Sponges

Spirophorida (Demospongiae) is a well-defined small group of non-lithistid tetractinomorph sponges characterized by sigmaspire microscleres (spined c- or s-shaped spicules of 10-40 /-Lm length). Triaenes and tetractine spicules are shared with sponges of the order Astrophorida, but are absent in some taxa. Sigmaspires are shared with the lithistid family Scleritodermidae, which points to a probable close relationship with this family, once again demonstrating polyphyly of the 'order Lithistida'. Spirophorida comprise three families, Samidae Sollas is monotypic, Spirasigmidae Hallmann with two genera, and Tetillidae Sollas has eight valid genera. Samidae are excavating sponges with amphitriaenes and lacking long-shafted triaenes and lacking oxeas; Spirasigmidae are encrusting to small conical sponges with only oxea megascleres, lacking triaenes, with a plumose skeleton fanning out towards the periphery, and one genus with a secondary skeleton of roughened 'microxeas'; Tetillidae are globular sponges with protriaenes as the characteristic megascleres.

Seven species of lamellate, stalked sponges from Australasian waters are referred to a new genus, Cymbastela gen.nov. Six species from tropical, predominantly coral reef habitats: C. stipitata (Bergquist & Tizard) (type species) and C. vespertina sp.nov., both from NW Australia, C. concentrica (Lendenfeld) and C. coralliophila sp.nov. both from the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, C. marshae sp.nov. from the Houtman-Abrolhos Is, Western Australia, and C. cantharella (Levi) from New Caledonia). Another species is recorded from temperate South Australian waters (C. notiaina sp.nov. from the Gulf of St Vincent). All the species conformed to the existing interpretation of Pseudaxinyssa Burton, but they are referred here to Cymbastela since all are substantially different from the type species of Pseudaxinyssa, A. tethyoides Kirkpatrick. Pseudaxinyssa is synonymized with Axinyssa Lendenfeld. The seven species of Cymbastela are primarily differentiated by their spicule length and geometry, axial and extra-axial skeletal development, growth form, lamella thickness and live colouration. Four species are sympatric over part of their range in tropical Australia, whereas three species have more restricted, allopatric distributions in temperate Australia and the western Pacific Ocean.

Monoglycosylceramides have been isolated from the sponges Axinyssa djiferi and Aaptos papillatus, and alkyldiglycosylglycerols have been isolated from Trikentrion laeve and Myrmekioderma dendyi. Glycolipids from Axinyssa djiferi corresponded to a mixture of galactosylceramides, named axidjiferosides, with different α-hydroxy fatty acids and long-chain unsaturated bases, and showed an antimalarial activity. Aaptos papillatus contained glycolipids, named aaptopapillosides, possessing N-acetylglucosamine, a mixture of long-chain bases linked to hydroxylated or non hydroxylated fatty acyl chains. Acid methanolysis of mixtures of glycosylceramides homologues allowed to characterize their three parts by GC-MS: sugar unit, fatty acyl chains and bases. Glycolipids from M. dendyi had xylose, N-acetylglucosamine, a glycerol backbone and two alkyl long-chains with a terminal primary alcohol group. An O-alkyl-O-glycosylglycerol, known in T. laeve, was isolated in order to perform pharmacological screening, and was found to be associated with a series of glycolipids differing by chain length and unsaturation pattern. Ether glyceroglycolipids showed antitumor activity.

We review the sponge fauna of the Mariana Islands based on
new and existing collections, and literature records. 124 species of siliceous sponges (Class Demospongiae) and 4 species of calcareous sponges (Class Calcarea) have been identified to date, representing 73 genera, 44 families, within 16 orders. Several species are adventive. Approximately 30% (40) of the species encountered are undescribed, but not all are endemics, as the authors know them from other locations. Approximately 30% (38) of the species are known from diverse locations within the Indo West Pacific, but several well-known, widespread species are absent. The actual diversity of sponge fauna of the Marianas is considerably higher, as many species, especially cryptic and encrusting taxa, remain to be collected and studied.

We describe two new species of Clathria (Microciona) Bowerbank, 1862: C. (M.) crassitoxa sp. nov. and C. (M.) trairae
sp. nov. from Paraíba State (Northeastern Brazil). All are sciophilous species and are represented by small fragments re-moved from the substrate. Both new species have cleistochelae, and are compared with their cleistocheliferous congeners, differing from all of them by the possession of different combinations of other megascleres and microscleres.

Twenty species of sponge in seven genera of the family Halichondriidae (order Halichondrida) are described from the Beagle Gulf, Darwin region, Northern Territory, including eight new species and five new records for Australia. A resume is provided of generic characters and a survey of the known Indo-west Pacific species in these genera.

Demospongiae (Porifera) have discrete cellular elements, parenchymella or blastula larvae, with either viviparous or oviparous reproductive
strategies. The skeleton is composed of monaxonic or tetraxonic siliceous spicules (never triaxonic) bound together with spongin in
discrete fibres or loosely aggregated, and Ubiquitous collagenous filaments forming the ground substance of the intercellular matrix.
Spicules andlor fibres, or both, may be absent in some taxa, and several other groups with solid calcitic or siliceous skeletons are also
included ('sclerosponges', 'sphinctozoans', 'lithistids') rendering the class morphologically heterogeneous. Three subclasses are recognised
based on larval morphology, reproductive strategy, tetraxonid versus monaxonic megascleres, and microsclere geometries, although
these divisions require further refinement, and as such they are often ignored by contemporary authors. Demosponges include about 85%
of all described Recent species, some are freshwater but predominantly they are marine species living from the intertidal to the deepest seas, with around 15 orders (the exact number still in contention), 88 families, and about 500 valid genera.

