Tudor/Stuart Britain

Van Dyck’s paintings have been thoroughly analyzed in terms of style, iconography and patronage, but there has been no systematic analysis of how these pictures were recorded in Stuart inventories. Pictures attributed to Van Dyck are listed in several royal inventories from c.1639 to c.1688 – from those compiled by Abraham van der Doort c.1639 to the Commonwealth sale of 1649–51, to Charles II of c.1666–67, Henrietta Maria of 1669 and James II of c.1685–88. This article considers the subject matter and placement of Van Dyck’s pictures in a range of palace and room contexts, and charts change and continuity of display across the inventories. The article shows the potential for the close comparison of these royal inventories for understanding display, taste and dynastic politics at the Stuart court.

The marriage of Henrietta Maria (1609-1669) and Charles I (1600-1649) was presented in literature and prints as the joining of the ‘lily’ (France, the queen) and the ‘rose’ (England, the king). Harnessing these floral analogies, this article examines how Henrietta Maria’s fair face was invested with social, political and medical import, and as such was widely cultivated and enhanced through physic, sartorial choices and painted representations. Her skin texture and colouring were considered a mirror of her dynastic pedigree, marital status and good health. The white and red palette of the lily and the rose were intrinsic to longstanding ideals of facial colouring, and to youthful bloom and fertility. This colouring was marshalled by painters such as Anthony van Dyck in her portraits, and strategically deployed through her clothing. Her physician, Theodore de Mayerne, also provided her with prescriptions to clean, smooth and restore her face. As such, the queen’s facial skin functioned as a mirror of her quality, a paradigm of health and a canvas for artists, wardrobe specialists and physicians to cultivate and highlight her natural beauty. The analysis is built on a range of primary sources including treatises, wardrobe accounts, herbals and cosmetic recipes.

The most unusual of Van Dyck’s four portraits of James Stuart is that in the Musée du Louvre, Paris, in which he proffers a fruit. Here identified as a quince, symbol of marriage, it allows the painting to be accurately dated. The portrait has intrigued many artists and writers, notably Marcel Proust.

La Guerra Civil Inglesa de 1642 a 1651 fue un período de beligerancia social, disputas religiosas, experimentación política e inestabilidad en Inglaterra, Escocia e Irlanda. Sin embargo, se sabe menos, pero se debate mucho, sobre las causas ya que no parecían ser propensas a producir los conflictos, sólo el tipo de ellos. Algunos historiadores se han centrado en la sociedad y las masas, otros en las élites, otros en aspectos socioeconómicos y muchos más en el funcionamiento de la iglesia y el estado. Otros se quejan de los enfoques de arriba hacia abajo, de demasiado enfoque en Escocia e Irlanda, y de interpretaciones erróneas de los documentos dejados por realistas y parlamentarios. Hay quienes argumentan que fue un conflicto religioso, mientras que otros argumentan que fue retratado por algunos contemporáneos como una guerra santa. Aunque muchos todavía no están de acuerdo, existe un consenso creciente entre los historiadores de que la religión desempeñó un papel primordial en la causa de los conflictos. Los años que condujeron a la Guerra Civil fueron un período de errores de cálculo por parte de la realeza, revueltas escocesas e irlandesas debido principalmente a tensiones religiosas, discusiones religiosas entre realistas y parlamentarios, y celo religioso que produjo una guerra civil inesperada y no deseada. Si bien los agravios políticos y constitucionales parecían haber desencadenado los conflictos y aumentar la tensión, la religión fue el principal factor subyacente.

The history of Eyrecourt, the surrounding environs, and of Galway, is indissolubly linked with one family, the Eyres of Eyrecourt. This dynasty was to play a prominent part in the shaping of county Galway for over two hundred years; from the mid-seventeenth to the mid-nineteenth century, and indeed beyond. The events, developments and trends that this family witnessed, moreover, are amongst the major turning points in Irish history. One member of the Eyre dynasty to whom the latter statement particularly applies to is John Eyre, the first member of the family to settle in east county Galway. Along with his younger brother, Edward, he was to effectively establish this dynastic house in the county and help it to become one of the most powerful Protestant ascendancy families in the region, if not the country. His story also presents an insight into the lives of a group of people that arrived in Ireland in the 1650s and, if they chose to stay, spent the following decades establishing themselves in the country.

This paper attempts to provide a description and where possible, short history of each of Mindum’s items.

Update contains a new shoehorn Tyson 1610 and additional references Jussel & DeGregorio (2023) for Ayers 1593 and … 1597 and; Brettells Auctioneers (2023, July 11) for Tyson 1610.

