Sacred Natural Sites

Sacred groves are areas that are conserved by communities for spiritual or cultural beliefs. They often have associated limitations on activities within the forest. India is believed to have the highest concentration of sacred groves in the world. However, in our research of devithans – Nepali sacred groves – in the eastern Himalayan state of Sikkim, India, we reveal that their very existence in India has long remained unacknowledged in sacred natural site research. By researching the proliferation of devithans in the village of Biring, East Sikkim, we not only foreground their existence, but also unpack their cultural politics to reveal the contestations and appropriations around the symbolic value of sacred sites. Given that historically the Buddhist Lepcha-Bhutias’ cultural association with Sikkim’s sacred landscape has been celebrated, while that of Nepali ethnic groups has been largely invisibilised, we argue that devithans have emerged as a potential political instrument for the latter to validate political and cultural claims to Sikkim’s sacred landscape. The predominant tone in sacred grove scholarship in India has largely been anchored in the language of ecology, and tends to understand sacred groves as communal sites without exploring the associated constitutive politics. By using a cultural politics lens to understand devithans, this research expands beyond simplistic narratives to focus on present day cultural politics that are internal to communities that often not only sustain groves, but also help them to proliferate.

Nature conservation planning tends to be driven by models based on Western norms and science, but these may not represent the cultural, philosophical and religious contexts of much of Asia. This book provides a new perspective on the topic of sacred natural sites and cultural heritage by linking Asian cultures, religions and worldviews with contemporary conservation practices and approaches.
The chapters focus on the modern significance of sacred natural sites in Asian protected areas with reference, where appropriate, to an Asian philosophy of protected areas. Drawn from over 20 different countries, the book covers examples of sacred natural sites from all of IUCN’s protected area categories and governance types. The authors demonstrate the challenges faced to maintain culture and support spiritual and religious governance and management structures in the face of strong modernisation across Asia.
The book shows how sacred natural sites contribute to defining new, more sustainable and more equitable forms of protected areas and conservation that reflect the worldviews and beliefs of their respective cultures and religions. The book contributes to a paradigm-shift in conservation and protected areas as it advocates for greater recognition of culture and spirituality through the adoption of biocultural conservation approaches.

Suulise kultuuri pärimus, mis puudutab looduslikke pühapaiku, on sündinud vastastikuses mõjus inimese ja maa vahel ning väljendab kohaliku rahvaliku usundi ja maakasutuse tavasid ja arusaamu. Seevastu rahvusliku ärkamise järgses eesti kirjavaras on looduslikest pühapaikadest rääkimisel tooni andma hakanud motiivid, mis põhinevad Henriku Liivimaa kroonikal või õhtumaise kirjakultuuri traditsioonist pärit tekstidel ning millega toetatakse sümboolselt eesti rahvuse eluõigust. Need kaks kõnelemise viisi põimuvad ja vanem kohapärimus liidab iseenda edasikestmise toeks vanale pärimusele kirjanduslikke motiive.
Artikli eesmärk on võrrelda Eesti looduslikest pühapaikadest rääkimise viise suulises pärimuses ja 19.–21. aastasaja eestikeelses kirjakultuuris ning mõista nende erinevusi, mis on tingitud olemuslikust lõhest suulise ja kirjaliku kultuurikoodi vahel ning ühtlasi erinevustest väikese talupojakogukonna ja suurema rahvuskogukonna vahel.
Selleks kasutan ja kõrvutan suulise pärimuse – peamiselt kohamuistendite – ja aja- või kodulooliste allikate – sealhulgas Lääne-Euroopa ühise kirjaliku pärandi, kroonikate ja baltisaksa kirjavara – kajastusi eestikeelses kirjavaras.
Vaatlen ka kultuuri suulise ja kirjaliku allsüsteemi omavahelise suhtluse võimalikkust ja laadi – mil määral ja kuidas traditsioonilise kultuuri pühapaiku puudutavaid kombeid ja tekste viiakse üle rahvuskultuuri ja millised muutused selle tõlke käigus aset leiavad.
Kontseptuaalselt tugineb artikkel peamiselt Juri Lotmani kultuuritüpoloogia teooriatele, suulise ja kirjaliku kultuuri erinevusele Walter J. Ongi järgi ning Benedict Andersoni vaatele rahvusluse loomuse ja kujunemise kohta.