In line with growing scholarly attention currently being given to painters' tools, this paper examines a hitherto unstudied candidate: the sponge. Textured areas depicting moss and foliage in paintings by late 17th-century Dutch artists have led to the assumption that these were painted with a sponge or moss — without questioning the natural properties, availability, and both practical and conceptual connotations of such potential tools. This paper addresses those questions in order to determine more precisely if, and why, a sponge might have been used. From a wide variety of primary sources, two tentative patterns emerge: firstly, a substantial difference in the presence of sponges between Italy and the Netherlands due to their distinct geographies; secondly, an increase in the number of records and references referring to sponges in the Netherlands towards the end of the 17th century coinciding with a shift in their conceptual connotations. The sources support the hypothesis that the sponge could have been used as a painters' tool, although its apparent overall scarcity raises further questions as to the implications of such potential use.

The Systema Porifera collaboration (45 authors from 17 countries) produced a two volume treatise revising and defining the supraspecific classification of sponges and spongiomorphs (Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers). The Systema recognises approximately 680 genera of living sponges and 1000 genera of fossil sponges from many thousands of nominal taxa, and places these taxa in a unified higher systematics scheme (including over forty new higher taxa proposed). Most genera were revised from their type material (where available), reinterpretation of the vast sponge literature, and incorporation of other biological evidence where available. The Systema, therefore, has an important theoretical basis, being: the most comprehensive taxonomic revision of sponges at genus level and above; addressing the many long-outstanding nomenclatural problems (and thus stabilising the nomenclature) and providing a sound baseline to focus detailed research questions on sponges in the future. It also has a strong practical focus as a tool for sponge identification: providing concise definitions, diagnoses, keys and illustrations of all the valid (i.e., reinterpreted) genera of extant sponges, and some key fossil sponge genera, unified into a single classification of Porifera; serving as a manual to achieve more accurate faunal inventories that will be of benefit to biodiversity and biogeographic analyses etc., and thus marine conservation and planning. In this paper we critically analyse the strengths (achievements) and weaknesses (remaining challenges) of the Systema Porifera project, and highlight some areas where research might be productively directed in the future, including questions of the monophyly of Porifera itself.

Paleontological inferences, molecular clocks, and biomarker fossils indicate sponges evolved in the Cryogenian, but Precambrian sponge fossils are rare, poorly substantiated, and controversial. Spicule-like microstructures (SLMs) hosted in phosphatized fossils from the Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation (∼635–551 Ma) at Weng’an of South China have been interpreted as cylindrical siliceous monaxons, and their hosting fossils as the oldest demosponges in the fossil record. In order to assess their veracity as the oldest spiculate demosponges, we utilize a suite of in situ nanoscale analytical techniques—including scanning electron microscopy, synchrotron X-ray fluorescence mapping, X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy, focused ion beam electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy—to evaluate the ultrastructures and elemental, chemical, and mineralogical compositions of the SLMs. Our data decisively shows that the SLMs are carbonaceous in composition and rectangular in transverse sections, and therefore, are not cylindrical siliceous spicules. Instead, the SLMs may be microbial strands, axial filaments of early hexactinellids, or acicular crystals molded by organic matter. Regardless, our new data invalidate the oldest and only Precambrian demosponges with mineralized spicules. These results indicate that interpretations of Precambrian sponge fossils should be scrutinized with compositional, mineralogical, and ultrastructural data collected using in situ analytical techniques. In addition, our conclusions affirm that no unequivocal biomineralizing sponges occur below the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary. If hexactinellids and demosponges did diverge in the Cryogenian as suggested by molecular clocks and biomarkers, they either evolved biomineralization long after their divergence or their biomineralized spicules were never preserved until after the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary. In either case, the dearth of biomineralizing sponge fossils in the Precambrian and their abundance in the early Cambrian must reflect a geobiologically-significant aspect of the Precambrian-Phanerozoic transition.

For the kingdom Animalia, 1,552,319 species have been described in 40 phyla in a new evolutionary classification. Among these, the phylum Arthropoda alone represents 1,242,040 species, or about 80% of the total. The most successful group, the Insecta (1,020,007 species), accounts for about 66% of all animals. The most successful insect order, Coleoptera (387,100 species), represents about 38% of all species in 39 insect orders. Another major group in Arthropoda is the class Arachnida (112,201 species), which is dominated by the mites and ticks (Acari 54,617 species) and spiders (43,579 species). Other highly diverse arthropod groups include Crustacea (66,914 species), Trilobitomorpha (19,606 species) and Myriapoda (11,885 species). The phylum Mollusca (117,358 species) is more diverse than other successful invertebrate phyla Platyhelminthes (29,285 species), Nematoda (24,783 species), Echinodermata (20,509 species), Annelida (17,210 species) and Bryozoa (10,941 species). The phylum Craniata, including the vertebrates, represents 64,832 species (for Recent taxa, except for amphibians): among these 7,694 described species of amphibians, 31,958 species of “fish” and 5,750 species of mammals.

Thirty-three (33) species of marine sponge were identified in this study. Four were identified as possiblynew to science; a short description of these species is given here. In addition, one species has potential for bath sponge culture. Percent similarity of species is low between stations suggesting a highly diverse sponge assemblage around the island. Clustering of the stations appears to be related to distance between stations.

