Viral Immunology

Erythema multiforme was first described by Ferdinand von
Hebra over a century ago.1 In a simple language it means
multiple forms of redness and reflects the broad morphologic
spectrum of the lesions. It is characterized by a polymorphous
eruption composed of symmetrically distributed
macules, papules, bullae, and typical target lesions with a
central vesicle or bulla. The lesions have a propensity for
the distant extremities and the oral mucosa; however, though
uncommon, not all cases have acral targetoid lesions, and
central distribution could also occur.2 Desquamation of <10%
of the body surface can occur. Spontaneous resolution occurs
with scaling and hyperpigmentation within 3–5 weeks.
Fatalities are rare.

DC ND DO FACN in Bogota, Colombia History and Perspectives What we as doctors learn in medical school about viral infections is summarized within the following course titles: Microbiology, Pathology, and Pharmacology. Following this instruction, the treatments that we use are sanitation, vaccination, and antiviral drugs, respectively. Based on training and my experience with other doctors, I suggest here that most medically-trained doctors are-at least per their formal training-unable to see beyond these blinders and limited options. What I would like to do in this article is broaden those conceptual and therapeutic horizons via a structured antiviral strategy that includes the previously mentioned sanitation, vaccination and antiviral drugs but extends beyond these limited options. Additional citations, support, and clinical details (e.g., dosing and contraindications) for this strategy are available in a digital format constantly updated 1 ; the purpose of this article is to structure the strategy, to shift the paradigm.

Rather than viewing viral infections in a manner that is phenomenalistic and enigmatic, and therefore unwieldy, leading to clumsy prevention and treatment strategies, we should deconstruct the complexity of the infectious process. Doing so – at least in the manner that I have described – gives us four areas upon which we can focus our efforts: 1) targeting the virus directly, 2) blocking viral replication, 3) supporting immune function, and 4) supporting cellular and whole-body health. These are illustrated in the accompanying diagram and briefly described and exemplified in the four respective paragraphs that follow.

A special edition of the book “Science Without Borders”  is dedicated to the most important problem of modern civilization at present - the fight against a pandemic of COVID-19.
The authors of this issue offer their concept of reducing the risks of coronavirus infection and mortality from it before the advent of the vaccine.
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Clinical and laboratory studies of the mineral composition “«AZEOMED»” were coordinated and funded by the International Scientific and Technical Complex "Intergeo-Tethys". The book contains data on analogues of the drug AZEOMED produced in different countries.

Morbilli (Measles) is an acute viral infections disease caused by a morbillivirus as the paramyxovirus family. The disease primarily affects children, but can also occur in adults. The risk of complications of Morbilli in adults over the age of 20 years is greater than in children. Similarly, the risk of death in adults greater than in children

An overview of how viruses-retroviruses could be utilized as to instigate viral bio-weaponization and bio-warfare (much like other pathogens as bacteria, fungi, etc.), as well as a highlight of the history of how this has occurred in the past, has been presented. In particular, two issues need to be clarified here. First of all, almost all of our history of evolution prior to 5,500 years ago has been purged from the records, as well any memory of such happenings have been blank-slated from our consciousness memories. Secondly, that humanity has been lurking in the low dimensional level of consciousness, without having a clue about some of the advanced technologies with regard to the true nature of its genetics, and the possibility of its manipulation leading to genetic mutations and alien hybridization. However, as of more recently, with the advent of knowledge of radiation technological development, together with more novel approaches as nanotechnology in materials science, as well as the fact that we are beginning to better understand the nature of our bioenergetics and the role it plays in our genetics and physiognomy and holographic reality, we are beginning to get a better grasp of how a formidable nefarious alien artificial intelligence machinery can play a devastating role in our genetic modification, hybridization, as well as the using viral bio-weaponization for our demise or total annihilation. Thus, in the present paper, the author

This study detected and subtyped strains of influenza virus from pigs in Lagos, South-western Nigeria. A total of 116 (58 nasal and 58 throat) samples from healthy pigs were analysed from two different sites in Ayedoto farm at Ojo Local Government between June and September, 2010 using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Influenza virus type A 31(26.7%) was detected. Subtyping was done using RT-PCR with H1, H3 and H5 primers and only subtypes H1 [5(16.1%)] and H5 [5(16.1%)] were detected. No positive detection was made for subtype H3. This research work is the first documented detection of influenza A virus in pigs in Lagos, Nigeria and demonstrates the need for a sustainable surveillance mechanism of swine and other influenza viruses to be able to prevent influenza epidemic in the environment.