Em décadas recentes, uma nova temática vem adquirindo uma visibilidade crescente em fóruns mundiais sobre políticas de conservação da natureza – os sítios naturais sagrados (SNS). Reconhecidos em diversas partes do planeta, esses lugares encantados expressam valores espirituais ancestrais e a visão de sacralidade da natureza de vários grupos sociais, sendo considerados elos entre a diversidade biológica e cultural. O conhecimento sobre esse tema no Brasil, entretanto, é ainda limitado e as iniciativas de salvaguarda de SNS em políticas públicas nacionais são incipientes, especialmente considerando a expressiva riqueza natural, cultural e religiosa do país. Também são raras as referências ao contexto brasileiro na literatura especializada sobre o tema. Esse quadro instigou a formulação desta tese, delineada com o objetivo de compreender como os SNS e seus valores culturais e espirituais podem contribuir para inspirar a reconexão entre sociedade e natureza e o papel das áreas protegidas em contribuir nessa direção. Inserida no campo das Ciências Sociais e delineada como uma pesquisa qualitativa e exploratória, a investigação foi conduzida a partir da compilação e análise de um vasto referencial bibliográfico - impulsionada por uma estratégia de rede colaborativa de conhecimento - e da interpretação da percepção de interlocutores da gestão pública sobre o tema, complementada, ainda, por observação direta em eventos acadêmicos, vivências de campo e no exercício profissional da autora. Pautada em um referencial teórico interdisciplinar ancorado nos pressupostos da Psicossociologia e na Ecologia Social, a tese se baseia na noção de reencantamento do mundo para lançar um olhar sobre os SNS como elementos centrais para a construção de um novo paradigma de conservação da natureza. Ao longo dos capítulos, percorre-se um caminho que parte do panorama internacional de debate sobre o tema, passa por um levantamento exploratório dos SNS no Brasil e chega até a discussão das perspectivas de reconhecimento dessas áreas no contexto das políticas públicas nacionais e na gestão das áreas protegidas. Os resultados revelam que a recorrência desse fenômeno no território nacional e sua relevância social contrastam com a invisibilidade da problemática na gestão pública. Dentre as razões para esse quadro estão a visão positivista, cientificista e fragmentada da realidade que predomina na modernidade – que separa a razão da emoção, a cultura da natureza e a ciência da espiritualidade – e a colonialidade do pensamento estatal. Comprometida com uma abordagem crítica, ética e politicamente engajada, a tese busca compreender os conflitos socioambientais nas áreas protegidas como oportunidades para a emergência de novas estratégias de gestão criativas, integradoras e transformadoras, a partir da promoção da espiritualidade ecológica e de uma conservação com coração. Defende-se que nos significados ancestrais dos SNS podem estar as chaves para uma renovação de alianças que levem à implementação de políticas capazes de inspirar a reconexão entre sociedade e natureza, trilhando caminhos mais justos, belos e – por que não? – mais mágicos.

This article explores some of the ways of remembering and honouring the ancestors in contemporary Pagan religious traditions, with a focus on the Irish context. An overview is provided of how the "ancestors" are conceptualised within Paganism, as well as where they are believed to be located in the afterlife or Otherworld. Veneration of ancestral peoples is a significant part of many Pagan rituals. Some methods of honouring the dead, and contacting the dead, through ritual practices are described. Remembering and honouring the dead, whether distant forebears or more recent relatives, is particularly important during the Pagan celebration of the festival of Samhain, feast of the dead, on October 31. Issues around ancestors, lineages and ethnicity are significant in many Pagan traditions, and attention is paid to these factors in terms of the Irish Pagan community"s sense of cultural belonging as well as their sense of place in a physical respect in relation to the landscape, proximity of sacred sites, and other features of their geographical location.

Numerous indigenous religious traditions express connection between people and the spirit world, through specific powerful places on the landscape.  Such place-based spiritual perspective locates humans within networks of reciprocal relations with other living and non-living beings, and offers an avenue into examining the activity of nonhuman nature in shaping human perceptions and practices. A place-based view that locates spiritual beings in specific locations on the landscape shifts the understanding of nonhuman nature away from a utilitarian perspective that sees forests, rivers, and soils as natural resources to be used with maximal efficiency, and toward a more inclusive perspective that values aspects of the landscape beings, or homes of beings, with their own inherent values, purposes, meanings, and destinies.