Sponges are a prominent component of the invertebrate fauna of Caribbean reefs. This study describes various aspects of the ecology of the demosponge Desmapsamma anchorata, Carter 1882, off southwest Puerto Rico. The distribution of Desmapsamma was examined at various sites (San Cristobal reef, Pelotas reef and Guayanilla Bay) and more detailed studies (field experiments, spatial dispersion pattern, population dynamics and interactions with other organisms) were largely conducted at Media Luna reef. This sponge occurs in depths ranging from 2 to more than 20m in inner, middle and outer reefs systems as well as in other habitats (mangrove roots, Thalassia beds, etc.). The spatial dispersion pattern of Desmapsamma is aggregated, probably because of the patchy distribution of suitable substrates. In addition to its presence on inanimate substrates, Desmapsamma is often associated with other organisms (gorgonians, other sponges, corals, zoanthids). The biological associations involve positive (mutualistic), negative (competitive), and no effect (standoff) interactions depending upon the specific organism. In addition, competitive interactions included both overgrowth and allelopathic effects depending upon the associated species. For instance Desmapsamma overgrew scleractinians and killed tissues of the gorgonian Gorgonia ventalina through allelopathy. Mortality of Desmapsamma was size-dependent, with the highest survival for medium size colonies. The greater drag forces associated with wave action are probably responsible for the high mortality of large colonies. Recruitment was largely the result of sexual reproduction rather than asexual fragmentation. A size-specific matrix model indicated that the Desmapsamma population was decreasing during the study period.
The results of this study indicate that Desmapsamma populations are affected by a complex interplay of physical effects and biological interactions.

Algae and marine sponges have been the targets of important scientific researches in the last 50 years, with a large number of secondary metabolites isolated and identified, showing a wide structural variety where certain compounds are useful in characterizing classes of algae and sponges – fact of great importance for chemists, taxonomists and ecologists. These substances exhibit many biological activities, such as defense against consumers and competitors, and colonial and pathogen organisms; or they display reproductive function. This thesis describes the results from the chemical study of Sargassum polyceratium Montagne, a seaweed from the Sargassaceae family, and Aplysina fistularis Pallas, a marine sponge from the Aplysinidae family. Both species had their chemical constituents identified by spectroscopic methods such as IR, mass and 1H and 13C-1D and -2D NMR, and by comparison with literature. The following porphirinic derivatives were isolated from S. polyceratium: 132-hydroxy-(132-R)-phaephytin a, 132-hydroxy-(132-S)-phaeophytin a, phaeophytin a and the steroid fucosterol. The chemical study of A. fistularis led us to the reisolation of the alkaloid and acetamide: 2-(3,5-dibromo-4-methoxyphenyl)-N,N,Ntrimethylethanamonium and (3,5-dibromo-4-ethoxy-1-hydroxy-4-methoxycyclohexa-2,5-dienyl) acetamide, and to the isolation of alkaloid 3,5-dibromo-4-[3’dimethylamonium]propoxyphenyl]-N,N,N-trimethylethanamonium (aplysfistularine), reported for the first time. The ethanolic extract from S. polyceratium was evaluated for psicopharmacological effects, showing behavioral changes of CNS depressant type. The ethanolic, hexanic and dichloromethanic extracts as well as the mixture (132-hydroxy-(132-R)-phaephytin a and 132-hydroxy-(132-S)-phaeophytin a) were not capable of inhibiting the growth of the tested lineages, showing negative antimicrobial activity. However they were capable of modifying the antibiotic activity, modulating the bacterial resistance between 2x to 4x. The isolated compounds from A. fistularis show inhibition of the DNA enzyme Topoisomerase II-
, with further biological studies needed for determining the compounds potency. Therefore, the present results contribute for the chemical study of marine organisms from species S. polyceratium and A. fistularis.

Oceanapia sagittaria (Sollas) is redescribed from shallow water, soft benthic communities surrounding the limestone islands of Ko Samui, southwest Gulf of Thailand, with additional new records from southern Papua New Guinea. Morphological redescription is based on live material, highlighting in particular a unique, tentacle-like, dendritic series of exhalant canals with its complex of oscules on the apex of the primary (open) fistule. Evidence is presented to suggest that this capitate structure serves as both a complex series of exhalant pores and canals, and an asexual dispersal propagule. Scanning electron microscope studies also detected an additional morphology of toxa microscleres, not previously recorded for the species, and studies of skeletal structure indicate that the species is more appropriately included in the family Oceanapiidae (Porifera, Demospongiae, Haplosclerida), being the sixth member of the `biminia' group of Oceanapia species. The distribution and comparative morphology of this species group are discussed.

Maritime cultural heritage transcends the aquatic realm and includes both tangible and intangible elements. Maritime crafts and professions indicate this convergence, allowing one to consider them as part of the Intangible Maritime Cultural Heritage (IMCH). The fluctuations in local economy over the years, combined with industrial and building development of coastal towns have imposed tremendous stress on the survival of these practitioners in Cyprus, who are dying out. The Intangible Maritime Cultural Heritage Project functions as both a Cultural Heritage research and preservation effort, the latter through educational programmes aiming to develop the maritime consciousness of the public.