This essay summarizes, in a non-technical style, the principal characteristics of one of the most important facts of life facing the world in 2020-viral disease. This essay puts major diseases in their historical context by briefly summarizing the bacterial and viral diseases, emphasizing their important differences and similarities. This analysis is used to derive the Lessons we can learn from the History of Disease that will put our present situation in a broader context; some of these lessons are a shocking disappointment that are being ignored today. The heart of this essay is obviously the new variant of the Corona virus itself. After reviewing its history and scientific characteristics, I discuss how our governments and medical experts have made serious mistakes in handling this outbreak. I then take the liberty to offer suggestions on how our modern society can best upgrade the hospital concept to better handle the realities of disease and aging people. I also suggest innovations in how science can do a better job to improve public health and how each of us can take a stronger responsibility for our own health (without the gimmicks of masks and social distancing). I conclude the essay with my impressions of the failing nature of our international War-on-Disease.

Keratins are important bioresources for apparels and feedstuffs, but recalcitrant to common enzymes. Now, it is popular and essential to develop keratinolytic enzymes for environmental prevention and improvement of keratin product quality. In the study, the medium optimization, purification, characterization and application of the keratinase from a newly isolated Chryseobacterium L99 sp. nov. were conducted. Exogenous sucrose, malt sugar, glucose, starch, tryptone, Mg 2+ , Zn 2+ , Ca 2+ and Cu 2+ could promote the keratinase production, while exogenous urea, NH 4 Cl and yeast extract exhibited strong inhibition effects. Response surface methodology predicted a maximum keratinase yield of 213.8 U mL −1 , at (g L −1 ) sucrose 16.8, MgCl 2 ·6H 2 O 1.9, feather keratin 40.0, NaH 2 PO 4 ·2H 2 O 6.0 and K 2 HPO 4 ·6H 2 O 1.0, where dry cell weight nearly had a minimum 8.58 g L −1 . Then, a serine keratinase about 33 kDa was purified, and its optimal activity was acquired at 40 • C and pH 8.0 with K + , Zn 2+ or Co 2+ . Compared with Savinase 16 L and transglutaminase, the L99 keratinase could efficient prevent shrinkage and eliminate directional frictional effect of wool, indicating it as a promising prospect in the biotreatment of wool fibres.

, were delivered intracutaneously into rabbits, using a gene gun. After three booster immunizations, the rabbits were challenged with several viral DNA constructs: wild-type CRPV, CRPV L1ATGko (an L1 ATG knockout mutation), and CRPV-ROPV hybrid (CRPV with a replacement L1 from Rabbit Oral Papillomavirus). Challenge of L1 DNA-vaccinated rabbits with wild-type CRPV resulted in significantly fewer papillomas when compared with challenge with CRPV L1ATGko DNA. Significantly smaller papillomas were found in CRPV L1-, L1N-, and L1C-vaccinated rabbits. In addition, rabbits vaccinated with either L1 or L1N grew significantly fewer and smaller papillomas when challenged with CRPV-ROPV hybrid DNA. Therefore, CRPV L1 DNA vaccination induced CMI responses to CRPV DNA infections that can contribute to protective immunity. Cross-protective immunity against CRPV L1 and ROPV L1 was elicited in these CRPV L1-and subfragment-vaccinated rabbits.

Rather than viewing viral infections in a manner that is phenomenalistic and enigmatic, and therefore unwieldy, leading to clumsy prevention and treatment strategies, we should deconstruct the complexity of the infectious process. Doing so – at least in the manner that I have described – gives us four areas upon which we can focus our efforts: 1) targeting the virus directly, 2) blocking viral replication, 3) supporting immune function, and 4) supporting cellular and whole-body health. These are illustrated in the accompanying diagram and briefly described and exemplified in the four respective paragraphs that follow.

