyane française (Tinamus major, Tinamidae ; Psophia crepitans, Psophiidae ; Crax alector et Penelope marail, Cracidae) basent leur régime alimentaire ont été analysées. Les caractéristiques de 102 espèces végétales et de leurs fruits ont été comparées afi n de détecter d'éventuels syndromes propres à chaque espèce avienne. Des analyses multifactorielles ont été conduites tant à partir du nombre d'espèces végétales que de la quantité de fruits de chaque espèce végétale consommée par chaque espèce avienne. Certains caractères des fruits sont associés à une espèce d'oiseau particulière et plus particulièrement selon qu'il s'agit d'un disséminateur ou d'un destructeur des graines. Une possible distinction transparaît entre les consommateurs selon qu'ils sont arboricoles ou terrestres. Ces associations entre frugivores et traits des fruits et des plantes qui les produisent sont discutées en termes de valeur pour la dissémination des plantes et de probabilité d'attraction de disperseurs par opposition à la défense contre les prédateurs de graines. Les interactions entre les plantes et les consommateurs relèvent du mutualisme (bénéfi ces tant pour la plante que pour l'oiseau) dans le cas de Penelope et de Psophia mais pas dans celui de Crax et de Tinamus, bien que Crax puisse disséminer certaines plantes dont les graines, très petites, transitent sans altération dans son tube digestif. Cette étude souligne une fois encore le besoin d'études plus larges à l'échelle des peuplements des interaction plantes-animaux.

Neotropical leaf-nosed bats (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae) may be regarded as keystone-species in forests (Marinho-Filho and Sazima, 1998), because of their roles as seed dispersers and pollinators of many plants (Kunz, 1982; Fleming, 1988; Charles-Dominique, 1991; Nowak, 1994). Consequently they are important to the processes of ecological succession and forest regeneration (Fenton et al., 1992; Whittaker and Jones, 1994; Estrada and Coates-Estrada, 2001). Among the Phyllostomidae, bats of the subfamily Carolliinae (genera Carollia and Rhinophylla-Wetterer et al., 2000) interact with plants mainly by fruit consumption (Heithaus, 1982; Fleming, 1988). These bats forage mainly at ground level in the understory (Bernard, 2001), focusing on shrubs and small trees, therefore being members of the guild 'highly cluttered space gleaning frugivores' (Kalko, 1998).

The study was conducted to understand the role of Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn in enhancing the avifaunal diversity in Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuschel dominated grassland patches and to realize the influence of adjacent vegetations on the assemblage of birds that feed on the fruit of this tree. An avifaunal survey was conducted on "Cogon" dominated grassland patches adjacent to selected vegetations such as primary forest, secondary forest and upland agricultural area. A total of 250 birds belonging to 19 species representing ten families were found feeding on the fruits of Antidesma ghaesembilla. The site adjacent to secondary forest has the highest species richness, abundance and diversity index values. This accentuates the combined influence of the open and forest dwelling bird species thriving in the secondary forest. The sites adjacent to the primary forest and to the agricultural area have the same species richness but differ in species composition as reflected by the low similarity index. More forest dwelling bird species were recorded near the forest while more open dwelling bird species were recorded near the agricultural area. This highlights the spillover effect of the adjacent vegetations on the feeding bird assemblage. The presence of several endemic and conservation priority bird species that feed on the fruits of Antidesma ghaesembilla unfolds its important role in avifaunal conservation. Finally, the wide collection of fruit eating bird species attracted to it emphasized its importance in improving the overall avifaunal diversity in Imperata cylindrica dominated grassland patches within the swidden vegetation matrix.

Spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) detect sucrose at a threshold lower than any primate yet tested and prefer sucrose to glucose or fructose in laboratory tests. This preferential selection of sucrose led to the hypothesis that such acute discrimination is related to a diet of sucrose-rich fruits. Furthermore, it has been suggested that fruit sugars may be related to distinct guilds of vertebrate seed-dispersers. The objectives of this study were: (1) to test if spider monkeys select sucrose-rich fruits both within and among plant species and (2) to test the hypothesis that sugar concentration is related to bird, bat or monkey seed-dispersal syndromes. Data were collected from one troop of spider monkeys in south-western Costa Rica. Interspecific comparison of ingested fruits shows that spider monkeys consumed species with significantly higher concentrations of glucose and fructose than sucrose. Similarly, at the intraspecific level, food-fruits had significantly more fructose and gl...

D a t a are presented for a four-year study of the breeding biology of the Sulawesi Red-knobbed Hornbill Aceros cassidix. The breeding season normally began in mid-June and lasted 27-30 weeks. Initiation of nesting appeared to be stimulated by the cessation of the rains and timed such that chicks emerged during a period of fruit abundance. Nesting period averaged 139 days and incubation was estimated at 35-40 days. Females remain sealed in the nest for an average of 108 days and nestlings fledged, on average, 28 days after the female emerged. Nesting densities were up to 10.4/km', nesting success was high (up to 80°h) and repeated use of nests between years was common. Males delivered a lou.-protein diet of ripe fruits (89% of total diet) from 12 families and 52 species; invertebrates composed only 1% of food items. Figs (Ficus spp.) were the primary diet