The marine sponge family Raspailiidae Hentschel is revised and referred to the order Poecilosclerida. Of 48 nominal genera, 17 (including one new genus and one new subgenus) are recognised here: Raspailia Nardo, (Hymeraphiopsis, subg. nov.), Ectyoplasia Topsent, Endectyon Topsent, Trikentrion Ehlers, Cyamon Gray, Aulospongus Norman, Raspaciona Topsent, Rhabdeurypon Topsent, Eurypon Gray, Plocamione Topsent, Amphinomia, gen. nov., Lithoplocamia Dendy, Hymeraphia Bowerbank, Ceratopsion Strand, Thrinacophora Ridley, Axechina Hentschel and Echinodictyum Ridley, and three genera are incertae sedis (Tethyspira Topsent, Sigmeurypon Topsent, Cantabrina Ferrer-Hernandez). Fifty-six species are described for the Australian fauna, of which 14 are new to science: Raspailia daminensis, R. desrnonyiformis, R. keriontria, R. melanorhops, R. phakellopsis, R. reticulata, R. wardi, R. wilkinsoni, Ectyoplasia vannus, Endectyon elyakovi, Ceratopsion montebelloensis, C. palmata, Echinodictyum austrinus, spp. nov. and Amphinomia sulphurea, gen. nov., sp. nov. The phylogenetic relationships and biogeographical distribution of the family are discussed. Tropical north-westem Australian-southem Indonesia has the highest diversity of species in the Indo-west Pacific, and altogether the Australasian region has about 20% of the world's known raspailiid fauna.

A new species of microcionid marine sponge Clathria (Microciona) richmondi sp. nov. is
described from Zanzibar, Tanzania, and is highly unusual in having extremely large accolada
toxas that form dragmata and skeletal tracts within the choanosomal and ectosomal
skeletons, rudimentary spination on echinating acanthostyles, a live blue colouration and a
prominent sub-surface aquiferous system with radiate arrangement around oscules. The new
species is compared with the other 64 species of Clathria described from the Western Indian
Ocean, Southeast Africa and Arabian Gulf-Red Sea provinces, and other species known to
have toxodragmata.

This work is the result of a long study conducted in collaboration with specialists in taxonomy, cllemistry and biology of Porifera from New Zealand (Professor Patricia Bergquist, Michelle KelIy-Borges, Chris Battershill), Australia (John Hooper, Jane Fromont, Clive wilkinson), Brazil (Radovan BorojeviC) and France (Claude Levi, Jean Vacelet, Cecile Debitus).

The Southwestern Atlantic Ocean is the fi nal Brazilian maritime frontier. The Brazilian authorities refer to this marine area as the “ Blue Amazon, ” being rich in biodiversity and ecosystem services and similar in extension to the country ’ s rainforest. This area is possibly one of the most important benthic biodiversity hotspots in the world; however, there is a lack of scienti fi c knowledge about its marine  biodiversity.  Interestingly,  these  benthic  communities  generate  three-dimensional  structures  along  the  Brazilian  coast,  similar  to  the  trees  in  the
Amazon rainforest. The Brazilian marine animal forests (BRAF) in the “ Blue Amazon ” can be compared to their rainforest counterpart: an ecosystem with high diversity but relatively unknown. This chapter presents a review of the environmental characteristics and benthic habitats along the tropical coast of Brazil (coral reefs, intertidal sandstone reefs, benthic communities in rocky shores, continental
shelf  communities,  oceanic  islands,  etc.).  Furthermore,  it  presents  synthetic information regarding the ecology and diversity of the benthic suspension feeders (sponges, scleractinian corals, octocorals, zoanthids, mollusks, ascidians, and bryozoans) in Southwestern Atlantic. Major knowledge gaps remain the baseline research on benthic communities in mesophotic and deep-sea reef ecosystems in this marine region. Finally, this chapter reviews the major anthropogenic threats (urbanization, aquaculture, invasive species, mining, climate change, and petroleum and gas exploration) and makes recommendations for further research and conservation programs.

May, A. (2005a): Die Stromatoporen des Devons und Silurs von Zentral-Böhmen (Tschechische Republik) und ihre Kommensalen. - Zitteliana, B25: 117-250, 6 figs., 33 tabs., pl. 1-43; München.

Abstract: All stromatoporoid species described by POČTA (1894) from the Silurian and Devonian of Bohemia have been revised. Very extensive new collections of stromatoporoids are coming from quarries near the Bohemian village Koněprusy (ca. 30 km southwesterly of Prague). These stromatoporoids have been collected in the Koněprusy Limestone of Pragian age and the Acanthopyge Limestone of Eifelian to Lower Givetian age.  The Koněprusy Limestone contains a large reef complex. Most of the Koněprusy Limestone succession including all stromatoporoids and the reef complex belong to the kindlei conodont zone (middle Pragian). The stromatoporoids and the other reef-building organisms show a clear dependence on the facies (resp. position within the reef complex). The stromatoporoid fauna of the Koněprusy Limestone contains 15 species, but only 7 of them have been described by POČTA (1894). The new species Stromatoporella anamariae n.sp. is described. The Pragian of the Barrandian was no refuge for the stromatoporoids of the Eastern Americas Realm.  Biogeographically, all stromatoporoid faunas of Bohemia belong to the Old World Realm. Nevertheless, the stromatoporoid fauna of the Acanthopyge Limestone is much more cosmopolitic than the fauna of the Koněprusy Limestone. The stromatoporoid fauna of the Acanthopyge Limestone is composed of 19 species, all of which are known from other occurrences in Europe, Asia, or Australia – except of Actinostroma vastum POČTA, 1894 and Stromatoporella pertabulata preisleriensis n.ssp.  The stromatoporoids of the Koněprusy Limestone frequently contain commensalic ""worm""-like organisms and only rarely the new auloporoid tabulate coral Syringopora praehanshanensis n.sp. In the Acanthopyge Limestone the new species Syringopora hladili n.sp. and three other Syringopora species occur.  Possible reasons for the scarcity of stromatoporoids and reefs in the Lower Devonian may be the water temperature, the lack of branching and encrusting stromatoporoids, and the scarcity of commensalic Syringopora corals.     