In life and in death, Anne Boleyn has always invited controversy. On the one hand, she was that 'godly lady and queen' under whom 'the religion of Christ most happily flourished'. But to her detractors, Anne was the very 'scandal of Christendom'. A prevailing view that commonly appears in both scholarly and popular texts is that Anne was either perceived in her time as a witch or was indeed a witch. However, this essay argues that such a perception is relatively recent-one created in the earlier part of the twentieth century, sustained by modern writers and historians, and in popular culture. It demonstrates that Anne was never regarded as such by her contemporaries or by those who were critical of her.

This book analyses Anna of Denmark’s material and visual patronage at the Stuart courts, examining her engagement with a wide array of expressive media including architecture, garden design, painting, music, dress, and jewellery. Encompassing Anna’s time in Denmark, England, and Scotland, it establishes patterns of interest and influence in her agency, while furthering our knowledge of Baltic-British transfer in the early modern period. Substantial archival work has facilitated a formative re-conceptualisation of James and Anna’s relationship, extended our knowledge of the constituents of consortship in the period, and has uncovered evidence to challenge the view that Anna followed the cultural accomplishments of her son, Prince Henry. This book reclaims Anna of Denmark as the influential and culturally active royal woman that her contemporaries knew. Combining politics, culture, and religion across the courts of Denmark, Scotland, and England, it enriches our understanding of royal women’s roles in early modern patriarchal societies and their impact on the development of cultural modes and fashions.

In sixteenth and seventeenth-century England, the female silhouette underwent a dramatic change. This very structured form, created using garments called bodies and farthingales, existed in various extremes in Western Europe and beyond, in the form of stays, corsets, hoop petticoats and crinolines, right up until the twentieth century. With a nuanced approach that incorporates a stunning array of visual and written sources and drawing on transdisciplinary methodologies, Shaping Femininity explores the relationship between material culture and femininity by examining the lives of a wide range of women, from queens to courtiers, farmer's wives and servants, uncovering their lost voices and experiences. It reorients discussions about female foundation garments in English and wider European history, arguing that these objects of material culture began to shape and define changing notions of the feminine bodily ideal, social status, sexuality and modesty in the early modern period, influencing enduring Western notions of femininity.

Beautifully illustrated in full colour throughout, Shaping Femininity is the first large-scale exploration of the materiality, production, consumption and meanings of women's foundation garments in sixteenth and seventeenth-century England. It offers a fascinating insight into dress and fashion in the early modern period, and offers much of value to all those interested in the history of early modern women and gender, material culture and consumption, and the history of the body, as well as curators and reconstructors.

The English Civil War from 1642 to 1651 was a period of social belligerence, religious disputes, political experimentation and instability in England, Scotland and Ireland. However, less is known but much is debated about the causes since they did not seem likely to produce the conflicts, just the type of it. Some historians have focused on society and the masses, others on elites, others on socio-economic aspects and many more in the running of the church and the state. Others complain about the top-down approaches, too much focus on Scotland and Ireland, and misinterpretations of documents left by royalists and parliamentarians. There are those who argue it was a religious conflict, while others argue that it was portrayed by some contemporaries as a holy war. Although many still disagree, there is a growing consensus among historians that religion did played a paramount role in causing the conflicts. The years leading to the Civil War were a period of royal miscalculations, Scottish and Irish revolts due mainly to religious tensions, religious discussions between royalists and parliamentarians, and religious zeal which produced an unexpected and unwanted civil war. While political and constitutional grievances seemed to have triggered the conflicts and build up tension, religion was the primary underlying factor.

En los antiguos mitos históricos irlandeses se destaca la estrecha relación existente entre Eire (Irlanda) y España. En la Historiae Britonun, escrita por un monje irlandés llamado Nennius hacia el año (930), se afirma que los Brigantios, habitantes del sur de Irlanda, proceden de los tres hijos de Breogan, un guerrero llegado de España.
Desde la más remota antigüedad hasta el siglo XVII Irlanda fue un país de clanes (thuath), en los que se agrupaban las familias (Tyllu) de los descendientes (sliocht) de un antepasado común, más los incorporados por matrimonio y por cooptación, constituyendo la Fine o “los de la casa” que se conocían por adoptar todos como patronímico el nombre del clan.
Es de destacar que los escudos elaborados a partir de la Independencia, no siguen la rebuscada heráldica inglesa, habiendo abandonado las Crest (Crestas), Supporters  (Tenantes), Coronets (Coronas), Comportment (Terraza), Banners (Guiones) y Pennons (Pendones), todos ellos propios de la heráldica inglesa y por lo tanto rechazados por los modernos irlandeses. Su heráldica es más sobria y menos abigarrada que la británica. Muchas veces el dibujo de los escudos se limita al campo del mismo y otras llevan un yelmo adiestrado y cerrado, con sus correspondientes lambrequines.