Thirty-six of the 70 species of bats known from Belize were recorded from the area around Lamanai, Orange Walk County: two in roosts and 34 in about 680 mist net hours that produced 560 captures. Day roosts used by 35 of the species were located using radio-tracking (Sturnira lilium, Platyrrhinus helleri, Centurio senex and Bauerus dubiaquercus) or general searching for roosts (Rhynchonycteris naso, Saccopteryx bilineata, Saccopteryx leptura, Dicli durus albus, Mimon bennettii, Micronycteris schmidtorum, Carollia brevicauda, Carollia perspicillata and Eptesicus furinalis). Data on the day roosts of 23 other species were determined from the literature. Most species reported from Lamanai (19) roosted in hollows, while others used foliage (6), tents (3), sheltered sites (2), crevices (2), open sites (1), and a few species used more than one type of day roost (hollows and crevices (1); hollows and foliage (1); hollows, foliage and tents (1)). The fauna consisted of 13 aerial foragers, 9...

Rate of oxygen consumption was measured in eight species of toucans, one barbet, and one hornbill to examine factors that influence their energy expenditures. Basal rate of metabolism in those species, supplemented with measurements from three woodpeckers and three mousebirds, is correlated with body mass and either food habits or climate: temperate acorn-and insect-eating species have basal rates that are ϳ70% greater than tropical fruit-eating species. The temperate, insect-or acorn-eating species are woodpeckers, so level of basal rate is also correlated with familial affiliation. The toucans, barbet, and hornbill have basal rates similar to those of frugivorous pigeons and bats, which collectively are low by avian standards. The effects of climate, food habits, and family affiliation on basal rates in endotherms are difficult to separate, given the restricted data set available. Earlier conclusions that the basal rates of birds greatly exceed those of mammals are confounded by character interactions that influence dependence of basal rate on body mass. The largest toucan showed a remarkable ability to reduce energy expenditure at low ambient temperatures without reducing core body temperature, possibly as a result of peripheral vasoconstriction.

The assessment of fruit abundance is critical for studies of frugivore ecology. A variety of methods have been used to estimate habitat-wide fruit abundance. However, since the methods have not been calibrated with each other, it is difficult to compare results of different studies. Here we compare three methods used simultaneously to collect fruit abundance data in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. Estimates of fruit abundance derived from fruit traps were not correlated with estimates derived from either systematic transect sampling or estimates obtained from observing fruiting phenology of key species on a fruit trail. However, estimates based on fruit trail data and transect data were correlated. We review the advantages and disadvantages of methods that have been used to assess habitat-wide fruit abundance.

Abstract: Bats are abundant and effective seed dispersers inside the forest, but what happens when a forest is fragmented and transformed into pasture? The landscape at Los Tuxtlas, Mexico, originally rainforest, is greatly fragmented and covered with pastures. We ...

Abstract The seed dispersal mechanisms and regeneration of various forest ecosystems can benefit from the actions of carnivores via endozoochory. This study was aimed to evaluate the role of carnivores in endozoochory and diploendozoochory, as well as their effect on seed viability, scarification, and germination in two forest ecosystems: temperate and tropical dry forest. We collected carnivore scat in the Protected Natural Area of Sierra Fría in Aguascalientes, Mexico, for 2 years to determine the abundance and richness of seeds dispersed by each carnivore species, through scat analysis. We assessed seed viability through optical densitometry using X‐rays, analyzed seed scarification by measuring seed coat thickness using a scanning electron microscope, and evaluated seed germination in an experiment as the percentage of seeds germinated per carnivore disperser, plant species, and forest type. In the temperate forest, four plant species (but mainly Arctostaphylos pungens) were dispersed by four mammal species. The gray fox dispersed the highest average number of seeds per scat (66.8 seeds). Bobcat dispersed seeds through diploendozoochory, which was inferred from rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) hair detected in their scats. The tropical dry forest presented higher abundance of seeds and richness of dispersed plant species (four species) than in the temperate forest, and the coati dispersed the highest number of seeds (8,639 seeds). Endozoochory and diploendozoochory did not affect viability in thick‐testa seeds (1,480 µm) in temperate forest and thin‐testa seeds (281 µm) in tropical dry forest. Endozoochory improved the selective germination of seeds. Nine plant species were dispersed by endozoochory, but only one species (Juniperus sp.) by diploendozoochory. These results suggest that carnivores can perform an important ecological function by dispersing a great abundance of seeds, scarifying these seeds causing the formation of holes and cracks in the testas without affecting viability, and promoting the selective germination of seeds.

Previously, wild orangutan feeding and ranging behaviors have been described only from populations in hilly or mountainous regions. The Tanjung Puting study focuses on an orangutan population in a swampy lowland area near sea level. Tanjung Puting also differs from other areas in ...

Journal of Tropical Ecology (2002) 18:441–448. With 1 figure. Copyright  2002 Cambridge University Press DOI:10.1017/S0266467402002298 Printed in the United Kingdom ... ANTHONY R. CLARKE*1, SOLOMON BALAGAWI†, BARBARA CLIFFORD*, RICHARD AI DREW*, ...