Kurzfassung: Sämtliche von POČTA (1894) aus dem Silur und Devon Böhmens beschriebenen Stromatoporen wurden revidiert. Es wurden sehr umfangreiche Neuaufsammlungen von Stromatoporen im Koněprusy-Kalkstein des Pragiums und im Acanthopyge-Kalkstein des Eifeliums und Unter-Givetiums bei Koněprusy (ca. 30 km südwestlich von Prag) durchgeführt.  Der Koněprusy-Kalksteins enthält einen großen Riffkomplex aus der kindlei-Conodontenzone des mittleren Pragiums. Die Stromatoporen und die anderen Riffbildner-Gruppen im Koněprusy-Kalkstein zeigen ausgeprägte Faziesabhängigkeiten. Die Stromatoporen-Fauna des Koněprusy-Kalksteins umfasst 15 Arten, von denen nur 7 Arten von POČTA (1894) beschrieben worden waren. Als neues Taxon wird Stromatoporella anamariae n. sp. aufgestellt. Das Pragium des Barrandiums war kein Refugium für die Stromatoporen des Ostamerikanischen („EAR“-) Faunenreichs.  Alle Stromatoporen-Faunen Böhmens gehören dem Altweltlichen Faunenreich an, aber die Stromatoporen-Fauna des Acanthopyge-Kalksteins ist erheblich kosmopolitischer als die des Koněprusy-Kalksteins. Im Acanthopyge-Kalksteins treten 19 Arten, die – bis auf Actinostroma vastum POČTA, 1894 und die neu beschriebene Stromatoporella pertabulata preisleriensis n. ssp.– allesamt schon von anderen Vorkommen in Europa, Asien oder Australien bekannt waren.  Die Stromatoporen des Koněprusy-Kalksteins enthalten häufig „wurm“-artige kommensalischen Organismen und nur selten die neue auloporide tabulate Koralle Syringopora praehanshanensis n. sp. Demgegenüber treten im Acanthopyge-Kalkstein die neue Art Syringopora hladili n. sp. und drei andere Syringopora-Arten auf.  Mögliche Gründe für die Seltenheit von Stromatoporen und Riffen im Unterdevon liegen in der Wassertemperatur, dem Fehlen ästiger und inkrustierender Stromatoporen und der Seltenheit von Syringopora-Kommensalen.

A phylogenetic revision of the poecilosclerid Microcionidae is based on type material, the worldwide literature, and comprehensive Australian collections. Of 73 available generic names 7 genera and 12 subgenera are recognised here. Of 561 available species names 459 are considered valid (10 virtually unrecognisable), including 52 new species. The Australian fauna, including Australian Antarctic Territory, contains 148 species (31 new), many new records, most are new combinations, and many illustrated for the first time. A synonymy of world species is provided. Valid taxa include: Clathria (with 7 subgenera: C. (Clathria) (with 31 Australian species, 82 other species worldwide, with new species murphyi, noarlungae, biclathrata, borealis, burtoni , sarai, saraspinifera), C. (Wilsonella) (6, 8, abrolhosensis, ensiae, lindgreni spp. nov.), C. (Microciona) (5, 91, illawarrae, lizardensis, simae, brondstedi, campecheae, claudei, hen tscheli, leighensis, stephensae, tunisiae, urizae, vacelettia spp. nov.), C. (Dendrocia) (7 species endemic to Australia), C. (Axociella) (6, 6, patula , fromontae, georgiaensis spp. nov.), C. (Isociella) (4, 1, selachia, skia spp. nov.), and C. (Thalysias) (36, 53, aphylla, craspedia, darwinensis, fusterna, hallmanni, hesperia, lematolae, phorbasiformis, styloprothesis, tin gens, wesselensis, amiranteiensis, hechteli spp. nov.); Antho (with 3 subgenera: A. (Antho) (12, 10), A. (Plocamia) (2, 17) and A. (Isopeneclya) (3,1, punicea, saintvincenti spp. nov.); Echinoclathria (14, 15, bergquistae, levii, notialis, parkeri, riddlei spp. nov.); Holopsamma (9 species endemic to Australia, 1 indeterminate species); Echinochalina (with 2 subgenera: E. (Echinochalina) (10, 2, felixi sp. nov.), E. (Protophlitaspongia) (8 species endemic to Australia and New Caledonia, collata, favulosa, isaaci, tuberosa spp. nov.)); Artemisina (4, 10); and Pandaros (incertae sedis) (0, 2). Generic keys are provided. Morphometric characters of  primary importance include the origin, geometry and distribution of structural megascleres within the skeleton, modification of megascleres to monactinal or diactinal forms, the presence or absence of a specialised ectosomal skeleton, presence of detritus incorporated into spongin fibres, and overall skeletal structure (including compression of the axial skeleton and differentiation of axial and extra-axial regions). Brief zoogeographical comparisons are made between continental Australian and adjacent Indo-west Pacific faunas. Australian species comprise about 32% of the world's microcionid diversity; about 75% of species are endemic for the Australian region, and temperate species (81%) have higher levels of endemism than tropical species (59%).