Herpesviruses are widely disseminated in the population and establish lifelong latency, which is associated with a variety of pathological consequences. A recent report showed that mice latently infected with either murine ␥-herpesvirus-68 (␥HV68) or murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV), mouse pathogens genetically similar to the human herpesviruses, Epstein-Barr virus, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, and cytomegalovirus, had enhanced resistance to subsequent bacterial infection, suggesting protective as well as deleterious effects of latency. Here we confirm that latent ␥HV68 infection confers protection against subsequent infection with Listeria monocytogenes. However, the effect is transient, lasting only a few months.

Stress-induced subclinical reactivation of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) has been studied previously. However, subclinical reactivation of VZV induced by the stress of pregnancy has not been investigated. The objective was to study varicella DNA and varicella antibody levels in mothers and their newborn babies. VZV immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels in 350 mother-newborn dyads were studied using indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay testing. A subset of 73 dyads was selected, DNA was isolated from the serum samples, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was performed. Nearly 15% (14.6%) mothers tested were positive for varicella antibodies (>100 mIU/dL) and 16% were borderline (<100 and >50 mIU/dL). Approximately 16.9% of the babies were positive, and 18% were in borderline. Among those tested for VZV-DNA, 70% of mothers with low VZ-IgG (<100 mIU/dL) and 11.32% of those with high VZ-IgG (>100 mIU/dL) were positive for DNA. Among the newborns, 60% of those with low VZ-IgG and 15% of those with high VZ-IgG were positive for DNA. Mothers who have had VZV infection in the past can transmit VZV DNA to their babies.

Serum samples with indeterminate Western blot (WB) tests from 61 individuals whose sera were positive by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were studied in order to characterize their putative reactions with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) proteins and to resolve the HIV infection status of these individuals. The reaction observed by WB could not be confirmed either by radioimmunoprecipitation assay and subsequent electrophoresis (RIPA) or by use of LiaTek (Organon Teknika, Turnbout, The Netherlands) in 28% of the samples. Of the 86 samples that were indeterminate by WB, 66 reacted with p24 by WB; this reaction was confirmed by RIPA in only 21 (32%) and by LiaTek in 49 (74%) of the 66 samples. On the other hand, none of the indeterminate samples that reacted with HIV envelope proteins by WB did so by LiaTek, while 50%o precipitated at least some of these proteins in the RIPA. The sensitivities of the three methods for detecting the antibody reaction with the different HIV proteins, which were studied with serial dilutions of positive serum samples, were similar. Thus, a lower sensitivity of RIPA or LiaTek does not seem to be the cause for the lack of reaction of the WB-indeterminate samples by these two methods. Sequential samples from individuals whose serum samples reacted by the three methods gave reproducible results, but all showed low antibody titers. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained from three of the four individuals with sequential samples that reacted with HIV env proteins by WB and RIPA were negative for HIV provirus DNA after amplification by the polymerase chain reaction.

Confirmed reports of large domesticated cats becoming infected with highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus have raised questions about both the risk of infection for these animals, and their potential as vector or reservoir hosts in an influenza pandemic. With this in mind, we examined the immunogenicity of the hemagglutinin (HA) of H5N1 strain A=Vietnam=1203=04 using several different vaccination strategies. Data from ELISA assays showed that vaccination with a single dose of recombinant H5 HA protein induces a robust antibody response against both whole inactivated virus and recombinant HA antigen. Moreover, a single dose of the recombinant H5 HA protein induced hemagglutination inhibition titers !40, which is indicative of protective immunization. Cats receiving the IND H5N1 vaccine required two doses before similar H5 HA-specific antibody titers were observed, and despite boosting, these animals had HIA titers that were lower than or equivalent to those in the group receiving one injection of recombinant protein. In contrast, cats vaccinated with plasmid DNA encoding HA failed to develop HA-specific antibody responses above those seen in cohorts receiving an unrelated control plasmid. The results of this study indicate that recombinant H5 HA protein-based vaccines can rapidly induce high serum antibody titers, and may be more effective than either inactivated influenza virus or DNA vaccines in cats.