For God's sake hold your tongue, and let me love is the biography and select poetry of John Donne.

This publication is as much a stand-alone publication into the life of a Tudor Poet as it is, a part of a forthcoming book.

This book is exclusively digital and a prologue/chapter​ from the forthcoming book 'The Devil's Servant', the Dark Conjurer of Batcombe.

16th-century Ireland experienced revolutionary change, as the Tudor monarchy undertook comprehensive efforts at extending English political control throughout the island. These efforts, together with religious and legal reforms, met with a variety of responses from the native English and Gaelic communities, ranging from eager collaboration to stubborn resistance.
This book offers a fresh perspective on Tudor state formation in Ireland by exploring the interplay between the royal government and the lesser nobility of the English Pale during a formative period, from the ascendancy of local magnate the earl of Kildare in the later 15th century to the beginnings of an intensified extension of English authority under Sir Henry Sidney in Queen Elizabeth’s reign. It argues that the default position of this regional frontier elite was loyalty and service to the monarch and to the monarch’s representative in Ireland – an attitude based on the peers’ traditions and identity, their locations close to the royal capital Dublin, and their relative economic and military frailties. None the less, the nobility of the English Pale did not evolve into a kind of ‘service nobility’ observable in parts of Britain and continental Europe, whereby aristocrats were co-opted by a combination of inducements and threats into the increasingly centralised and powerful Renaissance state. Rather, relations between Tudor government in Ireland and the Pale nobility were fragile and liable to acrimonious break-down; by the later 1560s the relationship between both groups was one of profound mutual distrust. This development, it is argued, was not caused by conflicting ideological dispositions, but instead was a function of the nobles’ comparative weakness and the dictatorial tendencies of Tudor government in Ireland, and forms part of a wider failure of Tudor policy towards Ireland. The fortunes of the nobility of the English Pale therefore demonstrate the complex and unpredictable nature of Tudor interventions in Ireland, and, more broadly, the variety of noble responses to state formation in early modern Europe.

The question of when, how, why, and where Freemasonry originated is the subject of intense speculation. The consensus generally accepted by researchers is a direct or indirect affiliation with the organizations of operative masons who built the cathedrals and castles of the Middle Ages. In Early Freemasonry, the author gives a new answer to this question, based on archives and documents for some unpublished. Freemasonry would be a commitment. Spiritual choice whose motives are foreign to the profession of builder. Evoking the ideas, the men, and the circumstances in which they lived, the chronicle of the circumstances of this spiritual choice shows how and why the profession of builder had to come to draw from a symbolic and spiritual universe of which he is the heir and not the founder. These first Freemasons are "the men who held the Word" and recognize themselves as such. Men of their time, they took their part in the political and religious conflicts which bloodied Christianity from the 15th to the 17th century. Their ideas are a way out of these conflicts which involves the Masonic movement in the history of ideas between the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. This chronicle of the Masonic adventure at the dawn of Modernity is not limited to illuminating the history of the British Isles. It reveals the contribution of the Masonic movement to the history of men since the Middle Ages and to the development of their ideas.

An illustrated chronological list of shoehorns and powder horns decorated by Robart (Robert) Hendart Mindum between 1593 and 1613 CE with the text of all citing references.
This catalogue is updated as new works by Mindum come to light.

Update contains a new shoehorn - Tyson 1610 and additional references Jussel & DeGregorio (2023) for Ayers 1593 and … 1597 and; Brettells Auctioneers (2023, July 11) for Tyson 1610.

Though he did not originate them, Gerald of Wales helped disseminate powerfully derisory tropes about the Irish in his twelfth-century Topographia Hibernica (The Topography of Ireland) and Expugnatio Hibernica (The Conquest of Ireland) so as to justify conquest. These tropes were relentlessly recycled in early modern descriptive and historical prose justifying renewed English authority and celebrating the English nation. The charged deployment of Gerald sparked passionate rebuttals defending the nation in early seventeenth-century Counter-Reformation prose in Latin and Irish. Yet an earlier Irish response to Gerald can be detected in work by professional poets from at least a generation prior that seeks to vindicate Irish civility against charges of barbarity, and, in so doing, contributing to the emergence of a discourse of national consciousness.