Phylum Porifera (sponges) are metazoans united by the unique possession of choanocyte chambers, a system of afferent and efferent
canals with external pores, lacking a tissue grade of construction but having a'highly mobile population of cells capable of totipotency,
and possessing siliceous or calcitic spicules in many (but not all) species. Four sponge classes are currently recognised, although the
monophyly (and indeed the existence of the 'Phylum Porifera') has been challenged by recent molecular data and chemical evidence.
Three classes have Recent species: Hexactinellida (syncytial choanoderm, discrete cells and pinacoderm, siliceous triaxone spicules,
ubiquitous fibrillar collagen, mostly deeper water), Demospongiae (discrete cells, siliceous monaxone or tetraxone spicules, ubiquitous
fibrillar collagen), and Calcarea (discrete cells, calcareous spicules, ubiquitous fibrillar collagen). Archaeocyatha was an important group
of sessile marine organisms during the Cambrian but is now presumed extinct. It was characterized in having double-walled inverted
conular growth forms with spaces between outer and inner walls filled by various skeletal structures, overall architecture of interlocking
polyhedral microgranular calcite, and lacking free spicules. Within this systematics there is scope for recognition of subphyla (e.g.,
Demospongiae + Calcarea vs. Hexactinellida, based on cytological evidence; or Demospongiae + Hexactinellida vs. Calcarea, based on
some molecular data), but this level is not applied here as the debate is still embryonic and there are still conflicting molecular data. Fossil
sponges are not always easy to classify with respect to Recent taxa, with some fossilised groups such as the 'lithistids' and 'sphinctozoans'
distributed within a Recent classification, but with others treated independently. Keys to the classes of Recent and fossil sponges
are constructed independently to avoid presumptions of alleged phylogenetic affinities. This work describes 682 valid genera of the extant
fauna (of about 1600 nominal genera) in three classes, 25 orders and 127 families; and mentions over 1000 'valid' genera amongst the fossil
fauna in six 'classes', 30 orders and 245 families (although the fossil demosponge fauna is not substantially delineated in this work).
Fossil 'Classes' Sphinctozoa and Stromatoporoidea are clearly polyphyletic and represent grades of construction and not phylogenetic
clades.

Mass-directed isolation of the CH2Cl2/MeOH extract from the Australian marine sponge Ancorina sp. resulted in the purification of a new antimalarial β-carboline, (+)-7-bromotrypargine 1, along with the previously isolated natural product, 6-bromotryptamine 2. The structure of 1 is determined by extensive 1D/2D NMR and MS data analyses. Comparison of the chiro-optical data for 1 with literature values of related natural products is used to determine the absolute stereochemistry of (+)-7-bromotrypargine as 1R. Antimalarial activity data for 1 and 2 against a chloroquine-resistant (Dd2) and chloroquine-sensitive (3D7) Plasmodium falciparum strain are also provided.

Sponges are the earliest metazoans, and according to molecular-clocks, have a deep history back into the Cryogenian. However, the record of their biomineralized elements below the Ediacaran-Cambrian Boundary has been controversial. Here we present the first and earliest indisputable record of hexactinellid spicules in the lowest Cambrian, Terreneuvian, below the small shelly fossil Anabarites trisulcatus–Protohertzina anabarica assemblage zone (Zone I). Spicules recovered from cherts of the lowest Yanjiahe Formation in the Yichang, Hubei province, South China, include monaxons, diaxons, triaxons, and that are all siliceous in composition. This earliest record of silica biomineralization by filter feeding metazoan suggests sponges have contributed to the cycling of silica in the oceanic system as early as the beginning of the Phanerozoic. These results, along with a review of previously reported sponge occurrences, suggest a two-step evolution on sponges of the early Cambrian.

A phylogenetic revision of the poecilosclerid Microcionidae is based on type material, the worldwide literature, and comprehensive Australian collections. Of 73 available generic names 7 genera and 12 subgenera are recognised here. Of 561 available species names 459 are considered valid (10 virtually unrecognisable), including 52 new species. The Australian fauna, including Australian Antarctic Territory, contains 148 species (31 new), many new records, most are new combinations, and many illustrated for the first time. A synonymy of world species is provided. Valid taxa include: Clathria (with 7 subgenera: C. (Clathria) (with 31 Australian species, 82 other species worldwide, with new species murphyi, noarlungae, biclathrata, borealis, burtoni , sarai, saraspinifera), C. (Wilsonella) (6, 8, abrolhosensis, ensiae, lindgreni spp. nov.), C. (Microciona) (5, 91, illawarrae, lizardensis, simae, brondstedi, campecheae, claudei, hen tscheli, leighensis, stephensae, tunisiae, urizae, vacelettia spp. nov.), C. (Dendrocia) (7 species endemic to Australia), C. (Axociella) (6, 6, patula , fromontae, georgiaensis spp. nov.), C. (Isociella) (4, 1, selachia, skia spp. nov.), and C. (Thalysias) (36, 53, aphylla, craspedia, darwinensis, fusterna, hallmanni, hesperia, lematolae, phorbasiformis, styloprothesis, tin gens, wesselensis, amiranteiensis, hechteli spp. nov.); Antho (with 3 subgenera: A. (Antho) (12, 10), A. (Plocamia) (2, 17) and A. (Isopeneclya) (3,1, punicea, saintvincenti spp. nov.); Echinoclathria (14, 15, bergquistae, levii, notialis, parkeri, riddlei spp. nov.); Holopsamma (9 species endemic to Australia, 1 indeterminate species); Echinochalina (with 2 subgenera: E. (Echinochalina) (10, 2, felixi sp. nov.), E. (Protophlitaspongia) (8 species endemic to Australia and New Caledonia, collata, favulosa, isaaci, tuberosa spp. nov.)); Artemisina (4, 10); and Pandaros (incertae sedis) (0, 2). Generic keys are provided. Morphometric characters of  primary importance include the origin, geometry and distribution of structural megascleres within the skeleton, modification of megascleres to monactinal or diactinal forms, the presence or absence of a specialised ectosomal skeleton, presence of detritus incorporated into spongin fibres, and overall skeletal structure (including compression of the axial skeleton and differentiation of axial and extra-axial regions). Brief zoogeographical comparisons are made between continental Australian and adjacent Indo-west Pacific faunas. Australian species comprise about 32% of the world's microcionid diversity; about 75% of species are endemic for the Australian region, and temperate species (81%) have higher levels of endemism than tropical species (59%).

