Women and Economics

Mes premiers remerciements vont à l'équipe pédagogique de l'ESCD 3A pour leur disponibilité et leurs conseils. Je souhaite plus particulièrement remercier Baptiste Mylondo, pour ses recommandations et Martin Durigneux pour son écoute et le temps qu'il a consacré à déconstruire et reconstruire de nombreux cheminements de pensée. Je souhaite aussi remercier les personnes qui ont pu contribuer à l'élaboration de ce mémoire en prenant le temps de répondre à mes questions. Un grand merci à Pierre Danthez et Marie Trouhet de m'avoir accordé des entretiens plus longs et une approche très complète de leurs activités. Finalement, comme le « personnel est politique », j'adresse mes plus sincères remerciements à ma famille et mes proches pour leurs avis critiques, leurs excellents conseils et leur patience infinie. 6 10 19 21 23 23 30 33 35 46 49 50 Figure 1-Déesse Mère de Willendorf -(30 000-25 000 av. J-C)

In the 21 st century, the economy of many countries is transforming towards secondary and ter-tiary sector. And India is also not immune from this phenomenon, and our economy is slowly moving towards manufacturing and service sector. However, still the contribution of primary sector i.e., agriculture towards employment in the country is unimaginable. Especially this becomes more important in the context of more than majority of our population residing in rural areas; and their main source of activity is agriculture. Unfortunately, the agriculture sector since quite long time going through a difficult phase. In this context, this paper tries to decode the economy survey 2017-18 for the agriculture sector. This is very important in the context of the call by our Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi to double the farmer's income by 2022.

In 1899, MIT chemist Ellen H. Richards (1842–1911) instigated a series of annual “Lake Placid Conferences” (1899–1908) that became known as the foundation of the home economics movement. Richards’s first interest was in improving the household’s well-being by using sanitary and nutrition sciences, an objective that was passed on to the movement. However, by the 1920s, home economists rather identified their field of expertise as the “science of consumption,” emphasizing the idea of “rational consumption.” My aim in this article is to give an account of how this shift in focus came about, by telling the story of the home economics movement founded by Richards. I examine how the movement problematized consumption by highlighting its relationship and perception of itself regarding economics. I argue that the concept of consumption was central to the structuring of the movement from its beginning and allowed home economists to claim it as their field of expertise because, as they believed, economists were not addressing the issue.

Kadınların iş yaşamına katılma oranı geçmişe nazaran yükselen bir ivme içerisindedir. Bununla birlikte yönetim kademesi arttıkça yönetici kadınların sayısının azaldığı görülmektedir. Bu durumun hem toplumsal hem kültürel etkileri mevcuttur. Dünya yönetiminin erkek bir karaktere sahip olması nedeni ile kadınların yöneticilik vasfı ile ilgili birtakım önyargılar bulunmaktadır. Kadın yöneticilerin erkek yöneticilere göre daha az profesyonel davrandığı iddiası, iş yaşamı dışındaki etkenlere daha fazla zaman harcaması, toplumun aile unsuru içerisinde kadına bakışı bu önyargılara neden olan etkenlerden bazılarıdır.

Donors have attempted little to improve women’s participation and conditions in the ASEAN workforce.
Isolated cases highlight some findings:
- Success stories include donors action through: national policies (Cambodia); mandatory monitoring of working conditions (Cambodia); gender-sensitive design and evaluation of projects (Viet Nam, Cambodia); capacity development for women’s micro and small enterprises (Laos, Philippines); school-to-work transition (Philippines); and creating an enabling environment for rural smallholders (Laos). Donors frequently cited in these cases include the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the International Labour Organization (ILO).
- Donors have obtained mixed results in other programmes, such as the promotion of equality and decent work by the ILO (Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Philippines, Thailand), and border-gate economic zones supported by the ADB (Viet Nam).
- Broader qualitative or mixed-method studies from academic sources offer critical perspectives on structural issues with donor-supported action.
- One example from tourism in Laos shows that the division of labour can remain gendered and disadvantage women even in pro-poor, community-based development projects.
- One example in the agricultural sector in Thailand demonstrates the importance of combining class, gender, culture, migration and citizenship for meaningful analyses of women’s labour.
- An analysis of women’s position in the Malaysian labour market since the 1970s brings to light the gendered nature of both production and reproduction, and the contradictions that increased labour participation by women create for gender equality.
Donors that have been occasionally active on the issue include: ADB; ASEAN and the ASEAN Foundation; ILO; IOM; UNDP; and UN Women. Donors that have shown an interest in the issue include: the Canadian aid agency; FAO; OECD; UNESCAP; UNIDO; UN OHCHR; USAID; and the World Bank.

