Silversmithing

The English term "Gorget" refers to two main kinds of gorgets in Polish culture. The first type of gorget is called “Ryngraf” in Polish—from the German word Ringkragen—and is derived from the name of an collar tht is the upper part of the armor. This type of gorget has a triangular form and was commonly placed on the exterior of a dress, outfit, or uniform.
The second type of gorget is known in Polish as "Kaplerz", or a “Nobleman’s icon”. These gorgets are usually a rectangular plate, often with a rounded upper part. Other gorget variations include a smaller oval form, often worn by ladies. Typically, the front side of a Nobleman's icon shows an engraved picture of Madonna, or Madonna with Child, where only faces and hands are oil painted in the style of Russian icon images. The Nobleman's icon gorget was originally worn under the dress in leather bags, or in a type of envelope. At home, or in a tent during war times, they were hung on the walls of sleeping chambers and were used as prayer tokens.
Gorgets were customarily gifts from close relatives, parents, older brothers, or beloved uncles, and the reverse sides of gorgets were often embellished with the effigy of the gift giver’s patron saint. For example, the image of Saint Barbara would indicate that the recipient knight’s mother or wife bore that name.
The paper describes techniques used in ornamentation of gorgets. 36 illustrations present different types of gorgets as well as the tools and techniques used for fabrication and ornamentation.

In der St.-Joseph-Kirche in Charbrow bei Leba ist ein einzigartiges Ensemble von zwölf Sargbeschlägen erhalten geblieben, die ursprünglich eine Sargausschmückung der Mitglieder der Familie von Somnitz bildeten. Der Bestattungsort der Familie war eine Krypta, die sich unter dem Altarraum der Kirche befand. Eben von den Särgen, die sich in dieser Grabstätte befanden, wurden die Sargbeschläge entfernt. Es hing mit der Tatsache zusammen, daß das Grabmal aufgeräumt und geschlossen wurde, da kein Platz für weitere Bestattungen vorhanden war, was sich zeitlich mit dem Anfang 19. Jahrhundert erlassenen Verbot zusammen el, die Toten in den Kirchen zu bestatten. Die Sargbeschläge wurden dann an Holztafeln im Inneren der Kirche angebracht.

In der deutschen Vorkriegsliteratur erscheinen die Sargbeschläge nur selten. In vielen Fällen wies ihre Ausführung ein niedriges Niveau auf und sie stammten meistens aus einer Zeit, die im Augenblick der Inventarisierung nicht weit zurück gelegen war. In der polnischen Literatur blieben derartige Objekte, obwohl sie wahrgenommen wurden, kaum im Interessensbereich der Forscher und erschienen somit  nur gelegentlich. Die einzige längere Erwähnung der Sargbeschläge von Charbrow kann man in der Inventarisation von Hugo Lemcke  finden.

Es ist nicht gelungen, den Herstellungsort der Sargbeschläge von Charbrow festzustellen. Da sie ein hohes künstlerisches Niveau aufweisen, kann man lediglich vermuten, daß sie in Danzig bestellt worden waren, das noch im 18. Jahrhundert ein dynamisches  Handwerkszentrum war. Es ist zu bezweifeln, daß die mit einer derartigen Fertigkeit ausgeführten Objekte des Metallhandwerks in einem anderen Zentrum, wie etwa das nahe gelegene Lauenburg oder das etwas mehr entfernte Stolp, entstehen sein konnten. Es scheint um so weniger möglich, daß die östlichen Gebiete Hinterpommerns in der ersten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts unter dem Einfluß der Danziger Werkstätten standen, und daß es auf dem lokalen Markt an Handwerkern fehlte, die sich in der Metallbearbeitung spezialisiert hätten, vor allem in der Herstellung von Luxusgegenständen – und die Sargbeschläge zählen zweifelsohne dazu. Über ihre Hersteller in Danzig sind recht wenige Informationen erhalten geblieben. In den Danziger Archivalien aus den Jahren 1753-1782 wurden die Namen von Handwerkern gefunden, die sich mit ihrer Herstellung beschädigten. Sie gehörten der Zunft, die als „Riemer, Sattler und Gürtler Gewerk” bezeichnet wurde, an. Aufgrund einer Zusammenstellung aus dem Jahre 1763 wissen wir, daß sie außer den vergoldeten und versilberten Sargbeschlägen sowie der Sargausschmückung auch mindestens fünf Arten von Schmucknägeln, Möbelbeschläge, gegossene und versilberte Pferdegeschirrteile, Schnallen und versilberte Blaker herstellten.