In the eastern Himalaya, autochthonous deities, believed to be the original owners of the land, were not eradicated by Tibetan Buddhism but were incorporated into its pantheons and practices, creating a mechanism that mediates the relationships and strengthens the connections between people to their landscapes.  The beliefs and practices of Tibetan Buddhists of Bhutan engage with specific places on the landscape to create and nurture the habits of mind that recognize forests, soil, rivers, mountains, and wildlife as beings worthy of respect. The prohibitions and requirements of autochthonous deities have shaped human settlement, land use patterns, and local custom, as well as the placement of religious structures. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork conducted on repeated visits to Bhutan between 2001 and 2008, I show how religion shapes the landscape in Tibetan Buddhist parts of Bhutan by dictating land uses and proscriptions in certain sites.  Spiritual and religious perceptions shape the landscape through (1) land use restrictions that may prohibit agriculture, trespass, resource collection in places where deities are believed to live; (2) siting of religious monuments; and 3) prohibitions against construction that result from beliefs that deities reside in the land. 

Globalization is slowly and subtly shifting deity beliefs and associated practices on the landscape.  Increased interaction between Bhutan and with the world beyond the Himalayan and Tibetan regions is having the paradoxical consequence of increasing interest in sacred natural sites and spiritual landscapes, while intensifying the forces that jeopardize the cultural and ecological survival of these same landscapes.  Greater understanding of the geographic distribution and extent, ecological characteristics, and socio-economic aspects of the sacred natural sites could contribute to greater appreciation and protection of their cultural and ecological aspects, and could help shift ecological and geographical thinking toward a view that values the agency of non-human nature and the natural landscape.

Eesti rahvuslikus diskursuses sai 19.–20. sajandil Taara tammikust üks muistse vabadusaja märk ning ühtlasi Eesti looduslike pühapaikade üldistatud representatsioon. Ent piksejumalale pühitsetud tammesalu motiiv on ilmselt laenatud Lääne-Euroopa kultuurist: Zeusi üks tähtsamaid pühamuid on olnud Dodone tammesalu Kreekas; Arkaadia tammedega pastoraalsed maastikud said populaarseks Itaalia maastikumaalis; püha tammehiie sümbol kogus romantismiajal jõudsalt populaarsust saksa haritlaste hulgas (sh balti ja eesti haritlaste seas). Nüüdseks kujundab kirjakultuuri kaudu ülemvõimu saavutanud rahvusvaheline sümbol eesti kultuuris arusaamist põlistest pühadest maastikest, jättes tammede ja tammesalude kõrval teistlaadi pühapaikadele vähe ruumi (ettekujutus, et hiies peavad kasvama tammed). Hiiekoha mõiste on kitsenenud tähistama püha puudesalu ja tamm on liigina omandanud püha puu staatuse, kuigi rahvusliku ärkamise eelses suulises pärimuses ta seda ei olnud. Hiietammiku kujutelm suunab kultuuri esile tõstma vanu tammedega seotud pühapaiku (nt Tamme-Lauri tamm Urvastes). Samuti istutatakse uusi tammikuid (nt Sõjamäe hiis ehk Jüriöö park Tallinnas, Taara tammik Tartus, Vabaduse hiis Loo külas Jõelähtmel) ja on istutatud tammesid vanadesse pühapaikadesse, kuigi terava asjaga maasse puutumine on tõenäoliselt olnud traditsioonilises kultuuris keelatud.

Märksõnad: tamm, püha hiis, püha maastik, Eesti rahvuslus, mütoloogia

Remote sensing applications are diverse, varied, and easily transferable across disciplinary lines, grounded in theory that offers a strong empirical foundation for multi-dimensional social and ecological investigations into landscape patterns and land-use designations. While remote sensing tools are useful for identifying certain ecological and social spatial realties, it may be valuable to consider what limitations and challenges exist when applying these tools when confronted with a research framework that is grounded in systems of belief, subjective values, and culturally contextual perceptions; moreover, how do or can these systems of knowing operate in tandem conceptually with measurable attributes such as light reflectivity, absorption in vegetation, water, ground, earth. In this paper, I will investigate how remote sensing and geographical information systems (GIS) can be used for gaining insights into patterns seen in socially-defined landscapes denoted regionally as sacred natural sites, sacred groves, spiritual landscapes, and local deity realms, considering various implications and challenges therein.