Vertebrates play a fundamental role in the dispersal of Neotropical trees, generating different seed shadows according to their physical and behavioral features. Tapirs are capable of consuming great quantities of large fruits, and they defecate seeds far from parent trees. For instance, intact seeds of the palm Syagrus romanzoffiana have been found in tapir dung piles in the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil, suggesting that tapirs effectively disperse this species. However, recruitment was not examined therein. We studied tapir endozoochory of large and medium seeds in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Argentina by examining dung piles found within Iguazu National Park. We recorded dung-pile positions to evaluate the spatial distribution. We also counted the number of juveniles in 2 Â 2 m quadrats placed on old dung piles in latrines, beneath adults and in random sites to estimate recruitment levels. Syagrus romanzoffiana seeds were present in 98 percent of dung piles, averaging 4 200 seeds/dung pile, indicating that this species constitutes the main fruit component in the tapir's diet. Dung piles showed a clumped deposition pattern reflecting the use of latrines. Juvenile recruitment in latrines was 21 times higher than that of under-adult sites and 500 times greater than in random sites, and correlated with the frequency of use of the areas. We concluded that the lowland tapir is a major disperser of S. romanzoffiana. Given that this palm can be considered a keystone species, a disruption of this interaction might affect the entire community of frugivores in the long term.

Habitat fragmentation can break down the movement processes of frugivorous animals, thus influencing the relationship between plants and their seed dispersers by altering the number and identity of seed dispersers, and their relative contribution to seed dispersal. We studied the assemblages of frugivorous birds, their composition, species richness, and visitation rates to fruiting plants growing in the different landscape elements (forest fragments, live fences, and trees isolated in pastures) embedded in a Brazilian fragmented, agricultural landscape. By following the post-feeding movements of frugivorous birds, we inferred the direction of seed movement from and to each of these landscape elements. Fruiting trees growing at different landscape elements were visited by frugivorous birds at similar rates. Isolated trees attracted a greater and distinct bird assemblage than trees in forest fragments or live fences. Judging by the post-feeding flights of birds, the seeds of isolated trees were the most likely to reach all the landscape elements considered, but the contribution of isolated trees to the seeds falling in forested habitats or pastures depended on their degree of isolation. A few bird species were able to move widely, visiting fruiting plants in all landscape elements, and promoting long-distance dispersal for plants. These few birds are of special interest because they are mobile links that connect habitats in fragmented landscapes with their seed dispersal services.

L'analyse des relations plantes-animaux constitue un thème important pour l'étude du fonctionnement des écosystèmes, et plus particulièrement des écosystèmes forestiers tropicaux. En effet, 70 YO à 95 % des espèces végétales qui s'y développent sont disséminées par l'intermédiaire des animaux frugivores (Foster,

The relative importance of plants and insects as sources of protein through the year was evaluated in 2 bat species in a seasonal forest in the neotropics using stable-isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen. Artibeus jamaicensis, a frugivore, met almost all of its protein requirements from plants with no seasonal or sexual variation. In contrast, Glossophaga soricina, a nectarivore, relied mostly on insects, but in females, plants and insects were equally important in the early rainy season and in the mid dry season. Evidence of changes in food origin of protein associated with reproductive activity was not detected in either species.

Fruit-eating bats play a fundamental role in animal seed dispersal and should be considered key actors in tropical forest restoration. We explored the use of commercial fruits as attractants for bats to increase seed dispersal to areas affected by forest fires in southern Mexico. We captured bats and collected seeds from feces and seed rain at perturbed sample sites where mature bananas and mangos were placed, and from non-treated control sites. Bat and bat-dispersed plant species richness and abundance were analyzed, and the importance of each bat species as a disperser was evaluated. Additionally, germination boxes were set up to evaluate the germination of seeds found in bat feces. We captured 724 individuals of 16 frugivorous bat species, 15 spp in treated and 12 spp in control sites. Sowell's Short-tailed bat, Toltec Fruit-eating bat and the Western Long-tongued bat showed higher abundances in treated sites, suggesting that these three species were attracted by fruits. The ...

Frugivorous bats from the Old and New World use odor cues to locate and assess fruit condition. We hypothesized that Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) use as odor cues those volatile compounds that increase in emission rate as fruit ripens. We examined whether the smell of fermentation products may indicate the degree of ripeness to fruit bats. We analyzed volatile compounds in the headspace (the gas space above a fruit in a closed container) of dates (Phoenix dactylifera) and rusty figs (Ficus rubiginosa), both of which are consumed by fruit bats, to elucidate which compounds originate from fermentative pathways and to determine which change in emission rate during ripening. Ethanol, acetaldehyde, and acetic acid were the only volatile compounds detected as products of fermentation in both fruits. In dates, emission rates of these compounds increased during maturation, whereas in rusty figs, they decreased or remained constant. Methanol, although not a fermentation product, increased in emission rate during ripening in both fruits. We found that R. aegyptiacus was neither attracted nor deterred by the smell of methanol at any of the concentrations used. Although the odor of ethanol emanating from food containing concentrations similar to those found in ripe fruit did not attract the bats, at relatively high concentrations (Q1%), the smell of ethanol deterred them. Thus, ethanol at high concentrations may serve as a signal for bats to avoid overripe, unpalatable fruit.