True-Born Englishman's a Contradiction, / In Speech an Irony, in Fact a Fiction." (1.372-3). 2 So says The True-Born Englishman, a satirical poem that by Daniel Defoe (ca. 1660-1731). Until recently, Defoe's early career as a poet has gone relatively ignored, perhaps because it reveals a Defoe living in the Restoration rather than the novel-dominated early eighteenth century. Written in heroic couplets and engaging with biblical allegories to discuss the English nation, The True-Born Englishman certainly shows the broad influence of Dryden's Absalom & Achitophel. Defoe biographers, moreover, have noted his admiration of Rochester and Milton, two men who deployed graphic language to expose the abuse of patriarchal power, another central theme of The True-Born Englishman. 3 Neither Milton nor Rochester, though, linked dysfunctional monarchy with a vexed English identity quite as directly the republican satirist Henry Neville (1619-1694), an idiosyncratic figure most remembered for his fictional travel narrative, The Isle of Pines. Published in its first complete edition in 1668, Neville's The Isle of Pines relates the discovery of a fictional island that has been settled by several English-speaking castaways. 4 Because of the text's frank discussions of polygamy, The Isle of Pines has been received somewhat uncritically by some as a light-hearted satire or "pornotopia." 5 Polygamy in The Isle, however, has serious consequences that expose the fictionality of legitimate descent that underwrote hereditary monarchy as well as the nativist system of national belonging. In this respect, The Isle of Pines anticipates Defoe's thesis in The True-Born Englishman (1701) that the principle of legitimate descent-central to Stuart royalism, ethnocentric

The present article examines the relationship between the 17th century sibling painters, Michaelina (Mons, 1604–Brussels, 1689) and Charles Wautier (Mons, 1609–Brussels, 1703), and the three eldest children of Charles I of England, in the context of the imminent restoration of the sovereignty of the Stuarts in Great Britain, whilst they were in Brussels during their exile. Together with the known Portrait of James, Duke of York (London, 1633– 1701) by Charles Wautier, an anonymous portrait of a lady in red is subject to investigation, and identified as that of Mary Henrietta Stuart, Princess Royal of England, and Princess of Orange (London, 1631-1660). The princess would have sat for Charles’ sister Michaelina in early 1660, at a moment when it is possible to locate her to Brussels, months before her untimely death. This significant new finding reinforces the Wautiers' relationship with the Stuarts whilst they were in exile, and further invites us to consider a portrait of the Stuarts older brother and soon-to-be King, Charles II (London, 1630-1685), conceived of under similar circumstances.

El presente artículo examina la relación de los hermanos pintores del siglo XVII, Michaelina (Mons, 1604–Bruselas, 1689) y Charles Wautier (Mons, 1609– Bruselas, 1703), con los tres hijos mayores de Carlos I de Inglaterra, en el contexto previo a la restauración de la soberanía de los Estuardo en Gran Bretaña, mientras estaban en Bruselas, en el exilio. Junto al ya conocido Retrato de James, duque de York (Londres, 1633–1701), por Charles Wautier, se somete a investigación un anónimo retrato de dama vestida de rojo que se identifica con Mary Stuart, Princesa Real de Inglaterra y Princesa de Orange (Londres, 1631–1660), quien habría posado para la hermana de Charles, Michaelina, a principios de 1660, cuando es posible localizarla en Bruselas, pocos meses antes de su temprana muerte. El significativo hallazgo refuerza la relación de los Wautier con los Estuardo y nos invita a considerar un retrato del hermano mayor y pronto rey, Carlos II (Londres, 1630–1685), realizado en las mismas circunstancias.

This research paper was prepared for magazine publication hence no footnotes. However it collates a great deal of material on the Bohemian, Orthodox Jewish engineer Joachim Gaunse (Chaim Gans) who was employed by Elizabeth I's minister Sir Francis Walsingham to establish lead mines in the Lake District of North-west England. Several German Jewish minining engineers joined him, at a time when it was officially illegal for Jews to reside in England. Later in his amazing life Gaunse went on to join Sir Walter Raleigh's expeditions to the new world and thus become the first Orthodox Jew to live in North America.