Entecavir is one of the therapeutic options currently available for the management of chronic
hepatitis B.  In this study,  we aimed to analyse the virological response and antiviral
resistance mutations in chronic hepatitis B subjects experiencing entecavir therapy from the
Indian subcontinent.  A total of 45  chronic hepatitis B subjects  were studied at baseline and
were followed up on  entecavir treatment.  Among these subjects, 25 (56%) were HBeAg-positive  at baseline. Virological response was measured by hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA
levels. HBV reverse transcriptase (rt) domains were sequenced for the identification of
resistance mutations. Three-Dimensional (3D) model of HBV polymerase/rt protein,  docking
and molecular dynamics simulation  (MDS)  studies were performed for characterization of
antiviral resistance mutations. At the median treatment duration of 6 (IQR 6-11) months, 38
(84%) showed virological response. Subjects who showed anti-HBe response  demonstrated
significant association with virological response (p=0.034). On sequence analysis, none of
the subjects were identified with signature  entecavir  resistance mutations.  However, one
subject was  exclusively detected with rtV173L mutation. Molecular modeling, docking and
MDS  studies revealed that the rtV173L mutation cannot confer resistance to entecavir
independently. Our findings also showed that the prevailing HBV genotypes, subgenotypes
and subtypes in this population does not influence treatment outcome to entecavir therapy. In
conclusion, entecavir is a potent drug in terms of viral DNA suppression. In addition, none of
the subjects developed  antiviral  resistance  mutations  to entecavir. Therefore entecavir is a
suitable drug of choice in the management of chronic HBV

Zika virus is a mosquito transmitted flavivirus belongs to family Flaviviridae which became the focus of an ongoing pandemic and public health emergency all around the world. It is often misdiagnosed with other disease like Dengue and Chikungunya because of same clinical manifestation. After outbreak of ZIKV infection in Brazil in 2007, a severe neurological complications, Guillain-Barre syndrome and congenital malformations (microcephaly) suspected to be linked with ZIKV. The association between these conditions with Zika virus infection is still not confirmed and is under examination. Since ZIKV has neither an effective treatment nor a vaccine is available, therefore the public health authority focuses on preventing infection, particularly in pregnant women and virus transmitted region. World Health Organization and other health officials are working on the development of new projects and mosquito control methods to cope up with infection as there is very less literature present on the pathogenesis of the Zika virus to help interpret the clinical disease spectrum and target treatments to lessen or prevent infection. WHO/PAHO encourages the countries to establish and maintain Zika virus infection detection, clinical management and community assurance strategies to reduce transmission of the virus. The future status of ZIKV spreading to other parts of the world is still
unknown.

This study describes an erythema multiforme (EM) in breeding sows, after their mixing in the group housing system. Sows at 30-35 days of gestation showed red and raised skin areas, depression, anorexia, fever, respiratory problems, and increased return to estrus. Blood and nasal samples from diseased sows were examined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for respiratory pathogens. Hematological and biochemical analyses were performed on the blood samples. From diseased sows, vaginal swabs for microbiological examinations and samples at slaughterhouse for gross and microscopic examinations were collected. Samples from the complete gestation and lactation feed were examined for mycotoxins. All sampled sows were seropositive for Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (App) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). No viremia for PRRSV and porcine circovirus type 2 were detected. All nasal samples were positive for Streptococcu...

In addition to genetic factors, environmental triggers, including viruses and other pathogens, are thought to play a major role in the development of autoimmune disease. Recent findings have shown that viral-induced autoimmunity is likely to be genetically determined. In large-scale genetic analyses, an association of interferon induced with helicase C domain 1 (IFIH1) gene variants encoding a viral RNA-sensing helicase with susceptibility to several autoimmune diseases was found. To date, the precise role of IFIH1 in pathogenic mechanisms of viral-induced autoimmunity has yet to be fully elucidated. However, recent reports suggest that IFIH1 may play a role in the etiology of type 1 diabetes. Rare IFIH1 alleles have been shown to be protective against diabetes, and their carriage correlates with lower production of this helicase and its functional disruption. In contrast, upregulation of IFIH1 expression by viruses is associated with more severe disease, and could exacerbate the autoimmune process in susceptible individuals.

The potential threat of a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus has spurred the need to develop reliable countermeasures. Since the virus has yet to mutate into a form readily transmissible in humans, a cogent plan for MCMs and their distribution has yet to be put in place. The scientific community remains divided as to the best way to proceed, leaving some institutions to move forward on their own, sometimes in direct opposition to common sense.