The relationship between vegetation and ranging patterns of wild bonobos at Wamba, Democratic Republic of the Congo, was examined. Via Landsat data, we distinguished three types of vegetation—dry forest, swamp forest, and disturbed forest—at Wamba. The home ranges of the study groups changed considerably from year to year, due mainly to intergroup relationships. The population density of each group varied between 1.4 and 2.5 individuals per km 2and was lowest during a period of population increase. Home ranges consisted mainly of dry forest. The bonobos used dry forest more frequently than the other forest types, though they also used swamp and disturbed forest almost every day. The latter types of forest seemed to be important resources for the bonobos, owing to the abundant herbaceous plants that are rich in protein and constantly available. The bonobos tended to use dry forest more frequently in the rainy season than in the relatively dry season, probably because the favored frui...

Thirty-six of the 70 species of bats known from Belize were recorded from the area around Lamanai, Orange Walk County: two in roosts and 34 in about 680 mist net hours that produced 560 captures. Day roosts used by 35 of the species were located using radio-tracking (Sturnira lilium, Platyrrhinus helleri, Centurio senex and Bauerus dubiaquercus) or general searching for roosts (Rhynchonycteris naso, Saccopteryx bilineata, Saccopteryx leptura, Diclidurus albus, Mimon bennettii, Micronycteris schmidtorum, Carollia brevicauda, Carollia perspicillata and Eptesicus furinalis). Data on the day roosts of 23 other species were determined from the literature. Most species reported from Lamanai (19) roosted in hollows, while others used foliage (6), tents (3), sheltered sites (2), crevices (2), open sites (1), and a few species used more than one type of day roost (hollows and crevices (1); hollows and foliage (1); hollows, foliage and tents (1)). The fauna consisted of 13 aerial foragers, 9 gleaners, 11 fruit/leaf eaters, one trawler, one flower-visitor and one blood-feeder. In day roost use and foraging behaviour, the Lamanai fauna did not differ significantly from that of Paracou, French Guiana, but both these locations differed from the bat fauna of Kruger National Park, South Africa, in foraging behaviour.

1. A frugivore-generated seed rain combines dispersed propagules from source trees located all over the landscape. By selecting deposition sites, frugivorous vertebrates set the maternal genetic correlations in the seed rain, i.e. how maternal progenies become distributed over the landscape relative to the source trees and other conspecifics. This aspect, however, remains virtually unexplored despite its central effect on the demographic and genetic structure in plant populations. 2. We examined three components of maternal genetic correlations in the seed rain: the number of distinct contributing maternal trees (maternal richness), the genetic relatedness among contributing trees (maternal relatedness) and the probability that two seeds drawn from the same seed trap come from the same maternal tree (correlated maternity). 3. We studied the maternal genetic correlations in a vertebrate-generated seed rain of a Prunus mahaleb population located in a heterogeneous landscape (c. 25 ha). Based on the multilocus genotypes provided by microsatellite markers, we identified the source tree of dispersed seeds sampled in seed traps and distributed among six microhabitat types. 4. Seed traps showed a spatial aggregation of maternally related seeds that varied among microhabitats in relation to the frugivore foraging preferences, resulting in variable maternal correlations across the landscape. We found: (i) seed traps with high maternal richness and low genetic relatedness in sites dominated by high shrubs, frequently visited by most frugivore species; (ii) seed traps with low maternal richness, high relatedness and increased correlated maternity values resulting from recurrent dispersal from few isolated source trees to sites dominated by non-fleshy fruited species; and (iii) seed traps under pine trees with high maternal richness and relatedness (but low correlated maternity) due to long-distance dispersal events from several source trees growing closely to each other. 5. Synthesis. Maternal progenies became distributed non-randomly over the landscape, where trees with similar maternal neighbourhoods tended to disperse their progeny to similar microhabitats. This resulted in genetic limitation, i.e. the failure of maternal trees to reach all microhabitats, as well as the failure of the microhabitats to cast all maternal progenies. Both the genetic limitation and the spatial aggregation of maternal progenies, driven by frugivore activity, might pervasively determine recruitment and spatial genetic patterns in heterogeneous populations.

Fruit removal has been attributed to the contents of nutrients and secondary compounds. We tested two alternative models of the chemical defence of fruits for the contents of nutrients, phenols, and condensed tannins and the nutrient content pypothesis stating that nutrient rich fruits are preferably removed. The defence trade-off hypothesis assumes that the retention of deterrent secondary metabolites in ripe fruits reflects a trade-off between defence against pests and attraction of dispersers. The removal-rate model of this hypothesis predicts a negative relationship of nutrients and levels of secondary compounds due to short persistence and thus low infection risk of fruits. The nutrient-toxin titration model postulates a positive relationship assuming that profitable fruits are able to afford high levels of protection due to a compensatory effect of high nutrient levels for consumers. Fruit removal by the entire frugivorous community for 33 plant species was best described by a dose-response curve, mediated by the stimulating effects of lipid, carbohydrate, and nitrogen contents, while the contents of phenols and water deterred removal. Moreover, traits that stimulated removal prevailed in ripe fruits except for nitrogen, unripe fruits had higher contents of phenols and nitrogen. Profitable fruits were quickly removed and had low phenolic contents. Thus, fruit removal was characterised by the nutrient content hypothesis and pulp contents by the removal-rate model. The selective pressure of 84 frugivorous species integrated into an unidirectional preferential removal of nutrient rich fruits. The consistency of consumers' preferences implies the potential for habitat shaping processes due to differential recruitment of plant species based on dispersers' choices.