The recognition that " other-than-human " people are legal subjects has previously been recognised in forms of customary law but has been denied in most jurisdictions until recently. The Romans introduced jus gentium the basis of " public trusts " and of " juristic persons ". Public trusts hold that the sea, the sea shore, the air and running water is common to everyone. Juristic personhood has been expanded in some jurisdictions to include other 'legal subjects' with specific rights and obligations. Since 1925 Colonial Judges in India have recognized enspirited idols had legal status and idols and deities were declared as " juristic persons " with the same legal rights as human beings. Recently several jurisdictions have recognised natural entities as legal persons. Pachamama has been recognized as a " juristic person " and "rights of nature" have been granted in Latin America. The Spanish Parliament has given human rights to apes, while in New Zealand, India and Colombia rivers have been recognized as " juristic persons ". The consequences, benefits and drawbacks, of juristic personhood of Sacred Natural Sites and protected areas are discussed with reference to spiritual governance. Further study is required for such an approach to become widely recognized and used as a tool for conservation within SNS and protected areas.

Sacred natural sites (SNS) are instances of biocultural landscapes protected for spiritual motives. These sites frequently host important biological values in areas of Asia and Africa, where traditional resource management is still upheld by local communities. In contrast, the biodiversity value of SNS has hardly been quantitatively tested in Western contexts, where customs and traditions have relatively lost importance due to modernization and secularization. To assess whether SNS in Western contexts retain value for biodiversity, we studied plant species composition at 30 SNS in Central Italy and compared them with a paired set of similar but not sacred reference sites. We demonstrate that SNS are important for conserving stands of large trees and habitat heterogeneity across different land-cover types. Further, SNS harbor higher plant species richness and a more valuable plant species pool, and significantly contribute to diversity at the landscape scale. We suggest that these patterns are related not only to pre-existent features, but also to traditional management. Conservation of SNS should take into account these specificities, and their cultural as well as biological values, by supporting the continuation of traditional management practices.

Since time immemorial, indigenous people have engaged in legal relationships with other-than-human persons. These relationships are exemplified in enspirited sacred natural sites, which are owned and governed by numina spirits that can potentially place legal demands on humankind in return for protection and blessing. Although conservationists recognise the biodiverse significance of most sacred natural sites, the role of spiritual agency by otherthan-human persons is not well understood. Consequently, sacred natural sites typically lack legal status and IUCN-designated protection. More recent ecocentric and posthuman worldviews and polycentric legal frameworks have allowed courts and legislatures to grant 'rights' to nature and 'juristic personhood' and standing to biophysical entities. This book examines the indigenous literature and recent legal cases as a pretext for granting juristic personhood to enspirited sacred natural sites.

Within the complex socio-ecological systems of South and Southeast Asia,
ancient sacred natural sites were created by, and imbued with, cultural and ideological
values. These landscapes are liminal spaces or threshold environments between
cultivated areas and wilder spaces; the practice of creating and maintaining them
persists from ancient to modern times. This thesis examines sacred natural sites in
three early state formations from 800 – 1400 CE: the Khmer (Cambodia), the
Sinhalese (Sri Lanka) and the Chola (South India), why they persisted over time, and
what significance they held. Several ancient sacred natural sites are active parts of
societies today, and the ones chosen for this study span several categories: mountains, rivers, forests/groves, and caves. Using the paradigm of entanglement theory in a comparative context, this thesis analyzes sacred natural sites acting as key socioecological nodes enmeshed in complex dependent relationships within the landscapes of the South and Southeast Asia.

Keywords: sacred natural sites, entanglement theory, dependent relationships,
comparative models, socio-ecological systems, South Asia, South-east Asia, tropical
societies.

Background: Sacred groves are model systems that have the potential to contribute to rural healthcare owing to their medicinal floral diversity and strong social acceptance.
Methods: We examined this idea employing ethnomedicinal plants and their application documented from sacred groves across India. A total of 65 published documents were shortlisted for the preparation of database and statistical analysis. Standard ethnobotanical indices and mapping were used to capture the current trend.
Results: A total of 1247 species from 152 families has been documented for use against eighteen categories of diseases common in tropical and sub- tropical landscapes. Though the reported species are clustered around a few widely distributed families, 71% of them are uniquely represented from any single biogeographic region. The use of multiple species in treating an ailment, high use value of the popular plants, and cross-community similarity in disease treatment reflects rich community wisdom to explore and apply available natural resources.
Conclusions: Building on the findings, integration of the tradition in primary healthcare policy especially in AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga, Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy) program has been recommended. This would embrace folk medicinal practices along with sustainable utilization of plant genetic resources in rapidly changing rural landscapes.