De zilversmid Aart de Pleijt uit Schoonhoven, de zilverstad, maakte tussen 1892 en 1896 een reukflacon voor export, getuige het keurmerk, een 'export-sleutel'. De flacon kwam in de VS terecht. De flacon is bijzonder door zijn lengte (22,5 cm). Uit de 'hulpmerken' blijkt dat er van dit model minstens 14 exemplaren zijn gemaakt. Een deel daarvan bevindt zich nog steeds in de VS, getuige recente aanbiedingen op eBay. Export destijds vanuit Schoonhoven was uitzonderlijk.

Núm. 121 (Vol. 38) Octubre-Diciembre 2008 Bilbao Universidad de Deusto 2008 Sumario Estudios ARMANDO BESGA MARROQUIN: Violencia cristiana durante los tres primeros siglos de la Reconquista en las crónicas hispano/atinas 9 JUAN Luis DE LEóN AzcARATE: La muerte y su imaginario en la historia de las religiones 71 AURELIO A. BARRÓN GARCIA: Sobre el marcaje de la plata en Bilbao durante los siglos xv y XVI

The collective Chinese Export Silver repertoire was highly diverse. the perception, appreciation and understanding of Chinese Export Silver is quite different in the West to that in China. All the preceding historical research into this silver category failed to consider that a Western mindset might interpret Chinese culture differently to how the Chinese themselves perceive it. Latest research findings demonstrate the need to realign our perspectives of where much of the silver wares manufactured in China from 1890-1930 were sold and for whom they were intended. My own view is that had the word “export” not been applied in the 1960’s, this unique silver category would be perceived entirely differently today, particularly so in China.
It has often been said that the Chinese approach to life has similarities with Chinese opera. Perhaps the same could be said of Chinese silver, given its almost perpetual complex history is played out in the silver.
An item of Chinese Export Silver is never just a piece of silver; it is a rich cultural narrative!

The article acquaints the readers with the manufacture of jewellery artefacts, old technologies and with the names of some processes. Technologies used in Lithuania in 2nd- 14th centuries are compared with some old metal processing technologies that came from the eastern Mediterranean sea region. To explain and visualise technological processes the author of the article, an archaeologist and jeweller, used his long time research and practical experience, which he has amassed when reconstructing non-ferrous metal processing technologies.

Who instigated the development of the production of silverwares in seventeenth-century Dublin: the city’s goldsmiths or their consumers?

This paper presents the burgeoning market for silver among consumers in early-seventeenth century Ireland as an essential socio-economic condition for encouraging the concerted development of the craft at this time. The paper will also show how the formation by the Dublin guild of goldsmiths of the Company of Goldsmiths of Dublin in 1637 and, with it, the timely regulation of their craft, brought immigrant craftsmen to the capital, cultivating an environment in which the quality of silver produced was regarded to be ‘as good and ffyne as any plate of London towche’. A consumer society was well-established in seventeenth-century Ireland and the period witnessed the growing appetite for imported and domestically-manufactured luxury wares among the country’s elite. This is particularly apparent with the evidence relating to the consumption of silver; seventeenth-century Irish consumers sourced their domestic silverwares from local and international goldsmiths alike. As the century progressed, the increasing volume of silver produced and acquired in Ireland by Irish consumers was mirrored by the exponentially expanding numbers of goldsmiths operating in Dublin and in other regional centres. Balancing case-study evidence relating to individual goldsmiths and their patrons with quantitative analysis demonstrating the craft’s growth and expansion, this paper examines the multiple and complementary factors informing the production of silver in early-modern Ireland.