Many plant species are threatened as a result of extinction of their large-bodied frugivores all over the world. Additionally, introduced herbivores and seed predators may cause severe pressure on early stages of plant recruitment. We studied the seed dispersal and seed predation of the keystone palm Euterpe edulis on a land-bridge island with a highly impoverished frugivore fauna and overabundant seed predators, and in a continuous Atlantic forest in Brazil. While the diversity of avian seed dispersers and predators was higher on the mainland, the abundance of seed dispersers was 4-fold higher on the island. Turdus flavipes was responsible for 72% and 96% of seeds removed in the island and mainland, respectively. However, the higher density of T. flaviceps on the island did not result in higher seed removal. In fact, seed removal rate was 1.7 times lower there than on the mainland, probably due to the aggressive behavior of the major seed disperser who defend palm fruits. Seed predation, on the other hand, was markedly higher on the island, where nearly 100% of seeds were preyed upon, but only 0.3% on the mainland. As a consequence of higher seed predation the population of E. edulis has few numbers of seedlings and saplings on the island. Therefore, management of the seed predator populations on the island is a key priority for recovering the natural population of this keystone palm and the frugivores that depend on its fruits.

The coexistence of multiple species of short-tailed fruit bats (Phyllostomidae: Carollia) is common throughout the range of the genus. Previous studies of fecal and stomach contents have documented differences in dietary breadth and in habitat use as mechanisms by which these species may partition dietary niches. By comparing values of d 15 N and d 13 C across species of Carollia from 17 sites in Central and South America, we show that co-occurring Carollia frequently differ in dietary breadth, foraging habitats, and level of insectivory. Values of d 15 N, which tended to be enriched in C. castanea, depleted in C. perspicillata, and intermediate in C. brevicauda and C. sowelli, indicate trophic stratification. Values of d 13 C followed the opposite trend, tending to be enriched in C. perspicillata and depleted in C. castanea, suggesting interspecific differences in breadth of the foraging area. Isotopic comparisons among Carollia, other bat species, and potential food items at 5 of our sites illustrate that populations of Carollia tend to be trophically intermediate between strictly phytophagous and strictly insectivorous organisms, and, contrary to the paucity of insect remains found in fecal samples, indicate that the consumption of insects by Carollia is more common and potentially more important than previously was thought.

The introduction of a species into an ecosystem with species already occupying a similar trophic level is predicted to lead to a high degree of niche overlap. The feral pig (Sus scrofa), one of the world's worst invasive species, was introduced to the Pantanal about 200 years ago and is thought to compete with the native whitelipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) and collared peccary (Pecari tajacu). Resource partitioning between the 3 species was examined, including analysis of fruit items and plants in fecal samples as well as encounter rates in different habitats, to help generate hypotheses about competitive interactions among the species. Overlaps in food resources and habitat use between feral pigs and peccaries were found to be lower than expected. In fact, niche overlap was highest between the native species. Results indicate that currently, feral pigs are not a direct threat to the native peccaries in the study area. Differences in morphology and behavior indicate possible mechanisms of niche partitioning between the species. Feral pigs may, nevertheless, impact the wildlife community in other ways as predators of eggs, by destruction of vegetation through rooting, or by functioning as disease reservoirs. Cattle-ranching activities may favor feral pigs and the current anthropogenic changes in the landscape could lead to changes in competitive dynamics between feral pigs and native species.

Bactrocera Macquart (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a genus of nearly 500 species, the majority of which are endemic to tropical SouthEast Asia and Australasia (Drew 1989). Nearly all Bactrocera have frugivorous larvae that feed on the fleshy fruit of tropical trees, shrubs, and vines, and some species are major horticultural pests (White & Elson-Harris 1992). In this paper, where the term 'fruit fly' is used, we are referring explicitly to species of Bactrocera. Males of many Bactrocera species respond positively to either one of two chemicals, 4-(4-acetoxyphenyl)-2-butanone (cue-lure) and 4-allyl-1,2-dimethoxybenzene (methyl eugenol or ME). Methyl eugenol is a naturally occurring chemical and is found in plants of up to ten different families (Metcalf et al.

Two related, novel, zoonotic paramyxoviruses have been described recently. Hendra virus was first reported in horses and thence humans in Australia in 1994; Nipah virus was first reported in pigs and thence humans in Malaysia in 1998. Human cases of Nipah virus infection, apparently unassociated with infection in livestock, have been reported in Bangladesh since 2001. Species of fruit bats (genus Pteropus) have been identified as natural hosts of both agents. Anthropogenic changes (habitat loss, hunting) that have impacted the population dynamics of Pteropus species across much of their range are hypothesised to have facilitated emergence. Current strategies for the management of henipaviruses are directed at minimising contact with the natural hosts, monitoring identified intermediate hosts, improving biosecurity on farms, and better disease recognition and diagnosis. Investigation of the emergence and ecology of henipaviruses warrants a broad, cross-disciplinary ecosystem health a...