ABSTRACT
Ceramic sponge are materials used for various purposes in industrial field. They have porous structure, and this gives them advantage in their usage areas. Ceramic sponge may be used as a tool or material  especially in filtration, separation, membrane, insulation, storage
areas and also in artistic shaping, though not frequently.1 The problems in the production of ceramic sponges, especially their fragility appear before us as the material preferred and used by limited ceramists in the field of art. We have aimed to present a new alternative in the use of ceramic sponge in artistic works and to perform experimental statue applications with this material; and we have obtained positive results with the new prescription we prepared with porcelain properties, and we have also focused on the improvability of this work.
The porous structure of the ceramic sponge, which is the infrastructure of the material, ensures that the tissue effect is in the front line in the process of shaping and after the process of firing in the massive forms. Ceramic sponge has revealed that it is an alternative material and shaping method for the ceramists who use tissue element in their works, and who aim to emphasize this.
When the tissue diversity that will be obtained with sponges that have different foamy structures is used by the artists parallel to their designs, and designed with different combinations, it will be possible to obtain richness of texture in visuals. With the studies conducted on the topic, it has been determined that contemporary foreign ceramists like Michal Fargo, Phil Lyddon, and Marcel Wanders produced works by using sponge. When these works are examined, it is observed that each ceramist has a technique that is specific for him/her. The information obtained from this has revealed that only our imagination can limit
us in converting a simple material like sponge into various forms of creativity. Key words: Ceramic, sponge, foam, porcelain, contemporary, design

Dercitus (Stoeba) pseudodiscorhabda sp. nov. is described from the tropical western Atlantic. It is the only Dercitus (Stoeba)
with four-rayed calthrops and discorhabds-like sanidasters. This is the 16th species of the genus to be recognized worldwide,
the sixth from the Atlantic. The new species is compared with all its congeners worldwide.

This paper is part of a larger study dealing with the economic and social impact of Italian rule over the Dodecanese (1912-1947). It stresses the peculiarities of sponge fishing, which from the second half of the nineteenth century was the main industry in some of the barren Aegean islands (Kalymnos, Symi, and Halki). The islanders controlled all aspects of the trade through a wide set of exchanges and relations that involved the entire Mediterranean. For this reason, many workers participated in sponge diving, sponge processing, sea transportation and merchandising. On the other hand, working conditions were harsh: fatal and seriously disabling injuries were a daily risk for divers. After the end of World War I, the Italian government tried to develop this sector and introduced new worker safety and social security regulations intended to ensure better living conditions for fishermen and their families. However, even as these efforts went into effect, the production and trade of sponges met increasing difficulties. The partition of the Ottoman Empire, and the subsequent emergence of several states along the coasts of the eastern Mediterranean, caused growing difficulties in obtaining fishing permits. At the same time, the appearance of synthetic materials, the discovery of new exploitable areas in the Caribbean region and the appreciation of the lira made Dodecanesian sponges uncompetitive on the international market. These difficult conditions stimulated major merchants to move to islands under Greek control or elsewhere. The resulting lack of work pushed skilled workers to emigrate. Between 1912 and 1941 the population of Kalymnos fell from about 25,000 to just 7,000 inhabitants. Based on documents from the Archive of the Italian Ministry of foreign Affairs (Rome) and the Bank of Italy, this paper will deal with the deve- lopment and eventual crisis of sponge fishing in the Archipelago during the Italian rule.

Overview. The phylum Porifera is the most primitive of the multicellular animals, with a most ancient geological history. Porifera appeared early in the history of life on Earth, established in the Proterozoic, with the major class Demospongiae first appearing in the Precambrian Ediacaran age (about 750 million years (Mya) ago). By the Middle Cambrian (about 500 Mya) demosponges were thriving, and today represent about 85% of all living species. During the massive radiation of life forms in the Ordovician (490–460 Mya), and for the next 100 million years or so, sponges formed extensive barrier and fringing reefs around the ancient continents and were the primary reef builders in these ancient oceans. Sponges declined as the primary reef-builders at the end of the Devonian (350 Mya), and today they are not significant reef-builders in shallow waters, unable to compete with the faster growing zooxanthella bearing corals, although several hard-bodied (lithistid and hypercalcified) reef-building groups of sponges persist in modern day reefs. Although sponges are still a major component of modern-day coral reef ecosystems they are often overlooked by the curious naturalist because they are frequently hidden among the more prominent corals on the reef, or live in the less frequently visited deeper waters surrounding reefs. Nevertheless, in terms of their species diversity they outnumber both the hard and soft corals combined, and in some habitats they provide pivotal ecological services, such as significant contributions to coral reef
primary productivity, filtration of the waste products and toxins from other reef organisms, and major recycling of calcium carbonate back into the reef system through bioerosion.