The paper aims at analyzing the Fifth Monarchists movement in the 17th century, placing a particular focus on the period 1649-1661, during which the sect was at its most influential. The work puts under scrutiny the academic, passively theocratic and actively theocratic millennialism, beginning with the interpretation of the early millennialism’s influence on the sectarians. The Fifth Monarchists movement represents above all an attempt to establish the kingdom of heaven on earth, with Jesus Christ as its rightful king, ruling with his saints, recruited from a handful of those deeply devout who had been annunciating the millennium before its arrival. Former four wicked monarchies (Assyrian, Persian, Greek and Roman) had to fall. The Fifth Monarchists refer to the biblical tradition of the Book of Daniel (particularly chapter 7) and the Book of Revelation (particularly chapter 20), as well as to the academic works of such millenarists as Joseph Mede and Johann Heinrich Alsted. The sect can be distinguished from other chiliasts by its rich socio-economic and political programme that it was hoping to put into force to accelerate the arrival of the Fifth Monarchy. Towards the faithful, who came mostly from some of the poorest families in London and provinces, they promised a thousand-year-old land of joy, prosperity and happiness, where all men would be equal (except for the Saints, ruling alongside Jesus Christ, seen as a new form of aristocracy). Moreover, it was intended by them to thoroughly reform the law and to base it on the Sacred Scripture, which was supposed to ruin the corrupted lawyers. Furthermore, one of the major aims of the sect was to abolish tithes, and subsequently, taxes in general.

Fifth Monarchy Men owe their origins to the parliamentary army, in which the millenaristic ministers were involved, influencing the views of the Independents and the Baptists out of which the future chiliasts were mainly recruited. The execution of the king raised hopes for the imminent collapse of the fourth carnal monarchy and the coming of the millennium. The establishment of the Barebone’s Parliament was seen as a chance to implement the programme, but its failure forced the group to move to the permanent opposition. The unsuccessful uprising of Thomas Venner put an end to the importance of the Fifth Monarchy Men – during the Restoration they were seen as nothing more than a sect of minor significance.

The congratulatory poem  by John Evelyn junior (1655-1699) was written soon after King James II acceded to the throne upon the sudden death of his brother, King Charles II. This essay investigates and contextualises the work historically and poetically; it also examines Evelyn’s personal situation and the persuasive manipulation that might have provoked the poem’s creation and influenced its content.

This article investigates the deliberate use and manipulation of chivalric culture and iconography by James IV of Scotland to position the Stewart dynasty's claims to the English throne in contest with the concurrent consolidation of Tudor dynastic security. This resulted in a dialogue developing between the two kingdoms concerning the relationship between sovereignty, dynasty and chivalry. This article argues for a new approach to the study of chivalry, by considering it as a meaningful language in political communication. It finds that chivalry had a strong currency in diplomatic discourse and was used to transact political issues of sovereignty and dynasty.

Since the first voyage was so successful financially, and because Anglo-Spanish relations had worsened further, Hawkins' second and third slaving voyages were semi-official ventures, with Secretary of State William Cecil clearly involved in overseeing them. In addition to backers from the city, three privy councillors invested in the second voyage: Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester; Henry Herbert, Earl of Pembroke; and Edward Clinton, the Lord High Admiral. Hawkins also had Queen Elizabeth's support since he chartered the old and leaky 700-ton Jesus of Lubeck from her and sailed under the royal standard. Queen Elizabeth I, was a shareholder in the third voyage too, supplying the Jesus for a second time and another old 300-ton vessel, the Minion, though no list survives of the other investors in this voyage. Though the Spanish ambassador protested about the planned expedition, through playacting and camouflage on the part of the government about its true purpose, the voyage departed. Having captured enough West Africans to assemble a cargo of slaves, Hawkins then headed West across the Atlantic. Here he ran into serious trouble, because having completed his business with the colonists and while in San Juan de Ulúa repairing the Jesus for the voyage home with what he believed was Spanish acquiescence, they attacked his fleet. Only two ships, the Judith, captained by Drake, and the Minion survived, but then Drake left for England in the Judith with all the provisions onboard, leaving the Minion, leaking and without supplies, to struggle home alone. Hawkins and Drake undertook three slaving voyages together, in 1562-63, 1564-65, and 1567-69. On the first voyage, Hawkins reported that he captured "at the least" 300 African slaves in Sierra Leone through a campaign of destruction and violence; it is likely that he also attacked Portuguese ships for their cargo of slaves, ivory,

In January 1661 London was the scene of a bloody insurrection. The rebels' intention was to depose the recently restored Stuart monarch, Charles II and replace him with another king: Jesus. But they failed. There were roughly thirty survivors, of which thirteen were publicly executed. These rebels believed in an imminent apocalypse and were called Fifth Monarchists. Their leader was Thomas Venner. Relation auß London vom 4. Febr. 1661, detail showing execution of Thomas Venner Before looking in more detail at the Fifth Monarchist risings of April 1657 and January 1661, it is worthwhile recapping what had happened during the preceding twenty years. Prepublication censorship had effectively broken down, with the result that more than 33,000 printed titles were issued between 1640 and 1660. Courts which had facilitated the exercise of royal power were abolished by act of Parliament. There was bloody rebellion in Ireland and then devastating Civil Wars throughout the British Isles. An estimated 80,000 soldiers were killed or maimed out of a population of probably no more than 5.3 million. The Archbishop of Canterbury was executed, bishops deposed and the Church of England stripped of its authority. For the first and only time in English history a reigning monarch was put on trial, charged with treason and publicly executed.