The splendid art deco oeuvre created in the 1920s and 30s by monk and silversmith dom Martin is still a rather too-well-kept Leuven secret, even though his creations, executed in the most luxurious materials in cooperation with the famous firm Wolfers Frères and laquerwork artist Marcel Wolfers, were very much to international taste at the time. Until recently we knew of only about twenty realized designs. Detective work, which started with the original design sketches and archive photographs in Keizersberg Abbey in Leuven and the Silver Museum of the Province of Antwerp, brought to light magnificent new examples of his work and additional information about the artist’s clientele. Dom Martin received orders from members of the Belgian and French aristocracy, churches, monasteries and abbeys in Belgium, the Netherlands and France, even from as far afield as the United States of America and Brazil. On the other hand, the radical stylistic evolution of Jean Ausloos could be said to reflect the trends in Belgian silver design of the fifties and sixties. Whereas he initially fell in with the art-deco tradition, in the 1960s he came up with streamlined designs in which he played with contrasts in colour and texture. Ausloos’ clientele included a large number of young trainee seminarians and missionaries, who appreciated his individual, bespoke work. The work of both silversmiths illustrates the waves of innovation in ecclesiastical art between the world wars and after the Second Vatican Council. In terms of production, we are now aware of an interesting antithesis between Martin’s one-off pieces produced in an industrial way and Ausloos’ articles made by hand almost in series. As well as Martin and Ausloos, who are approached as representative of and as a case study for twentieth-century (Leuven) silver design, other smaller firms and independent silversmiths were active in Leuven. In conclusion, silverware produced in Leuven in the twentieth century – and the same applies to Belgium as a whole! – clearly requires further research. So the investigative work carried out for this exhibition should also serve as a springboard and incentive to take a close look at the fascinating work of designers and silversmiths in the last century. Published in: K. Goubert (ed.), Zilver: kunst, object, verhalen uit Leuven, exh.cat., Leuven (M - Museum Leuven), 2015, ISBN 9789082344707, fully illustrated, Dutch with English summaries.

Pese a que el análisis de la platería ha sido un tema cada vez más recurrente en la historiografía española, especialmente desde los años ochenta, el territorio gallego acusa todavía falta de estudios en este campo. Aún no contamos con textos que reconstruyan una historia integral del gremio de los plateros de Santiago de Compostela, ciudad en la que fueron un sector fundamental del arte, la economía y la sociedad. Tampoco se han llevado a cabo estudios específicos sobre los plateros oficiales de la catedral compostelana, o un texto que analice íntegramente su colección de platería. Este artículo pretende resumir un estado de la cuestión, y aproximarse a las fuentes que nos ofrecen los archivos de la ciudad para abordar una investigación sobre el tema.

Among finds from 1924-1936 and 1968-1991 an overwhelming number of remains of silver and other non-ferrous metallurgy was identified which escaped attention of previous archaeologists. Morphological and functional classification and SEM-EDS analyses of various categories of finds attest to mainly massive silver production which was to a lesser extent accompanied by gold and copper-alloy metalworking. Spatial distribution, find context and typological classification of the finds clearly show existence of a large production zone situated within the ruler´s residence and working during late 10th and early 11th centuries. One of the most important findings is that the early medieval Bohemian rulers HAD access to silver ore (of whatever form it was) and that they were not dependent solely on Arabic silver coins exchanged for slaves etc. as supposed by historiographic mainstream until now. We further hypothesize that these workshops were part of a broader silver economy system of the incipient Bohemian state, which comprised issues of the first Czech coins as well as production of other types of valuables and which was organized and directly controlled by the rulers of the Přemyslid dynasty.

Se estudia la producción de los plateros de Valladolid durante el Barroco -siglo XVII-. Tras analizar la documentación municipal y el nombramiento de marcadores de la plata y de los contrastes, se publican los punzones de la plata, los sellos de la ciudad y de los marcadores con su tiempo de actuación, lo que permite una clasificación segura de las obras conservadas.

Artículo sobre las características de la producción de platería religiosa de la Real Fábrica de Platería Martínez, según los objetos conservados en el área de Castilla. Dentro del catálogo de la exposición El aragonés Antonio Martínez y su fábrica de Platería en Madrid, Museo de Historia, Madrid, junio-octubre 2011; pp. 161-195.