At 1.2 million acres, Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake is by far the largest parcel of land in US Navy possession. It fills an expanse of rugged & remote desert terrain to eclipse Rhode Island; to the üntrained eye, it also appears as if there's not much going on there. 

Yet, beyond being a super secret test center for the world's most advanced weapons, inside is a handful of very narrow lava canyons wherein lie the largest concentration of Native American rock art in the Western Hemisphere.  What makes the Coso Range one of the most spiritually important sites on the North American continent is inside a grouping of these canyons:  images, carvings known as petroglyphs, found throughout China Lake's Coso Range are reputed to be the oldest in the Americas.

Eady's had the unique opportunity to do archaeoacoustic research related to EMF interference, detection & GPS Ionospherics (exploring electromagnetic radiation as ubiquitous in the space around us, and the ways we as humans have related to phenomena oftentimes more felt than seen) to understand this invisible medium flowing in the air-space of the Woomera Test Range in the Australian Outback. 

He's also tested sensors, short-pulse lasers, and numerous operational assets in the Kwajalein Atoll, White Sands, NM, Vandenberg AFB, CA and, of course, China Lake.

This paper explores how local, lived religion has creatively linked spiritual insights and popular devotions in ecologically valuable settings helping generate and preserve the rich Spanish biocultural heritage. Focusing on a selection of Sacred Natural Sites (SNS), mostly Marian sanctuaries, it shows that local "geopiety" and religious creativity have generated "devotional titles" related to vegetation types, geomorphological features, water, and celestial bodies. It also argues that, despite mass migration to urban centers, the questioning of "popular religion" after the Second Vatican Council, and the rapid secularization of Spanish society over the past fifty years, a set of distinctive rituals and public expressions of faith-some of them dating back to the Middle Ages-have remained alive or even thrived in certain rural sanctuaries. These vernacular devotions, however, do not necessarily announce the advent of the postsecular. Finally, it suggests that Protected Area (PA) managers, regional governments, custodians, anthropologists, tourism scholars, and theologians should work together in order to analyze, interpret, and help solve the management challenges highly popular SNS face.

There is an inextricable link between biological and cultural diversity, captured in the concept of biocultural diversity, whereby the former (genes, species, and habitats) co-adapt with the latter (knowledge, values, beliefs, practices and institutions). Sacred natural sites are increasingly considered showcases for the conservation of biocultural diversity, because their strong cultural importance derives from, and requires maintenance of, biodiversity. The research described in this paper is concerned with the conservation of the threatened “yellowwood” tree (Afrocarpus falcatus) in sacred natural sites of Sidama, southwest Ethiopia. Mixed methods were used to document types of sacred forests sites and the extent and distribution and dominance of A. falcatus in these, to identify drivers of endangerment of A. falcatus and other native woody species in Sidama, Ethiopia and to understand local explanations for the importance and maintenance of these sites. The results suggest that species such as A. falcatus owe their continued existence to resilience of ancestral tree-based rituals within informal protection areas and at homesteads and communal areas. Thus, the maintenance of an ancestral value system serves as an important motivation for the conservation of A. falcatus and other threatened native woody species.
Keywords: biocultural diversity, ancestral values, Afrocarpus falcatus, SNS, conservation, Sidama, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT
Gilindire (Aynalıgöl) Cave is located in Adana Section of the Mediterranean Region. It is administratively
situated within the borders of Aydıncık District of Mersin Province. The cave was discovered by shepherds
around Gemi Durağı, 9 km to the east of Aydıncık District’s centrum, in 2000. It was registered under the name
of “Gilindire Cave Natural Monument” within the scope of the Law on National Parks numbered 2873 with
the Approval of the Ministry dated 06.08.2013 and numbered 1656. This study aims to make the geodiversity
evaluation of Gilindire Cave Natural Monument. To this end, the method developed by Serrano and Ruiz-Flaño
was used. Maps of various scales were used for preparing thematic maps in the present study which employed
GIS (Geographical Information Systems) as a tool. It was found out that Gilindire Cave Natural Monument has
a very high level geodiversity (8.47) because of the advantage provided by natural environment features. Certain
measures should be taken in this area in order to conserve this diversity. This study indicated that similar studies
or new studies that employ more advanced methods and techniques may be carried out in the areas to which
various protected statuses are to be granted.
Keywords: Geodiversity, Serrano and Ruiz-Flaño method, Gilindire Cave Natural Monument.