The human mind is complex and astonishing. It is the control centre for everything we do, believe and hope for. Through the analyses of primary sources, it is possible to understand the mental health of the Tudor Royal Family and have some insight into the way they behaved as they did.

This conference investigates the cultural, religious, foreign and domestic politics surrounding the Anglo-­Spanish and Anglo-French marriage negotiations that dominated early Stuart policy, as James I sought a match with the great Catholic powers of Europe for his sons, Prince Henry and Prince Charles. The negotiations for an Anglo-­Spanish match were first broached during the peace treaty of London in 1604, beginning a long process of protracted consultations between the two powers. Attempts to secure a Spanish bride for Prince Henry were seriously explored in 1611, but faltered two years later, when they were replaced with discussions for a French match (1613-­16) or a Savoyard Match (1613-­15). With Henry’s death, James I looked back to Spain for a marriage alliance for his younger son, Charles, in 1619. However, diplomatic negotiations ended at the close of 1623, when the Spanish match was substituted by one with France. The Anglo-­French marriage treaty of November 1624 between Prince Charles and Henrietta Maria represented then a major shift in international allegiances. Yet, despite the initial hopes for an anti-­Habsburg alliance with France, the Anglo-French match marked in fact the beginning of hostilities between the Houses of Stuart and Bourbon. Consequently, in both cases, the Anglo-­Spanish and Anglo-­French marriage negotiations were followed by a breakdown of diplomatic relations, as England found itself at war with both Spain (1624-­1630) and France (1627-­1629) at once.
This conference aims to create opportunities for comparative discussion on the marriage negotiations to draw wider conclusions on questions of Catholic toleration; Jacobean and Caroline foreign policy; dynasticism; the workings of early modern diplomacy; the role of the court; and the wider cultural context in which the marriage negotiations took place.

Research regarding the fashion doll from the portrait painting of Lady Arabella Stuart dated 1577. This is the process, materials and instructions on my making a replica of the doll to very exacting standards using experimental archaeology method of trial and error. Images of the completed replica are in this paper.

One of the most frequent fronts of contention during the Religious Reforms of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries revolved around the myth of the pope Joan. The story of a woman, who disguises herself as a man and, becoming pope, dies giving birth in public procession, thus revealing her secret, was fully accepted by the Church until the rise of the Protestant Reformation. In the sixteenth century, then, a fierce debate began about the existence of the woman-pope, with Protestant preachers on the one hand, claiming with "a cloud of witnesses" that it had existed and that this proved that the Church of Rome was the Antichrist, and Catholic scholars of another, claiming the popess to be a "vain fable." The purpose of this study is to examine the meaning of this myth and its relation to religious identities and political tensions in Jacobite England. To do so, we use the pamphlet Pope Ioan: a dialogue between the Protestant and the Papist, published by Alexander Cooke in 1610, the most extensive work available in defense of the myth of Joan in Early Modern England. For documentary analysis and its articulation with historiography, we use the Mimetic Theory of René Girard, a system that articulates desire, rivalry and identity through what he calls the scapegoat mechanism. The hypothesis we have constructed is that the power of myth in the early seventeenth century was political. It would respond to the crisis of differences, which the English Reformation inaugurated, especially by the means of Royal Supremacy, which made the monarch the Supreme Head of the Church. Such an experience was pushed to the limit when Elizabeth I ascended to power and is singled out by opposition Catholics as ‘the true popess’. Both the textual form chosen by Cooke, the dialogue, and the evidence called in favor of pope Joan, are based on scapegoat stereotypes whose main function is to reestablish the difference between a legitimate Protestantism and an illegitimate Catholicism. Thus, in Pope Ioane, the Protestant fragmentation that characterized the period would be eclipsed in favor of a polarization animated by anti-Catholicism in general, and the anti-Jesuit myth in particular.

Key-words: Political Myth; Early Modern England; Mimetic Theory. 