'This is a superb ancient Viking braided silver bracelet / Oath-ring, dating to the 9th-10th century A.D. It is formed from rods of silver, twisted about each other in a ropework formation, the terminals welded, forming a double spiral decorative element. This type of double spiral can be found on other Viking silver bracelets from Gotland in Sweden see here. This example recovered during dredging work is intact, though parts of the original weld has failed due to the conditions of sediment and machinery, this has been repaired but sadly it is no longer suitable to be worn. This bracelet is a very rare museum grade example, classic Viking workmanship and presence. Such an item would have been a prize piece of jewellery, worn as an 'Oath-Ring', given by a Jarl to brave and worthy subject. The silver likely taken at some stage as booty in raids, used as form of currency in a barter system of exchange. The weight of this bracelet alone would have been the monetary equivalent of at least 42 silver pennies, when 1 penny would have bought you 15 chickens! A wonderful piece of iconic Viking jewellery for the serious collector.' So far for the salesman advertisement ! So.. it got in hands of the serious collector .. A bracelet / arm ring of this braided type I think was a one off chance to aquire for my collection.

* Summary in English

Ozdoby ciała i stroju pełniły ważną funkcję kulturową. Z jednej strony miały znaczenie typowo utylitarne związane z potrzebą podtrzymywania elementów ubioru (np.
klamry, zapinki, szpile), z drugiej zaś biżuterii mającej na celu podniesienie własnej
atrakcyjności (np. naszyjniki, wisiory, diademy, zausznice). Surowiec, z jakiego zostały wykonane, kształt, który został im nadany, pojawiające się na nich motywy zdobnicze oraz sposób i miejsce noszenia mówią nie tylko o osobistych upodobaniach estetycznych ich właścicieli, ale również mogły stanowić materialny symbol identyfikacji z grupą plemienną lub etniczną, wskazywać na pozycję w grupie społecznej, określać wiek i status cywilny lub stanowić manifestację przekonań religijnych. Biżuteria mogła również stanowić odzwierciedlenie świata wierzeń i wyobrażeń. Zatem jest ona nie tylko przejawem poczucia estetyki dawnych społeczeństw, ale także odzwierciedleniem sposobu postrzegania świata i rzeczywistości. Wielu wypadkach stanowiła popis umiejętności rzemieślniczych wytwórców, stając się często wyznacznikiem prestiżu oraz synonimem luksusu.

W poniższym tekście przybliżam szczególny rodzaj biżuterii wczesnośredniowiecznej, jakim są ozdoby słowiańskie odkrywane w skarbach i na cmentarzyskach
na obszarze Skandynawii, zwłaszcza w rejonie południowego Bałtyku. Jest to ważny
rodzaj źródła archeologicznego, który – poza nielicznymi wzmiankami w źródłach
pisanych oraz ceramiką – pozwala na bliższe przyjrzenie się wzajemnym słowiańsko-skandynawskim relacjom.

Download “Der vergoldete Buddha” in high resolution (168 MB): http://edoc.unibas.ch/56017/

Dieses Buch handelt in Wort und Bild vom traditionellen Metallhandwerk, das die Schöpfer religiöser buddhistischer Statuen in Nepal seit über 1000 Jahren ausüben. Die kunsthandwerklichen Fertigkeiten werden mit grossem Bewusstsein für die Tradition gepflegt – sowohl in religiöser und ikonographischer als auch in technologischer Hinsicht. Die der Volksgruppe der Newar angehörenden Spezialisten sind Wachsmodelleure, Formenbauer, Giesser, Ziseleure und Feuervergolder. Ihre Arbeit zeichnet sich – teilweise bis heute – durch eine innige Mischung aus uralter Technologie, grossem Geschick, Religiosität und Kontemplation aus.

Bücher und Ausstellungskataloge zur buddhistischen Religion, Kunst und Ikonographie gibt es sehr viele. Zum handwerklichen Aspekt der Künstler, welche die religiösen Bildnisse im Metallguss schaffen, fehlte jedoch eine umfassende Dokumentation mit einem historischen Rückblick auf die Entwicklung dieser «archaischen» Technologien. Der fundierte Text und der umfangreiche Bildteil stellen die einzige aktuelle und komplette Dokumentation eines wohl aussterbenden, 1300 Jahre alten Kunsthandwerks dar: der «rituellen» Herstellung von buddhistischen Statuen im cire-perdue-Guss («Wachsausschmelz-
verfahren»).

Der Autor Dr. Alex R. Furger ist Archäologe und erforscht seit vier Jahrzehnten die antike Metallurgie und alte metallverarbeitende Techniken. Während 25 Jahren hat er die Römerstadt Augusta Raurica geleitet und lebt in Basel (Schweiz). Er ist Autor von über 130 Artikeln in Fachzeitschriften und zwölf kulturgeschichtlichen Büchern. Für die Feldstudien zu diesem Band war er wiederholt in Nepal und hat dort Dutzende von Kunsthandwerkern in ihren Werkstätten besucht und befragt.