The Gulf of California is recognized as one of the most diverse and productive seas of the world. Nevertheless, marine native fauna is threatened by the current introduction of invasive species. The aim of this study was to detect exotic invertebrates in marinas, ports and aquaculture farms in this ecoregion. Intensive surveys were conducted at 11 localities in La Paz (Baja California Sur), Guaymas (Sonora), Topolobampo (Sinaloa) and surrounding areas. Seven shrimp farms and one oyster farm were inspected. Twenty three introduced species were detected: eight polychaetes, six sponges, five ascidians, two bryozoans, one mollusk and one copepod. The polychaete Branchiomma bairdi and the ascidian Polyclinum constellatum are invasive. The bryozoan Zoobotryon verticillatum and the polychaetes Alitta succinea and Hydroides elegans are potentially invasive. The remaining species are only considered exotic in the Gulf of California.

Two new bromotyrosine alkaloids, pseudoceralidinone A (1) and aplysamine 7 (2), along with three known compounds were isolated from the Australian sponge Pseudoceratina verrucosa. Their structures were characterized by NMR and MS data and the synthetic route. Their cytotoxicity was evaluated against cancer cell lines (HeLa and PC3) and a noncancer cell line (NFF).

The late Eocene ‘soft’ sponge fauna of southern Australia is
reconstructed based on disassociated spicules and is used to interpret the paleoecology and environmental context of shallow marine communities in this region. The reconstructed sponge association was compared with coeval sponge assemblages from the Oamaru Diatomite, New Zealand, and with the modern ‘soft’ sponge fauna of southern coastal of Australia. Based on the predominance of shallow- and moderately shallow-water species, the late Eocene assemblage is interpreted to have inhabited waters depths of about 100 m. This contrast with the spicule assemblage from New Zealand, which characterized deeper waters based on the presence of numerous strictly deepwater sponge taxa, and the absence of spicules of shallow-water demosponges represented in the Australian material. The southern Australian Eocene sponge assemblages have clear Tethyan affinities evidenced by the occurrence of sponges known today from diverse regions. This distribution suggests much wider geographical ranges of some sponge taxa during the Eocene. Their present distributions may be relictual. The modern sponge fauna inhabiting southern Australian waters shows only moderate differences from these of the late Eocene. Differences are more pronounced at lower taxonomic levels (family and genus).

The ex-Navy ship HMAS Brisbane was scuttled off the Sunshine Coast on 31 July 2005, to create an artificial reef and to provide world-class diving opportunities on a significantly large warship in South-East Queensland. The wreck has since underpinned a significant expansion of the local diving and associated tourism industry, and has become a significant natural and economic asset of the region. The wreck also forms a significant addition to hard-substrate habitats of the local nearshore marine zone. This report summarizes the findings of a biological baseline survey of the wreck conducted by the University of the Sunshine Coast and the Queensland Museum. It presents an inventory of the diversity of larger, sessile invertebrates and fish that inhabit the wreck 12-18 months after the scuttling.

The distribution of symbiotic endobionts in Silurian stromatoporoids of Estonia is correlated with the diverse sedimentary facies formed in this portion of the Baltica palaeocontinent. These depositional environments are characterized by different symbiotic endobiont associations. There are two onshore shallow water and one offshore deeper water symbiotic endobiont associations. Water depth was not the only controlling factor for their distribution: seawater nutrient levels, hydrodynamics (especially substrate stability), sedimentation rates and distribution of stromatoporoid hosts may have also played important roles.

This paper is part of a larger study dealing with the economic and social impact of the Italian rule over the Dodecanese (1912-1947).  It aims at stressing the peculiarities of a special kind of maritime industry. From the second half of the nineteenth century, sponge fishing was the main source of economic activity in some of the semi-desert Italian Aegean islands (Kalymnos, Symi, and Halki). The islanders controlled all aspects of the trade through a wide set of exchanges and relations that involved the entire Mediterranean space. Sponges were fished in Anatolia or in Northern Africa, processed and packed by women on the islands, then sold in Western Europe (mainly in London and Frankfurt) by representatives of the Greek Diaspora. For this reason, in the Dodecanese prospects of employment in sponge diving, sponge processing, sea transportation and merchandising abounded.  On the other hand, working conditions could not be considered as decent: for divers fatal and seriously disabling injuries were a daily risk.
After the end of World War I, the Italian colonizers tried to develop this sector and introduced new safety at work and social security regulations, intended to ensure better living conditions for fishermen and their families. At the same time, since the twenties, the production and trade of sponges met increasing difficulties. The death of the Ottoman Empire, and the subsequent emergence of several states along the coasts of the eastern Mediterranean, had caused growing difficulties in obtaining fishing permits; while the appearance of synthetic materials, the discovery of new exploitable areas in the Caribbean region and the appreciation of the lira made uncompetitive Dodecanesian sponges on the international market. Finally, in 1935 it was not possible to sell the sponges in London, because of the economic sanctions imposed by the League of Nations after Italy’s aggression in Ethiopia. These difficult conditions stimulated major merchants to move in the Greek islands, or elsewhere. The resulting lack of employment pushed to emigration skilled workers. Between 1912 and 1947 the population of Symi dropped from about 20,000 to 4,000 inhabitants.
Based on documents from the Archive of the Italian Ministry of foreign Affairs (Rome) and the General State Archives of Dodecanese (Rhodes), this paper will deal with the evolution and the crisis of the sponge fishing in the Archipelago during the Italian rule.