Uma das frentes de disputa mais frequentes durante as Reformas Religiosas dos séculos XVI e XVII girou em torno do mito da papisa Joana. A história de uma mulher que se oculta em trajes masculinos e é eleita papa, e que morre ao dar à luz em procissão, revelando assim o seu segredo, foi plenamente aceita pela Igreja até o surgimento da Reforma Protestante. No século XVI, principia-se um acirrado debate sobre a existência da papisa, com pregadores protestantes de um lado, alegando, com “uma nuvem de testemunhas”, que ela havia existido e que isso provava que a Igreja de Roma era o Anticristo, e eruditos católicos de outro, afirmando tratar-se de uma “vã fábula”. O propósito deste estudo é perscrutar o sentido desse mito e sua relação com as identidades religiosas e tensões políticas na Inglaterra Jacobita. Para tanto, nos valemos do panfleto Pope Ioan: a dialogue between a protestant and a papist, publicado por Alexander Cooke em 1610, a mais extensa obra de defesa do mito da papisa Joana na Inglaterra do período. Para a análise documental e sua articulação com a historiografia, utilizamos a teoria mimética de René Girard, sistema que articula desejo, rivalidade e identidade por meio do que chama de mecanismo de bode expiatório. A hipótese que construímos é que o poder do mito no início do século XVII era político. Ele responderia à crise das diferenças que a Reforma Inglesa inaugurou na Inglaterra, sobretudo pelo conceito de Supremacia Real, que tornava o monarca o Chefe Supremo da Igreja. Tal experiência foi levada ao limite quando Elizabeth I ascende ao poder e é apontada por católicos opositores como ‘a verdadeira papisa’. Tanto a forma textual escolhida por Cooke, o diálogo, quanto as provas chamadas em favor da papisa, se baseiam em estereótipos de bode expiatório cuja função central é reestabelecer a diferença entre um protestantismo legítimo e um catolicismo ilegítimo. Desse modo, em Pope Ioane, a fragmentação protestante que caracterizava o período seria eclipsada em prol de uma polarização animada pelo anticatolicismo em geral, e o mito antijesuíta em particular.

Palavras-chave: Mito Político; Início da Inglaterra Moderna; Teoria Mimética.

The Popish plot, religious relations in England, Scotland and Ireland in 16th and 17th century
Popish plot stands for a general description of most of the catholic intrigues, in particular Jesuit attempts to destroy the existing social, political and religious order. It is, however, mainly associated with a particular event, one that evokes the name of Titus Oates, who confabulated on the subject of the alleged attempt to assassinate king Charles II. Anti-Catholic and popish hysteria that swept over England in 1678 was a phenomenon, yet it constituted a logical end to a long-term propaganda against papists and was an integral part of the mentality back then – the British were tormented by a constant fear of an invasion and looked for the enemies within the country.
The work investigates the history of the three great religions in the three kingdoms, which will later make up Great Britain – England, Scotland and Ireland. The most prominent role in the analysis was accorded to the Catholic religion, given that it were the followers of that rite that were the victims of slander and faced the exclusion from public life, as well as were those who committed actual offences against the monarchy. The Church of England constitutes the basis for a moderate and conformist world of the majority of the English, though it is separate from Rome and everything pope-related. It makes for a reference point for the analysis of the two other religions. The last one, the dissident Presbyterianism appears as a radical fraction that wanted to finalise the reformation and settle matters with the scheming Catholics for once and for all. The research area covers the time from the Henrician Schism up to the Glorious Revolution, stepping out of a time-frame in two instances – describing on the one hand the Lollardy movement, and on the other the Catholic Jacobitism.
Starting from the actual plots, through the Catholic loyalism, up to the economic and legal oppression – as in the case of the Scottish colonisation of Ireland in Ulster – the Catholic attitudes are being analysed. Most importantly, what truly does interest us is the fear that had encompassed the masses, especially in London during the many religious crises in the second half of the 16th century and in the 17th century – as during the Civil War, Exclusion Crisis or, at last, the actual Titus Oates’ Popish plot. It seems that in the long run the anachronic world of memory, which dates back to the turbulent times of Elizabeth I and the fortress mentality, were the catalysts of fear and discord between the religions.

I want to focus on a special moment in the history of European kingship: the trial and the public execution of the rightful sovereign of the United Kingdom, Charles I Stuart. His death in 1649 marks the moment of “the great separation” as Mark Lila puts it — moment at which the sacred and the secular identities of king become divided.