Диссертация представляет собой первое исследование иконных окладов с фигуративными изображениями середины XVI – первого десятилетия XVII века, выполненных в кремлевских мастерских. В работе впервые суммируется и систематизируется весь существующий материал, который дополняется сведениями о несохранившихся украшенных иконах. Ранее эти памятники не были рассмотрены как единое художественное явление с присущими ему характерными особенностями. Выделяются композиционные и стилистические изменения, которые произошли в этом виде искусства с середины XVI века по начало XVII столетия. Некоторые из произведений впервые вводятся в научный оборот; в ряде случаев благодаря натурным исследованиям удалось уточнить атрибуцию памятников. Изучение стиля, иконографии, технико-технологических особенностей позволило внести коррективы в датировки. Проанализирована роль заказчиков в создании иконографических программ окладов, а также распространение патрональных изображений на различных частях драгоценного убора. Впервые памятники московского ювелирного искусства сопоставляются с произведениями европейского прикладного искусства по целому ряду параметров (орнаментика, типология, технология). На основании художественных и технологических особенностей прослеживается работа европейских и восточных ювелиров при царском дворе. Памятники, отличающиеся от произведений других стран православного мира драгоценностью материалов и сложностью исполнения, рассматриваются как особая линия поствизантийской традиции.

The aim of the paper was to present the patterns and cultural identities on Pra-guam silver beads and conceptual design silk patterns based on the cultural identities of Khmer people in Surin province of Thailand.The qualitative methods were used in the study were data collection by in-depth-interview and observation academic papers.The results of the paper are the patterns on Pra-guam silver beads consist of 5 ancient patterns such as 1) Lotusflower2)Ma-Yom Seed3) Phigool Flower4) Hae 5) Jarl.The concept of cultural design of silk patterns based on the cultural identities preservation is that the design must to represented the cultural identities (B = belief M=meaning D=doctrine V=value)the new pattern on the silk name are Lotus flower 2) Ma yom seed3) Phigool Flower4) Hae5) Jarl. Abstract-The aim of the paper was to present the patterns and cultural identities on Pra-guam silver beads and conceptual design silk patterns based on cultural identities of Khmer people in Surin province of Thailand.The qualitative methods were used in the study were data collection by in-depth-interview and observation academic papers. The results of the paper are the patterns on Pra-guam silver beads consist of 5 ancient patterns such as 1) Lotus flower 2) Ma-Yom Seed3) Phigool Flower4) Hae 5) Jarl. The concept of cultural design of silk patterns based on the cultural identities preservation is that the design must to represented the cultural identities (B = belief M=meaning D=doctrine V=value)the new pattern on the silk name are Lotus flower 2) Ma Yom seed 3) Phigool Flower4) Hae5) Jarl.

Artículo sobre los objetos de platería y joyería del Santuario de Illescas, Toledo, en la publicación colectiva La Caridad reina. 50 años de la Coronación canónica de la Virgen de la Caridad, Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Caridad de Illescas, 2005, pp. 41-47

An early Byzantine silver plate with a portrait of St. Theodore

In 1977 an early Byzantine silver plate was purchased by the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum in Mainz. It is part of the group of silverware marked with five Imperial stamps. According to these stamps it was manufactured during the reign of Emperor Justinian I. (527-565), probably in the period between 527 and the middle of the 6th century and perhaps during the tenure of the comes sacrarum largitionum Flavios Strategios (532-539). Owing to the specific head type the saint depicted in the central medallion of the plate can be identified as Theodore Tiron. The iconography of this image very probably originated during the first half of the 6th century. The type of image with the small cross held in front of his chest represents a novelty in the art of the 6th century, an image which would become well-established in the iconography of the saints in Byzantine art. The silver plate in Mainz seems to be the earliest securely dated example for this trend-setting iconography with the attribute of the small cross held in the hand.