Many plant species are threatened as a result of extinction of their large-bodied frugivores all over the world. Additionally, introduced herbivores and seed predators may cause severe pressure on early stages of plant recruitment. We studied the seed dispersal and seed predation of the keystone palm Euterpe edulis on a land-bridge island with a highly impoverished frugivore fauna and overabundant seed predators, and in a continuous Atlantic forest in Brazil. While the diversity of avian seed dispersers and predators was higher on the mainland, the abundance of seed dispersers was 4-fold higher on the island. Turdus flavipes was responsible for 72% and 96% of seeds removed in the island and mainland, respectively. However, the higher density of T. flaviceps on the island did not result in higher seed removal. In fact, seed removal rate was 1.7 times lower there than on the mainland, probably due to the aggressive behavior of the major seed disperser who defend palm fruits. Seed predation, on the other hand, was markedly higher on the island, where nearly 100% of seeds were preyed upon, but only 0.3% on the mainland. As a consequence of higher seed predation the population of E. edulis has few numbers of seedlings and saplings on the island. Therefore, management of the seed predator populations on the island is a key priority for recovering the natural population of this keystone palm and the frugivores that depend on its fruits.

1. The relationship between plant morphology and the senses used by dispersal agents to find fruit was examined. 'Flagellichory' (fruit borne on pendulous structures), a costly morphology associated with dispersal by bats, is focused on. 2. Using Gurania spinulosa, a flagellichorous vine, and its major dispersal agent, Phyllostomus hastatus, the hypothesis was tested that flagellichory increases the conspicuousness of fruit to bats that use echolocation to find fruit. 3. The responses of wild-caught P. hastatus to various fruiting branch morphologies and fruit odour were recorded. Phyllostomus hastatus used echolocation rather than olfaction to detect fruit, and consistently chose fruit displayed on pendulous leafless branches, ignoring fruit held among leaves on horizontal branches. 4. By comparing echolocation signals with the distance between fruiting branches of G. spinulosa and surrounding vegetation, it was shown that pendulous fruiting branches present clear, clutter-free targets that can be detected by echolocating bats. This is the first demonstration of neotropical frugivorous bats using echolocation to find fruit.

Size-standardized craniometric variation was investigated among species of the genus Artibeus. Eleven extant and one extinct species were examined using geometric and linear morphometric analyses to evaluate morphological differences among species. Based on 19 landmarks located in the ventral side of the cranium, 29 size-standardized linear measurements were calculated and used for statistical multivariate analyses. Discriminant Function Analysis showed major interspecific differences in shape between A. anthonyi and A. concolor with respect to the remaining extant species of Artibeus. These two species are described as morphologically unique morphotypes with a broader rostrum, enlarged squamosal region, and wider basicranium. Specifically, a broader premaxilla is the character that better discriminates A. anthonyi from all other species, whereas a broader squamosal region (particularly the deep mandibular fossa, and elongated squamosal) and wider braincase are the main characters differentiating A. concolor. All other species of the genus overlap to varying extents in their morphology showing high shape similarities. The least variant shape features include the pterygoid fossa, the glenoid (mandibular) fossa, the maxillae, and the occipital region; these regions in all cases contribute to mechanical aspects of jaw function and bite. The fact that the least variant aspects of skull shape all involve feeding is consistent with the hypothesis that selection has favored a specific diet-associated morphology rather than divergence or character displacement in Artibeus.

Nominally protected areas in Papua are under threat from encroachment, logging and hunting. The northern cassowaryCasuarius unappendiculatusis the largest frugivore of the lowland rainforest of New Guinea and is endemic to this region, and therefore it is an important conservation target and a potential flagship species. We investigated effects of habitat degradation on the species by means of distance sampling surveys of 58 line transects across five distinct habitats, from primary forest to forest gardens. Estimated cassowary densities ranged from 14.1 (95% CI 9.2–21.4) birds km−2in primary forest to 1.4 (95% CI 0.4–5.6) birds km−2in forest garden. Density estimates were intermediate in unlogged but hunted natural forest and in > 30 year-old secondary forest, and considerably lower in recently logged (< 3 years) forest. Cassowary abundance was positively correlated with canopy cover and with tree height and diameter, and negatively correlated with hunting traps and human tra...

Spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) detect sucrose at a threshold lower than any primate yet tested and prefer sucrose to glucose or fructose in laboratory tests. This preferential selection of sucrose led to the hypothesis that such acute discrimination is related to a diet of sucrose-rich fruits. Furthermore, it has been suggested that fruit sugars may be related to distinct guilds of vertebrate seed-dispersers. The objectives of this study were: (1) to test if spider monkeys select sucrose-rich fruits both within and among plant species and (2) to test the hypothesis that sugar concentration is related to bird, bat or monkey seed-dispersal syndromes. Data were collected from one troop of spider monkeys in southwestern Costa Rica. Interspecific comparison of ingested fruits shows that spider monkeys consumed species with significantly higher concentrations of glucose and fructose than sucrose. Similarly, at the intraspecific level, food-fruits had significantly more fructose and glucose than non-food fruits, but no difference was found for sucrose. The three different sugar types were not correlated with the importance of the species in the diet based on the amount of time they spent consuming each species. Although sucrose concentrations were significantly higher in primate-dispersed species compared with those dispersed by other vertebrates, soluble carbohydrates in primate-dispersed fruits were principally composed of glucose and fructose. Neither fructose nor glucose concentrations showed significant differences across the three categories of seed dispersal.