In the present study, we initiated validation by experimental transcriptome data available
in public domain combined with advancing plant wet lab research. We compared plantadapted transcriptomes according to ‘RegroVirus’ complemented by alternative oxidase
(AOX) genes during de novo programming under SE-inducing conditions with in vitro
corona virus-induced transcriptome profiles. This approach enabled identifying a major
complex trait for early de novo programming during SARS-CoV-2 infection, called
‘CoV-MAC-TED’. It consists of unbalanced ROS/RNS levels, which are connected to
increased aerobic fermentation that links to alpha-tubulin-based cell restructuration and
progression of cell cycle.

The newfound coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), initiated by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is an international public health concern, threatening the lives of millions of people worldwide. The virus seems to have a propensity to infect older males, especially those with underlying diseases. The cytokine storm following hyperactivated immune responses due to SARS-CoV-2 infection is probably the crucial source of severe pneumonia that leads to acute lung injury, systemic inflammatory response syndrome, or acute respiratory distress syndrome, and finally multiple organ dysfunction syndromes, as well as death in many cases. Several studies revealed that interleukin (IL)-1b levels were elevated during COVID-19 infection. In addition, the IL-1 cytokine family has a pivotal role in the induction of cytokine storm due to uncontrolled immune responses in COVID-19 infection. This article reviews the role of IL-1 in inflammation and utilization of IL-1 inhibitor agents in controlling the inflammatory outcomes initiated by SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Effective immunologic protection contributes to resilient behavior of higher organisms. It is essentially based on the diversity of innate and adaptive cell responses and cell memory tools (1–4). Immunologic responses are energy consuming and require efficient metabolic reprogramming. However, metabolic reorganization is only recently recognized as an integrated part of immunology (5–8). It is increasingly understood that plants and animals have similar responses and cell memory mechanisms to manage immunology (1, 3). These insights enable science to profit from experimental systems across organisms and to apply a higher degree of abstraction for gaining relevant knowledge on early reprogramming events that link to overall resilience.

AU1 c C-type lectin DC-SIGN receptor, encoded by CD209, plays a key role in the infection of dendritic cells by dengue virus (DENV). Because the -336A/G SNP (rs4804803) polymorphism in the promoter of CD209 modulates DC-SIGN expression, we investigated the putative association of this polymorphism with DENV infection and its pathogenesis. A control sample of 72 individuals, rigorously selected through a clinical investigation for absence of past dengue fever (DF) was compared to a sample of 168 patients (156 classical DF; 12 dengue hemorrhagic fever), all residents from Pará, Brazil. However, the prevalence of symptoms showed a trend higher in the AA genotype (Wilcoxon test; Z = 2.02; p = 0.04). Hence, our findings indicate that the G allele downregulates the spectrum of symptoms during the early acute phase of DENV infection, putatively decreasing the viremia, as suggested in the literature.

Previous studies of epithelial immune responses to rotavirus infection have been conducted in transformed cell lines. In this study, we evaluated a non-transformed porcine jejunum epithelial cell line (IPEC-J2) as an in-vitro model of rotavirus infection and probiotic treatment. Cell-culture-adapted porcine rotavirus (PRV) OSU strain, or human rotavirus (HRV) Wa strain, along with Lactobacillus acidophilus (LA) or Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) were used to inoculate IPEC-J2 cells. LA or LGG treatment was applied pre-or post-rotavirus infection. We demonstrated that IPEC-J2 cells were productively infected by PRV. LA or LGG treatment of the cells did not reduce virus replication. PRV infection increased MUC3 mucin secretion.

Heterologous priming and boosting with antigens expressed by DNA, viral vectors, or as proteins, are experimental strategies to induce strong immune responses against infectious diseases and cancer. In a preclinical study we compared the ability of recombinant modified vaccinia Ankara encoding HIV antigens (MVA-CMDR), and/or recombinant gp140C (rgp140C), to boost responses induced by a multigene/multisubtype HIV DNA vaccine delivered by electroporation (EP). Homologous DNA immunizations augmented by EP stimulated strong cellular immune responses. Still stronger cellular immune responses were observed after DNA priming and MVA-CMDR boosting, which was superior to all other immunization schedules tested in terms of antigen-specific IFN-c, IL-2, and bifunctional IFN-c and IL-2 responses. For HIV Env-specific antibody responses, mice receiving repeated rgp140C immunizations, and mice boosted with rgp140C, elicited the highest binding titers and the highest numbers of antibody-secreting B cells. When considering both cellular and humoral immune responses, a combination of DNA, MVA-CMDR, and rgp140C immunizations induced the overall most potent immune responses and the highest avidity of HIV Env-specific antibodies. These data emphasize the importance of including multiple vaccine modalities that can stimulate both T and B cells, and thus elicit strong and balanced immune responses. The present HIV vaccine combination holds promise for further evaluation in clinical trials.