The article aims at delineating the scale and level of economic activity of the female residents of the Old and New Warsaw in the first half of the 15th century. The primary sources for this research project comprise of the oldest books of lay judges and excerpts from the records of the council, which allowed to isolate a group of 470 entries concerning women. In the studiem period, an increase in the economic activity of the townswomen could be observed; they figured in roughly 20—30% of the cases, which corresponds with the numbers observed in other late‑medievaltowns and cities. The vast majority of the townswomen (90%) were involved as an active party in a transaction only once in their lives, but what should be underscored is the wide range of people who used the services of legal offices and the high awareness of the power of the written word in legal matters. The research showed a passive character of the economic activity, manifesting primarily in the lack of sufficient funding to invest in the market. Women were twice as much more likely to take out loans and sell properties than they were to give out loans or buy properties. Their funds were also significantly lower from the average sums figuring in contracts signed within the city, and their actions were much less dynamic. The difference in the material circumstances of townswomen can be seen, on the one hand, in the enormous (twentyfold) disproportion of the registered revenues and, on the other hand, in the index of average value of the transaction, which amounted to four three‑score in Old Warsaw and two and a half three‑score in New Warsaw. Any substantial attempt at a comparative study is, however, significantly hindered by the lack of similar study regarding other cities of the Duchy of Masovia or the Kingdom of Poland.

The paper reconstructs the life and activity of the author of a famous novel for boys as well as a textbook of arithmetic and of essays on educational issues, who was also the sister of a famous economist. The bulk of the paper is dedicated to 'Alfred Dudley', a novel for boys about wealth, status, speculation, poverty, manual work, emigration and the role of virtue in making a decent society possible. Also the author’s educational views are discussed, highlighting her opposition to Benthamite programs and her proposal for an inter-denominational religious education, and arguing that her contributions to plans for a general education system were meant to respond to what had been Smith’s, Malthus’s, and perhaps also her brother’s question, namely, how may wealth and virtue go together?

This complementary report confirms that donor action on women’s employment and entrepreneurship has been limited or very recent in ASEAN countries. The ILO is the major aid entity involved. Other major ones include the Asian Development Bank, UN Women and the International Finance Corporation.

Limitations and gaps in the literature are also confirmed, including some inequalities (especially those based on ethnicity and disabilities) and their interactions (e.g. women workers with disabilities, women workers from ethnic minorities).

- Donor action to improve women’s employment and entrepreneurship has addressed:
    - Cross-cutting policies and institutions:
    - Key labour policies and institutions: informing public policies on labour through gender perspectives; mainstreaming gender in labour institutions.

- Key policies and institutions affecting gender equality in labour: promoting inclusion and women’s rights; changing gender norms.

- Specific labour dimensions:
    - Working with the private sector for gender equality: integrating gender equality in employer organisations; making the business case for improved women’s employment; institutionalising dialogue and cooperation with the private sector; advancing women’s participation at all levels of the workforce.
    - Improving women’s benefits in value chains, in green production and trade by rural poor women and in agribusiness training for higher-quality coffee supply.

- Specific social groups:
    - Young women: promoting youth employment and entrepreneurship; technical education and vocational training.
    - Women migrant workers. Support has taken the form of gender-responsive policies and capacities for migrant workers. Other efforts have sought to combat abuse, forced labour and trafficking of migrant workers.
    - Women homeworkers.

- Entrepreneurship. Examples include the frequently mentioned WEDGE project in Viet Nam; small- and medium-sized enterprises development; and the ‘10,000 Women’ project.

Women’s equality in the United States is still a somewhat recent concept. Less than one hundred and twenty years ago, there were still states that did not allow women to own land or control their personal savings. Less than one hundred years ago women were not allowed to express their political opinions with the right to vote. Finally, as recent as five decades ago there was no law preventing women from being paid a lower wage as a man who was doing the same exact job. Women have made great strides towards empowerment and equality in the last century, but how far are women from still truly having the same rights, opportunities and successes as men?