Book Reviews 1047 of research, especially if approached diachronically and transnationally . Another important avenue of research is the rise of theatricality as a contested political space of the late Enlightenment in the four essays gathered under the headline "Theatrical Transfers . " The fourth and last section on "digital transfers" reveals the slight bias of the collection toward the late Enlightenment, reflecting its connection with the research project "Diversifying Publics and Opinions under Censorship: The Journals of Eighteenth-Century Denmark-Norway 1720-1814" (ix) . This is mirrored by the temporal scope of digitization projects, as Hege Stensrud Høsøien shows in her examination of a digitizing project of Norwegian periodicals 1700-1820 and Flemming Schock in his survey of such projects in Germany . Yet neither asks how the two media revolutions (the periodical and the digital) relate to one another, a question that is all the more pressing since the major media revolutions in early modern Europe of the sixteenth century (the postal service) and the beginning of the seventeenth century (periodicals) precede the time period this study focuses on (293) .

This book tells the history of Cambridge from the earliest Roman and Anglo Saxon inhabitants through to the notorious Cambridge Spies, who actively spied for the Soviet Union in the 1950s. Told in an accessible manner, and illustrated throughout, the contents are:
1. Etheldreda: Born a Princess, Died a Saint
2. Vanquished by the Vikings: the sacking of Cambridge
3. Fire, Death and Murder at the Fairs: Stourbridge and Midsummer Fairs
4. Jousting Tournaments: history of jousts at Cambridge
5. The Black Death: death in Cambridge
6. Peasants' Revolt: attacks on Cambridge colleges during the revolt
7. Bloody Mary's Revenge on Cambridge
8. Burnt at the Stake: John Hullier, the Protestant Martyr
9. Bear-Baiting: cruel sport in Cambridge
10. Witches and Witchcraft: women killed for being witches
11. Bull-Baiting: more cruel Cambridge sports
12. The English Civil War: the fortification of Cambridge
13. Oliver Cromwell's Missing Head
14. Pressed for an Answer: Peine Forte et Dure
15. One in the Eye for Sir Isaac Newton
16. Highway Robbery: highway men in Cambridge
17. Branding: punishment for crimes
18. Bloody Burwell Fire: the death of 70 innocent people
19. Dick Turpin: his time hiding in Cambridge
20. Cockfighting: history of cockfighting at Cambridge
21. The Resurrection of Tristram Shandy - death of Laurence Stearne: grave robbers steal his body for dissection in the university
22. Cambridge Gallows: the tragedy of those hung at Cambridge
23. The Tragical Death of the Revd Samuel Reeve
24. The Chimneysweep Burglars: thefts from colleges
25. Elizabeth Woodcock and the Curse of the Three Tuns Inn
26. General Tom Thumb Causes a Riot
27. Sister Act: The Cambridge Arsenic Poisoners
28. The Three Tuns Inn: Den of Thieves
29. Burned Alive
30. Bloody Students: The Battle of Town and Gown
31. Fatal Bumps: death on the river Cam
32. Suffragette's Protest
33. The Great War: the role the university played in WWI
34. The Judases Who Betrayed from Within: the story of the Cambridge spies: Blunt, Burgess, Philby, MacLean, and others
35. The Enigma of the Second World War: the role Cambridge played in cracking the German enigma codes at Bletchley Park

Also attached are reviews of the book in the Cambridge News by Emma Higginbotham and a piece about Oliver Cromwell's Head, taken from the book.

The objective of this communication will be to highlight the relevance that the arrival to the Castilian throne of a woman, Queen Elizabeth I, had in the education of the ladies of her court. Likewise, this idea will link with the importance of the educational level of Queen Catherine of Aragon in her influence on the Tudor court. On the other hand, his great interest in studying works related to humanism will directly influence the education of his daughter and that of Ana Bolena's daughter, Isabel. This is not a trivial question since these two women would become the first two queens of England in their own right. The praise for his magnificent education received by his contemporaries is due, in large part, to the interest of Queen Catherine to continue the work of her mother. Keywords Catherine of Aragon Erasmus of Rotterdam Juan Luis Vives Humanism patronage AbstractThe goal of this paper is to highlight the relevance of the access of a woman, in his daughters his own educational deficiencies 4 establishing a new educational trend among noble Castilian women exemplified in infantas. Juan Luis Vives highlighted in his Instruction of the Christian woman, the educational work for women 2 For these questions consult Joaquín YARZA LUACES, Los Reyes Católicos: artistic landscape of a monarchy, Madrid, Nerea, 1993. most successful of the sixteenth century written by request of Queen Catherine of Aragon, that the four daughters of Isabel la Católica were recognized for their mastery of Latin, since they were capable of preparing public responses in that language to large audiences 5. This is an important question because the vehicle for transmitting the new humanistic sensibility was the Latin language, which allowed the four infantas to have an TRANSLATION