The antibody and cellular immune responses against infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) were evaluated at mucosal sites of chickens after immunization with various doses of an attenuated vaccine at 1 day of age. The correlation of these immune responses with protection of tracheal tissues was evaluated after experimental infection of these birds. Significantly reduced tracheal pathologic effects, measured according to ciliostasis and histology lesions, and reduced viral load were observed only in the full-dose vaccinated group at 5 days post-infection (dpi), while incomplete protection was observed for the subdose vaccinated groups. Moreover, birds of vaccinated groups, especially with full dose, developed higher levels of lachrymal IBV-specific IgG and IgA and increased the expression of cell-mediated immunity (CMI) genes, such as gamma interferon (IFNc), CD8 + T cell marker, and granzyme homolog A more rapidly. In addition, these humoral and cellular immune responses evaluated at mucosal sites correlated significantly with tracheal protection against homologous IBV challenge in a vaccine dose-dependent manner. The results indicate that IgG, IgA and CD8 + T cell responses developed at mucosal sites after IBV vaccination of day-old chicks, could be taken as good correlates of protection against this virus.

Influenza virus-like particles (VLPs) are effective vaccines against influenza infection, which can be produced either in insect cells by recombinant baculovirus (BV) infection or in mammalian cells by DNA plasmid transfection. However, VLPs produced from baculovirus/insect cells are difficult to purify due to baculovirus contamination; VLPs produced by plasmid transfection are limited by scale-up capability. In this study, a BacMam BV, in which three CMV-promoters drive the hemagglutinin, neuraminidase, and matrix of influenza virus was constructed. This baculovirus can deliver these genes into mammalian cells/hosts and subsequently influenza VLPs can be produced and secreted from transduced cells. Transduction conditions were optimized and influenza VLPs were purified from transduced 293T cells. Mice were vaccinated with BV transduction-produced VLPs, plasmid transfection-produced VLPs, and BacMam BV. Two vaccinations of each vaccine induced high hemagglutination-inhibition (HAI) titers and prevented influenza virus infection. In contrast, following a single vaccination, all mice vaccinated with each vaccine had significantly lower lung viral titers compared to unvaccinated mice. Remarkably, mice vaccinated with a single dose of BV transduction-produced VLPs survived challenge, whereas mice vaccinated with one dose of BacMam BV-or plasmid transfection-produced VLPs had 60-80% survival. This finding is particularly significant for producing easily purified VLPs. The BacMam system is an alternative strategy for VLP production, which is easy to scale up and purify. Besides, BacMam BV can be used as a gene delivery vector to produce VLPs in vivo, to stimulate immune responses.

Background Information and Aim: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a blood borne virus and responsible for a worldwide health problem with frequent occurrence and high prevalence of Hepatitis B surface Antigen (HBsAg). In this view, the present study was carried out to find out the incidence of seropositivity of HBsAg of healthy carriers and to assess the implication for horizontal transmission of HBV infection.

Materials and methods: The study was carried out among high risk group and normal population of Arcot area of Vellore district, Tamilnadu, India. The proforma sheet and blood samples were collected from the respondents and HBsAg screening was determined using one step HBsAg test manufactured by Bio Standard Diagnostics Pvt. Ltd., India.

Results: Among 300 samples, 100(33.3%) were high risk group while 200(66.7%) were normal population. Only six (6) were found to positive for HBsAg giving a seroprevalence of 5%.  For studying the possible implication for horizontal transmission of HBV, urine samples were collected from seropositive individuals and analysed by immunochromatographic member based assay(HEPA CARD) and ELISA(PATHOZYME) technique and found to negative for both immunological methods.