The neoliberal economy has changed the manner in which labour, love and relationships have been recognized, appreciated and structured in a society. The economic crisis which has cropped up in recent years, where the employment is shrinking, the economy is deteriorating, the common people are left with little options to earn their livelihoods and the state is rolling back from its welfare role, all this is making a significant impact on social relations. These economic changes are also making deep impact on the social institution of marriage and family which is weakening and is being threatened in the given neoliberal environment where money is replacing love, commercialization is substituting the social and the emotional bonds, the civic relations are waning and fading away and where the community support is gradually becoming extinct. The consumer paradigm in the free market economy now put an onus on the individual to seek services such as health, education or employment in the market rather than putting onus on the state or the community to provide for these basic services. This paradigm is deeply affecting the men and women on the margins. More importantly, when the institution of marriage breakdowns and the women are compelled to walk out of the marital relation with no support from the state, community or extended family, their situation becomes challenging. In the absence of the matrimonial property rights, women who abandoned, separated or are divorced, are deprived of any right to assets in the marital property owned by the husbands in the patriarchal society. Neither the law nor the society recognizes the contribution of women in the marital household. This paper looks at two cases going on or have been tried in the family courts and the struggle within the courtroom at the time when the institution of marriage breakdown and the individuals, as men and women, are being left vulnerable in their struggle for survival. It concludes that despite of the legal provisions relating to maintenance, mediation, protection of women against domestic violence, men and women and most importantly, men who are poor, and, women in general, are compelled to struggle in their daily lives. Neither the law could neither imagine the situations outside the paradox of the family nor the free market approach has helped in any way to advocate for the social policies that could offer alternatives lead a life with dignity in situations where economic, social and political life is transforming in the market driven economy. Trapped in the web of legal technicalities and the complexities of free market norms, these men and women are facing increasing vulnerabilities, where the state has refused to bail them out in any manner. It is therefore suggested that the law relating to divorce needs to be reconsidered with matrimonial property to be divided equally among the separating parties and more importantly the rights of women to marital property be examined. Giving women equal rights in the marital property is not only a moral imperative but also an economic necessity for any economy. It is also recommended that while considering the ill-effects of the capitalist economy, the concept of the provisions of social security and the welfare support measures need to strengthened, and in cases of breakdown of the institution of marriage, wherever required, special provisions to be made to support the women and children in vulnerable situations.

This paper is focused on some social aspects being considered by the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC). It does not pretend to be an in depth analysis of all of the activities being conducted at different levels within the broad agenda of APEC and in all its economies. My intention is to present a set of ideas in relation to the inclusion of labor issues within the concept of human capacity building (HCB) as one of the most important challenges for the future of women not only in the APEC economies, but in the world at large.
Its framework is the incorporation of women’s issues and the subsequent development of a gender perspective within APEC’s agenda; it’s relation to human resources capacity building and the overall guidelines of international labor rights. I strongly believe that these issues require special consideration when speaking of development within the context of economic integration processes.
Over the years the inclusion of social issues within the APEC agenda has demonstrated the commitment of APEC leaders to a human development perspective. As I said before I will concentrate on human resources development, nevertheless I acknowledge the fact that every year new social issues are being added to the agenda and new working groups and task forces are being formed to deal with them.
All these initiatives are consistent and coherent with fundamental labor human rights2, particularly all the efforts being made to reach consensus about the need to understand the new economy as opening up possibilities for developing fair human relationships between all sectors within APEC economies. Having common interests provides an excellent basis for starting to build a better quality of life for all.

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Working from the research of Mary Kupiec Cayton and Angela Ray, this paper provides the economic context of Elizabeth Oakes Smith's unpublished lecture, "The Dignity of Labor" (1851-1867?).  Far from a critique of her economic moment, in my view the lecture adopts the logic of upward mobility and manifest destiny in order to advance woman's relative position of power in US culture.

Illinois is among the first states in the nation to pass retirement savings legislation in the form of Secure Choice. With the implementation of Secure Choice, workers in Illinois at qualifying businesses without access to an employment-based retirement plan will be automatically enrolled in a retirement savings program. An estimated 1.3 million Illinoisans who currently do not have access to workplace retirement plans will be potentially impacted by Secure Choice. As Illinois moves toward Secure Choice implementation,however, there are a number of key questions that should be answered to help ensure that the program is addressing barriers to participation, especially among low-income workers, women, immigrants, and workers of color. This research is aimed at better understanding these barriers.