We studied the potential contribution of frugivorous bats to the reestablishment of vegetational diversity in a restored area. We analysed the diets of the bat species and the differences between them in the consumption of fruits of autochtonous and allochthonous species. Planted (autochtonous) species were the basis of diets, especially Solanum mauritianum and Cecropia pachystachya, whereas for allochthonous species we found that Piperaceae to be of particular importance. Carollia perspicillata was the main seed disperser for allochthonous species, and potentially the most important bat in the promotion of vegetation diversity in the study area. Our results suggest that frugivorous bats are especially important in the reestablishment of vegetation in disturbed areas, and that restorarion efforts should focus on the planting of different zoochorous species that would guarantee a high year-round fruit production, thereby facilitating natural plant reestablishment by frugivorous bats in regenerating areas.

Seed dispersal by animals is considered a pivotal ecosystem function that drives plant-community dynamics in natural habitats and vegetation recovery in human-altered landscapes. Nevertheless, there is a lack of suitable ecological knowledge to develop basic conservation and management guidelines for this ecosystem service. Essential questions, such as how well the abundance of frugivorous animals predicts seeding function in different ecosystems and how anthropogenic landscape heterogeneity conditions the role of dispersers, remain poorly answered. In three temperate ecosystems, we studied seed dispersal by frugivorous birds in landscape mosaics shaped by human disturbance. By applying a standardized design across systems, we related the frequency of occurrence of bird-dispersed seeds throughout the landscape to the abundance of birds, the habitat features, and the abundance of fleshy fruits. Abundance of frugivorous birds in itself predicted the occurrence of dispersed seeds throughout the landscape in all ecosystems studied. Even those landscape patches impoverished due to anthropogenic disturbance received some dispersed seeds when visited intensively by birds. Nonetheless, human-caused landscape degradation largely affected seeddeposition patterns by decreasing cover of woody vegetation or availability of fruit resources that attracted birds and promoted seed dispersal. The relative role of woody cover and fruit availability in seed dispersal by birds differed among ecosystems. Our results suggest that to manage seed dispersal for temperate ecosystem preservation or restoration one should consider abundance of frugivorous birds as a surrogate of landscapescale seed dispersal and an indicator of patch quality for the dispersal function; woody cover and fruit resource availability as key landscape features that drive seedfall patterns; and birds as mobile links that connect landscape patches of different degrees of degradation and habitat quality via seed deposition.

Photo 1. Le baobab produit généralement peu de fruits, mais de grande taille. La pulpe qui entoure les graines présente des qualités nutritives élevées. Sur ce cliché représentant A. rubrostipa, le faible effectif de fruits peut s'expliquer par la prédation de fruits non matures par le propithèque (Propithecus verreauxi).

1. Frugivorous birds are a priority for conservation. They are experiencing the transformation of natural habitats to agro-ecosystems worldwide and some are taking advantage of agricultural production of fleshy-fruited plants. However, the mechanisms through which some birds are able to thrive in agricultural landscapes while others become extinct are poorly known. 2. This manuscript provides an overview of avian frugivory in olive orchards, one of the principal agro-ecosystems in the Mediterranean region and an important winter refuge for birds. The hypothesis that Mediterranean avian frugivores are pre-adapted to olive orchards is used to consider potential constraints to bird occupation of wider agro-ecosystems. 3. Agricultural practices and artificial selection of fruit cause habitat and landscape simplification and reduction of bird food resources in orchards, with resulting negative effects on bird diet and body condition, as well as on bird abundance and diversity. Some of these constraints can be partially overcome by the presence of small hedgerows and copses in the agricultural landscape. 4. Five pre-adaptive features determine the successful occurrence of a bird species in olive orchards: (1) frugivorism intensity; (2) ability to track variation in fruit availability; (3) diet plasticity to cope with low fruit diversity and unbalanced food; (4) fruit handling plasticity to cope with oversized fruits; and (5) ecomorphology and foraging niche conditions which increase the ability to respond to habitat simplification. 5. Synthesis and applications. Management practices have the potential to alleviate the constraints that habitat simplification puts on bird movement and diet. Two interrelated approaches to management are proposed: increasing landscape and habitat diversity by the occurrence of hedgerows and forest remnants; and increasing food availability through reducing the use of pesticides and promoting fruit diversity in hedges.

The lowland tapir Tapirus terrestris is the largest herbivore in the Neotropics and feeds on a large quantity of fruits, often ingesting the seeds and defecating them intact. Seed dispersal by the lowland tapir in the southwestern Amazon was studied by examining seeds from 135 dung samples collected between 2005 and 2007. Seeds of a total of 122 plant species were identified, representing 68 genera and 33 families. The species accumulation curve showed that more species can be expected with further sampling. Many species (45%) were only encountered once, and only 10 percent of all species were found in 4 10 samples, indicating that the lowland tapir is an opportunistic forager. Seed diversity showed a clear seasonal pattern and was highly correlated with fruit availability. Seed diameter ranged from o 1 to 25 mm with 81 percent o 10 mm diam. The size distribution of seeds found in lowland tapir dung generally followed that of seeds found in the forest, but had a lower proportion of seeds in the smallest size class (o 2.5 mm) and a larger proportion found in the largest size class (20-25 mm). The diversity of seeds encountered in dung of the lowland tapir in this study was much higher than in previous studies. We conclude that the lowland tapir is a potential disperser for a large number of plant species, including many that previously have been thought to be dispersed only by large primates.