Artigo publicado no Anais do VII Seminário Brasileiro sobre Áreas Protegidas e Inclusão Social e II Encontro Latino Americano sobre Áreas Protegidas e Inclusão Social, Florianópolis: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, novembro 2015. p. 397-408. Disponível em <http://sapiselapis2015.paginas.ufsc.br/anais>

Researches show biodiversity loss has been happening at an alarming scale in the recent decades and this state of affairs has significant implications for the health of local communities and environments across the world. Sacred natural sites (SNS) are increasingly considered showcases for the conservation of biological and cultural diversity, because their strong cultural importance derives from, and requires maintenance of, biodiversity. Tree biodiversity in general and medicinal plants in particular, which otherwise face increasing endangerment, find protection in SNS. The research described in this paper is concerned with the conservation of threatened medicinal plants in SNS and similar informal protection areas of Sidama, southwest Ethiopia. Mixed methods were used to inventory the medicinal plant biodiversity of such places and explore local understandings and explanations of the role such places play in conservation. The results suggest that where SNS exist, medicinal plants and traditional herbal medicine fare well. Further, the findings demonstrated that some medicinal plant species owe their continued existence to maintenance of SNS. This research is hoped to contribute towards improved understanding of the role SNS play in conserving medicinal plants as well as the resilience and dynamics of traditional herbal medicine in the context of SNS.

Indigenous research has demonstrated how Indigenous ontologies are political, and how they have been articulated politically to express counter-narratives to modern understandings of human-nature relations. This paper argues that current characterisations of political ontology, particularly in relation to environmental conservation, have yet to fully take account of African Indigenous spiritualities. Current thinking on Indigenous ontologies and decolonial scholarship, and their political manifestations, face two problems: (1) they assume the visibility and availability of Indigenous ontologies to 'doing politics', and (2) presumptions are made about the comparability of place-based Indigenous ontologies and wider attempts to reform the state, and, that the political goals of Indigenous people will straightforwardly align with those of the researcher. Drawing from research on sacred natural site protection amongst the Nyiha in Mbozi District, southwestern Tanzania, I examine how these problems might be addressed in a context where notions of Indigeneity are articulated quite differently to those predominantly evident in current writing on Indigeneity and decolonial scholarship. Nyiha ontologies, although already-political at the local scale, resist becoming 'available' to environmental politics at wider scales, making straightforward notions of solidarity problematic. Through a particular encounter with Christian groups attempting to spatially appropriate Nyiha sites, I explore the various ways in which ontologies are made politically available and visible, and how the Nyiha analyse Christianity as colonial. Finally, I turn to how Nyiha ontologies and their sacred forest sites are replete with 'episodes of concealing' and variable invisibilities, which call into question how visible practices are utilised as 'evidence-of-ontology', or as part of a wider decolonial project.

• Tibetan animistic/shamanistic beliefs have been subject to both Bonicisation and Buddhicisation • Bon has also been subject to Buddhicisation • Both Tonpa Shenrab and Guru Rinpoche mythically "subdued" the local "mundane" gods (yul lha and gzhi bdag) in order to gain legitimacy (this also suggests that mountain gods pre-dated Bon and TB) On the basis of ancient Bon scholarship (not TB) we can conclude the following with some level of certainty. The "ancient" bon are known as yungdrung 1 bon because of the importance of the sauvistika in their world-view. The sauvistika is a counterclockwise cursive swastika and symbolises the moon, the feminine, the earth, and gnostic wisdom. On the basis of the Vedas it is also associated with Kali Bon beliefs are thought to have originated in Tazig (aka Sogdiana) and were introduced into Western Tibet by Tonpa Shenrab somewhere between the 11th and 7th century BC. Tonpa Shenrab also appears to be a devotee of Mitra 2 (aka Mithras) as we read (Edgar 1932) of a "mitras jewel" of compassion on his head and he spoke of the "distant valley of Olmo 3 " where the faithful will return. The bon mantra is "om matri muyi sale 'du" and on the basis of the sauvistika koras (circumambulation) and prayer wheel rotation is always counterclockwise In conclusion given that yungdrung bon beliefs appear to focus on the moon, the feminine, Mithraism, and gnostic progress it does not appear to have much in common with the animistic "mountain gods". Notes 1 yungdrung (or g.yung drung) refers to a sauvastika as a symbol of eternity and well-being 2 Mithra is the Zoroastrian angelic Divinity (yazata) of Covenant and Oath. In addition to being the Divinity of Contracts, Mithra is also a judicial figure, an all-seeing Protector of Truth, and the Guardian of Cattle, the Harvest and of The Waters. 3 Olmo Lung-ring is said to be part of a larger geographical region to the northwest of Tibet called Tazig which scholars identify with Iran (where in ancient times Avestan and Sogdian were spoken). It would appear that the Olmolungring is a non-dualist realm (on the basis of a