Conclusion: Overall, the study portrayed the incidence of seropositivity (5%) to HBsAg among normal and high risk individuals. In this pilot study an attempt had made to explore the implication for horizontal transmission of HBV. Finally awareness about disease and strict international guidelines should be followed in clinical laboratories for safety issues.

Keywords: Hepatitis B Virus, Immunological, Seropositivity, Serum, Transmission

In small ruminant lentivirus infections, cellular immune responses are diminished in clinically affected animals. The underlying mechanisms for this are unknown. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that alterations in expression of the co-stimulatory molecules B7-1 and B7-2 ...

Previous studies showed that DNA immunization of newborn mice with plasmids expressing influenza virus antigens induced protective immunity. We have now extended the study of neonatal responsiveness to DNA vaccines to nonhuman primates. Baboons immunized as neonates with plasmids expressing type A influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) and nucleoprotein (NP) in doses ranging from 40 microg to 1 mg per plasmid per dose developed virus-specific humoral responses. The titer and kinetics of appearance of virus-specific IgG antibodies were dose dependent. Specific antibodies were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) as early as 1 month after birth in baboons immunized with the highest and intermediate doses of vaccine. Virus-neutralizing antibodies were detected in the group of baboons immunized with the highest dose. The specificity of virus-neutralizing antibodies was found to be directed against homologous determinants of HA; however, the IgG antibodies also cross-reacted with HA of a drift variant. Thus, DNA vaccination of newborn baboons with a prototype vaccine against influenza virus resulted in induction of specific humoral immunity.

The current pandemic is caused by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is, in turn, induced by a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that triggers an acute respiratory disease. In recent years, the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 is the third highly pathogenic event and large-scale epidemic affecting the human population. It follows the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2003 and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 2012. This novel SARS-CoV-2 employs the angiotensinconverting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, like SARS-CoV, and spreads principally in the respiratory tract. The viral spike (S) protein of coronaviruses facilities the attachment to the cellular receptor, entrance, and membrane fusion. The S protein is a glycoprotein and is critical to elicit an immune response. Glycosylation is a biologically significant post-translational modification in virus surface proteins. These glycans play important roles in the viral life cycle, structure, immune evasion, and cell infection. However, it is necessary to search for new information about viral behavior and immunological host's response after SARS-CoV-2 infection. The present review discusses the implications of the CoV-2 S protein glycosylation in the SARS-CoV-2/ACE2 interaction and the immunological response. Elucidation of the glycan repertoire on the spike protein can propel research for the development of an appropriate vaccine.