En esta comunicación centramos nuestra atención en los saleros o especieros, una tipología de objetos que abordaremos desde una perspectiva tanto gastronómica como artística y socioeconómica. Recogiendo obras conservadas en museos, colecciones particulares, catedrales y parroquias vamos a conocer el importante papel que las especias tenían en las mesas aragonesas de los siglos XVI, XVII e inicios del XVIII. Con este objetivo aportamos numerosa documentación procedente de los archivos notariales, con especial énfasis en la aparición de estos recipientes en inventarios y tasaciones. Así mismo, también nos serviremos de su representación pictórica y gráfica y algunos ejemplos literarios, todo ello con el objetivo de ilustrar aquellos ejemplares que no se han conservado.

In this paper we focus on salt and spice cellars, a kind of object we will study from a gastronomic, artistic and socioeconomic perspective. To achieve this purpose, we will make a catalogue with pieces from art from museums, private collections, cathedrals and parishes, so we'll get to know the important role spices had in the aragonese tables and kitchens in the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries. In addition, a large amount of notarial documentation, graphic and pictorial representations and literary testimonies will be presented to illustrate certain artworks that have disappeared.

La conquista romana del Mediterráneo oriental y de Egipto amplió los horizontes de los mercaderes ítalo-romanos como nunca antes. A los pocos años de ocupar el territorio, eran cientos las caravanas y barcos que partían anualmente hacia la India y el lejano Oriente desde las ciudades y puertos ubicados en los límites del Imperio romano. Será con Augusto cuando se sienten las bases de un mercado cada vez más globalizado, permitiendo la libre circulación de los productos más deseados por las élites urbanas de la metrópolis romana.
Esta investigación aborda mediante el análisis epigráfico de más de doscientas inscripciones funerarias quienes fueron los personajes ligados al comercio y fabricación de joyas, vestidos, tintes y ungüentos en la ciudad de Roma. Estos productos se comercializaron entre la élite de la capital y entre los consumidores selectivos que emulaban la conducta de la aristocracia romana. El marco cronológico de estudio comprende la etapa que va desde finales del periodo republicano a finales del siglo tercero d.C. Y es precisamente el momento
relacionado con el cambio de era y el primer siglo d.C. cuando se ha podido relacionar cronológicamente un mayor número de inscripciones. A su vez, poder identificar la localización de sus tiendas o talleres nos ha permitido conocer de primera mano los diversos cambios en la topografía urbana de la ciudad.
Asimismo, con el objetivo de conocer los lugares de producción o extracción de estos bienes de carácter suntuarios se han descrito las diferentes rutas intercontinentales de aprovisionamiento de estos productos. En este punto, el análisis de los diferentes agentes
implicados en este comercio permite conocer las diferentes áreas de actuación, cuáles fueron los mercados más visitados y cuál fue el rol que jugó cada una de las potencias implicadas en este intercambio. Para ello se ha estudiado cuál fue el marco común de entendimiento para establecer estas relaciones.
Los resultados obtenidos han permitido ampliar la descripción tenida hasta ahora sobre un comercio tan selecto, así como proponer nuevas hipótesis interpretativas del tema.

English:
nunc patimur longae pacis mala, saevior armis
luxuria incubuit victumque ulciscitur orbem
(JUVENAL. SAT. II, 6, 292-297)

With these words the Roman author Juvenal evokes the evils associated with unbridled lust which had pushed Rome after the conquest of the so far known world. In this sense, the conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean and the annexation of Egypt under direct control by Rome resulted in the restoration and improvement of trade routes to the East, place of origin of most luxury goods markets as valued in Rome.
As part of our thesis about the luxury trade in the city of Rome during the Early Roman Empire, where we look specifically at luxury products, we wish to introduce how new access to these goods sparked a change in Roman society. In this respect, thanks to the study of lapidary inscriptions related with actors linked to the development and sale of
exotic products can be examined a series of changes that occurred from the new Roman state-run establishment under the principality of Augustus. The classical tradition will oppose a new order marked by the Roman elites demand for expensive products, creating fashions and customs unexplored to date, trying to slow it down with the
enactment of laws against excess and access.
These changes will be accompanied by other observable also in this work, highlighting, the emergence of new commercial characters and their existential increase in Rome: margaritarii, coronarii, vascularii, vestiarii, etc. In this process, indirectly new terms will be minted for defining new jobs and others will vary depending on use. Also, there
is a growing desire to show the life and personal work on the tombstones, making clear a new cultural fashion. Finally, this cultural transformation will extend to an urban modification of the Urbs, lifting exclusive spaces for the purchase and sale of these products