Using chosen natural sites for cultic and ritual activities is a common practice among traditional societies. Trees, groves, stones, hills, mountains, lakes, rivers and springs have been regarded as holy in different cultural contexts and in different ages.  Though natural in appearance, holy sites are determined by man. A site's involvement in the cultural context and the attribution to it of a special meaning are the result of a choice made by humans at some point in the past. The article discusses the reasons for choosing sites which will later be regarded as holy, paying also attention to specific natural qualities, incl. field anomalies.

Many of the world’s sacred natural sites are located in territories inhabited by indigenousanimistic people and are characterised by spiritual governance, spiritual agency, andbiodiversity. Although the significance of indigenous sacred natural sites is beingrecognised by ‘conservationists’ as biodiverse refugia, the importance of spiritualgovernance is not well understood. Through attachment; engagement; and social,cultural, and ritual behaviour, indigenous sacred natural sites reflect the physical,biological, spiritual, and cultural character of everyday lives. Typically, the owners andcustodians are numina, who place behavioural demands on humankind in return ofprotection, governance, and blessing. Based on research in southwest China, the aim ofthis chapter is to provide evidence on the importance of spiritual governance as aprerequisite for protecting the biocultural integrity of many of the world’s indigenoussacred natural sites. The chapter concludes with a polycentric legal framework for spiritualgovernance and examines the implications for the management and governance ofprotected and conserved areas.

There is growing recognition that sacred natural sites (SNS) form hotspots of biocultural diversity and significantly contribute to conservation in traditional non-western societies. Using empirical evidence from SNS in Central Italy, we illustrate how a similar link between spiritual, cultural, and biological values can be fundamental also in relatively secular and modernized European contexts. We show that SNS are key to sustaining traditional practices and local identities, and represent important instances of biodiversity-rich cultural landscapes. Based on other case studies from across Europe, we suggest that these conclusions can be relevant also at a broader European scale. Greater awareness from planners and policy-makers, however, is needed to safeguard and emphasize the role of European sacred sites as refugia for biocultural diversity. We review policy guidelines on SNS previously developed by International Union for the Conservation for Nature (IUCN) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and aimed at protected area managers and planners. We assess the applicability of these guidelines in European contexts, and complement them with findings and insight from Central Italy. We provide recommendations for guidelines that are suited to SNS related to mainstream faiths in Europe.

This article demonstrates the importance of indigenous ontologies in cross-cultural or ‘both ways’ coastal
conservation management of the Dhimurru Indigenous Protected Area in north east Arnhem Land,
Australia. In this action research, selected Yolŋu individuals identified concerns regarding recreational
fishing and boating practices of non-Yolŋu. Yolŋu engaged in a discussion of the issues and the subsequent
formulation of indigenous management responses. This led to the development of locally relevant
guidelines for fishers and boaters with potentially broader applications in other Indigenous Protected Areas
and beyond. We explore the ‘both ways’ approach adopted by the Dhimurru Aboriginal Corporation that
guides collaboration between Yolŋu and non-Yolŋu. We illustrate how the approach facilitates indigenous
ontologies to co-create conservation approaches together with contemporary conservation efforts informed
by Western science. We further explore the disjunctures and synergies between the two and argue that these
mix and can be compatible as part of the ‘both ways’ approach. In learning from this action research, we
reflect on the process of cross-cultural learning and the role of researchers in the cross-cultural coproduction
of knowledge and the formulation of guidelines for fishers and boaters.

This paper interrogates the interrelationship between witchcraft, spiritual worldviews and environmental management. Drawing on diverse literatures from anthropology, conservation science and geography, this paper explores how witchcraft and spiritual worldviews have been rationalised in order to explain their continued significance, for society as a whole and for the conservation of natural resources and biodiversity specifically. Using an assemblage framework, this paper examines how the agencies of spirits and witches are entangled with other social and material entities, drawing on examples from three communities in Tanzania. It argues that thinking through assemblage allows the agentic capacities of spirits and witchcraft to be recognised, whilst also acknowledging their inseparability from other expressive and material components of assemblages, including social organisation and more-than-human actors. Finally, this paper turns to evidence for the deterritorialisation, or breaking apart, of these assemblages around spiritual worldviews and witchcraft, and considers their future role in local conservation.