The New World titi monkeys (Callicebus) are predominantly frugivorous, but there are differences between species in the other components of the diet: species of the C. moloch group [1] supplement their diet with leaves, while C. torquatus uses insects and seeds [2, 3]. In general, although little studied, the titi species endemic to the Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil [4] are thought to be more similar ecologically to the C. moloch group than to C. torquatus [5]. It has also been argued, however, that at least one Atlantic forest species, C. melanochir, resembles C. torquatus in having a larger range size and a higher proportion of fruit in its diet than C. moloch [6, 7]. Here we present new data on the diet of another, poorly known Atlantic forest species, the northern masked titi, C. personatus.

Seed dispersal shapes ecological and evolutionary dynamics of plant populations. Here, we extend classical diversity measures to study the impact of disperser behavior on seed dispersal. We begin by extending our previous diversity structure approach, which partitioned seed source diversity within and among dispersal sites, into the more general framework of traditional diversity measures. This statistical approach allows an assessment of the extent to which foraging behavior shapes a and g diversity, as well as the divergence in seed sources among dispersal sites, which we call d. We also introduce tests to facilitate comparisons of diversity among dispersal sites and seed vectors and to compare overall diversity among sampled systems. We then apply these tools to investigate the diversity blend of parentage resulting from seed dispersal by two avian seed vectors with very different social and foraging behaviors: (1) acorn woodpeckers, transporting Quercus agrifolia acorns, and (2) long-wattled umbrellabirds, transporting Oenocarpus bataua palm nuts. Using these diversity and divergence measures, we test the hypothesis that different foraging behaviors generate distinctive diversity partitions for the two focal tree species. This approach provides a new tool for assessment of the impact of dispersal agents on the seed source structure of plant populations, which can be extended to include the impact of virtually any propagule vector for a range of systems.

... obs.). Flying bats are capable of carrying considerable weights: the small Nanoycteris veldkampi (c. 22 g) can carry fruits of 15 g, and Pteropus vampyrus (c. 800 g) fruits of over 200 g, the size of large mangoes (Pijl, 1957; Marshall & McWilliam, 1982). ...

We studied the potential contribution of frugivorous bats to the reestablishment of vegetational diversity in a restored area. We analysed the diets of the bat species and the differences between them in the consumption of fruits of autochtonous and allochthonous species. Planted (autochtonous) species were the basis of diets, especially Solanum mauritianum and Cecropia pachystachya, whereas for allochthonous species we found that Piperaceae to be of particular importance. Carollia perspicillata was the main seed disperser for allochthonous species, and potentially the most important bat in the promotion of vegetation diversity in the study area. Our results suggest that frugivorous bats are especially important in the reestablishment of vegetation in disturbed areas, and that restorarion efforts should focus on the planting of different zoochorous species that would guarantee a high year-round fruit production, thereby facilitating natural plant reestablishment by frugivorous bats in regenerating areas.

The relationship between vegetation and ranging patterns of wild bonobos at Wamba, Democratic Republic of the Congo, was examined. Via Landsat data, we distinguished three types of vegetation-dry forest, swamp forest, and disturbed forest-at Wamba. The home ranges of the study groups changed considerably from year to year, due mainly to intergroup relationships. The population density of each group varied between 1.4 and 2.5 individuals per km 2 and was lowest during a period of population increase. Home ranges consisted mainly of dry forest. The bonobos used dry forest more frequently than the other forest types, though they also used swamp and disturbed forest almost every day. The latter types of forest seemed to be important resources for the bonobos, owing to the abundant herbaceous plants that are rich in protein and constantly available. The bonobos tended to use dry forest more frequently in the rainy season than in the relatively dry season, probably because the favored fruits in the dry forest were mostly available in the rainy season. There was no seasonal difference in the size of the daily ranging area.

Although it is well established that many insects, birds and mammals serve as important pollinators and seed dispersers of flowering plants, the role of lizards in these processes has traditionally been considered as rare and less important. However, recent work shows both that their role as mutualistic agents has been underestimated and also reveals a striking patternthat pollination and seed dispersal by lizards is most common on islands. We argue that this island phenomenon occurs because island lizards reach very high densities (density compensation) and experience a lower predation risk than do those on the mainland and, consequently, can expand their diet to include nectar, pollen and fruit. Although further empirical evidence is needed to confirm this explanation, such relationships could be ideal systems with which to study fundamental ecological problems, such as niche shifts, ecological release and competition.

We present a comprehensive approach to detect pattern in assemblages of plant and animal species linked by interactions such as pollination, frugivory or herbivory. Simple structural models produce gradient, compartmented or nested patterns of interaction; intermediate patterns between a gradient and compartments are possible, and nesting within compartments produces a combined model. Interaction patterns can be visualized and analyzed either as matrices, as bipartite networks or as multivariate sets through correspondence analysis. We argue that differences among patterns represent outcomes of distinct evolutionary and ecological processes in these highly diversified assemblages. Instead of choosing one model a priori, assemblages should be probed for a suite of patterns. A plant Á /pollinator assemblage exemplifies a simple nested pattern, whereas a plant Á / herbivore assemblage illustrates a compound pattern with nested structures within compartments. Compartmentation should reflect coevolutionary histories and constraints, whereas differences in species abundance or dispersal may generate nestedness.