Over the past decade, increasing attention has been focused on the contribution of naturally occurring mutations in the hepatitis B virus (HBV) genome to the clinical course of the chronic infection. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the HBV pre-core mutation G1896A on the expression of HLA class II molecules and the core protein of hepatitis B in liver biopsies of chronic hepatitis B (CHB) infection. In 30 HBeAg-negative CHB patients the pre-core region of the HBV genome was amplified and sequenced to determine the presence of the mutation G1896A. Liver biopsies were scored based on the Histology Activity Index (HAI) system and immunohistochemistry (IHC) was performed to study the expression of HLA class II molecules on the antigenpresenting cells and the core protein in hepatocytes. We found that 19 of the 30 patients (63%) harbored the G1896A mutation. Compared to the patients without this mutation, those with G1896A had lower HAI scores (5.0 AE 2.8 versus 7.9 AE 4, p ¼ 0.03). The study of the expression of HLA-II molecules in our patients revealed that subjects with the G1896A mutation had lower expression of HLA-II compared to wild-type infected subjects (1.87 AE 0.6 versus 3.27 AE 1.5, p < 0.01). Core protein expression was present in four patients (13.3%) who had higher HBV DNA levels than patients without core protein expression (3.81 AE 0.78 versus 2.02 AE 0.16, p < 0.001). These results suggest that the G1896A pre-core mutation may directly interfere with antigen presentation, most likely by decreasing the availability of HLA class II molecules, and this may result in less aggressive liver disease in HBeAg-negative CHB infection.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is associated with premalignant lesions such as high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN-III) with potential progression to cervical carcinoma. There are now preventive vaccines against HPV. However, no effective therapeutic vaccine or immunological treatment exists for individuals already infected or for the 470,000 women that develop high-grade dysplasia, carcinoma in situ, and cervical cancer each year. More than half of these women die from cervical cancer. Relative nonimmunogenicity of HPV infection is one of the main reasons for the difficulty in designing a comprehensive therapeutic vaccine against HPV-induced premalignant lesions and cervical carcinoma. HPV E6 and E7 proteins, the major HPV oncogenes, are highly immunogenic but fail to induce cross-reactive and protective immune responses against heterologous strains. We designed and synthesized a therapeutic peptide vaccine comprised of multivalent peptide mixtures called hypervariable epitope constructs (HECs) that represent the major epitope variants of the oncogenic E7 structural protein, and assessed their immunogenicity and in vivo efficacy in mice. Our results show that this peptide vaccine can induce strong, HPV-specific, T-helper cell and CTL responses. More significantly, we have demonstrated that the vaccine is efficacious as a therapeutic agent in a mouse HPV tumor model. Therefore, the HPV HEC vaccine approach described herein can potentially prevent progression of HPV-associated premalignant lesions, and may also be therapeutic against tumors associated with HPV.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a primary cause of severe lower respiratory tract disease in infants, young children, and the elderly worldwide, and despite decades of effort, there remains no safe and effective vaccine. RSV modifies the host immune response during infection by CX3C chemokine mimicry adversely affecting pulmonary leukocyte chemotaxis and CX3CR1 + RSV-specific T-cell responses. In this study we investigated whether immunization of mice with RSV G protein polypeptides from strain A2 could induce antibodies that block G protein-CX3CR1 interactions of both RSV A and B strains. The results show that mice immunized with RSV A2 G polypeptides generate antibodies that block binding of RSV A2 and B1 native G proteins to CX3CR1, and that these antibodies effectively cross-neutralize both A and B strains of RSV. These findings suggest that vaccines that induce RSV G protein-CX3CR1 blocking antibodies may provide a disease intervention strategy in the efforts to develop safe and efficacious RSV vaccines.

Filoviruses are highly lethal in humans and nonhuman primates, likely due to potent antagonism of host interferon (IFN) responses early in infection. Filoviral protein VP35 is implicated as the major IFN induction antagonist, while Ebola virus (EBOV) VP24 or Marburg virus (MARV) VP40 are known to block downstream IFN signaling. Despite progress elucidating EBOV and MARV antagonist function, those for most other filoviruses, including Reston (RESTV), Sudan (SUDV), Taï Forest (TAFV), Bundibugyo (BDBV) and Ravn (RAVV) viruses, remain largely neglected. Thus, using standardized vectors and reporter assays, we characterized activities by each IFN antagonist from all known ebolavirus and marburgvirus species side-by-side. We uncover noncanonical suppression of IFN induction by ebolavirus VP24, differing potencies by MARV and RAVV proteins, and intriguingly, weaker antagonism by VP24 of RESTV. These underlying molecular explanations for differential virulence in humans could guide future investigations of more-neglected filoviruses as well as treatment and vaccine studies.

Neutralizing antibodies are thought to be required at mucosal surfaces to prevent human papillomavirus (HPV) transmission. However, the potential for cell-mediated immunity in mediating protection against HPV infection has not been well explored. We generated recombinant Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) constructs that secrete listeriolysin O (LLO) fused with overlapping N-terminal (LLO-L1 1-258 ) or C-terminal (LLO-L1 238-474 ) fragments of HPV type 16 major capsid protein L1 (HPV-16-L1). Oral immunization of mice with either construct induced IFN-g-producing CD8 + and CD4 + T cells in the spleen and in the Peyer's patches with the C-terminal construct. Oral immunization with both constructs resulted in diminished viral titers in the cervix and uterus of mice after intravaginal challenge with vaccinia virus expressing HPV-16-L1.

Natural killer cells are important in innate defense against viral infections. The interplay between stimulatory and inhibitory natural killer cell receptors and their corresponding human leukocyte antigen ligands are known to influence the outcome of acute Hepatitis C virus infection. Frequencies of NK receptor genes (8 inhibitory, 6 activating and 2 pseudogenes) and HLA class II alleles (DRB1, DQB1) were