Na fronteira do Brasil com a Guiana e a Venezuela, ergue-se na paisagem o Monte Roraima, uma das formações geológicas mais antigas do mundo, associado a valores culturais ancestrais para os povos indígenas. No Brasil, essa região é habitada pelos Ingarikó, em um contexto legal de dupla afetação do PARNA do Monte Roraima com a Terra Indígena Raposa Serra do Sol, um dos casos mais polêmicos de demarcação de território do país e uma das primeiras e mais relevantes decisões judiciais sobre direitos culturais no Brasil. Esse artigo busca interpretar desafios e potencialidades para a integração das perspectivas indígenas às estratégias de proteção da natureza. Os resultados indicam que a área do parque tem grande importância cultural e espiritual para os Ingarikó e que vários lugares sagrados-associados a regras especiais de acesso e uso-são por eles reconhecidos e protegidos. Essa temática, entretanto, ainda é pouco abordada nas pesquisas acadêmicas e se traduz em uma lacuna de conhecimento sobre a região.

ABSTRACT On the border of Brazil with Guyana and Venezuela, stands in the landscape Mount Roraima, one of the oldest geological formations in the world, associated with ancestral cultural values for indigenous peoples. In Brazil, the region is inhabited by Ingarikó in a legal context of double allocation with the Mount Roraima National Park and the Raposa Serra do Sol Indigenous Land, one of the most controversial cases of the country's territory demarcation and one of the first and most important judicial decisions on cultural rights in Brazil. This article seeks to interpret challenges and opportunities for the integration of indigenous perspectives on nature protection strategies. The results indicate that the park area has great cultural and spiritual importance to the Ingarikó and that several holy sites are recognized and protected, linked to special rules of access and use. This theme, however, is still rarely addressed in academic research and translates into a lack of knowledge about the area.

General introduction This book sheds light on how ancient philosophies and practices related to sacred natural sites are relevant to conventional protected areas and conservation in Asia today. In doing so it contributes to the field of conservation practice and interdisciplinary research on sacred natural sites that draws from the social and natural sciences.

Sacred sites are of conservation value because of their spiritual meaning, as cultural heritage and as remnants of near-natural biotopes in landscapes strongly transformed by man. The vegetation of sacred sites in Morocco was studied recently. Information about their number, spatial pattern or relief position is fragmentary. However, these parameters are important to evaluate their role as refuge for organisms and their representativeness of potential natural vegetation.

Resumo Expandido de palestra ministrada no X Simpósio Nordestino de Etnobiologia e Etnoecologia (X SBEE), realizado em João Pessoa/PB de 22 a 26 de abril de 2019, promovido pela Universidade Federal da Paraíba (UFPB). Pubicado no Anais de Resumos p.34-39.

Recognition on the multiple values of nature has been increasing in the recent decades in global forums on strategies for environmental conservation– including those considered as cultural. The so-called sacred natural sites, recognized in various parts of the world, have been gaining visibility as a key theme in the perspective on reconnecting society and nature. Amidst a substantial body of world information on the subject, it is noteworthy that references to sites in Brazil (a country of great biological and cultural wealth) are rare. In view of this situation, this article aims to illustrate the diversity of these Brazilian sites, its main characteristics, and socioenvironmental implications, evaluating how this theme has been approached in national surveys. The analysis was based on a bibliographical and documentary survey, driven by a collaborative strategy of knowledge construction. The results show that the recurrence of the manifestation of this phenomenon in the different regions of the country and its importance for many social groups contrast to its incipient recognition in public policies. Information on the subject is, for the most part, dispersed in non-indexed references to studies that permeate various areas of knowledge, often disconnected from the international debate. The reflection indicates a need to recognize the interdependence between culture and nature, based on interdisciplinary investigations and on theoretical approaches capable of promoting dialogue between scientific knowledge and popular wisdom, deconstructing these dichotomies. Finally, we launch an invitation to form alliances that contribute to the mission of unveiling the enchantment and mysteries of nature's sacred dimensions in Brazil.