Optimal Distinctiveness Theory

Leonardelli, Pickett, Joseph and Hess integrate Brewer’s (1991) optimal distinctiveness theory with the nested categorical context typically descriptive of an organization’s internal structure, where individuals belong to groups (subgroups) nested within more inclusive superordinate groups (such as functional units nested within an organization). It is ideal for employees to simultaneously identify with the subgroup and superordinate group, that is, to engage what is called a “dual identity,” as doing so aligns the loyalty and the interests of subgroup members with the superordinate group as a whole. However, the authors first review evidence that individuals identify more with the subgroup and less with the superordinate group, what the authors call “dueling identities,” because individuals prefer the more distinctive subgroups to superordinate groups. The authors then argue that such dueling identities can be transformed into a dual identity were the subgroup and superordinate group both perceived to be optimally distinctive, a prediction possible if intergroup distinctiveness is determined by what the authors call "horizontal" rather than "vertical" social comparisons. Some evidence is presented that supports this conclusion and the discussion highlights the different strategies that could be implemented to engineer a dual identity by manipulating individuals’ needs for optimal distinctiveness.

The study investigates the literary form of the Holy book-The Qur'an. The book is explaining the principles of Islam-a religion of Muslim Umah. In the era and since the Prophet Muhammad's time, it was questioned that it is a book written by a poet. It has been under the keen study to know the language used in the Holy Qur'an. The study explains the language of the Holy Qur'an. The Qur'an is not prose and that it is not verse either. It is rather Qur'an, and it cannot be called by any other name. The Holy Quran is the reference book for more than 1.6 billion of Muslims all around the world. Extracting information and knowledge from the Holy Quran is of high benefit for both specialized people in Islamic studies as well as none specialized people. The word Qur'an has never been used for any other book since long in the history of the universe. It has its unique form[1]. This study helps to introduce the reader to the language of the Holy Qur'an.

Optimal distinctiveness theory [Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: on being the same and different at the same time. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin,17(5), 475–482] proposes that individuals have two fundamental and competing human needs—the need for inclusion and the need for differentiation—that can be met by membership in moderately inclusive (optimally distinct) groups. In this chapter, the optimal distinctiveness model and its origins are summarized, and theoretical extensions and empirical tests of the model are discussed. In particular, the empirical review summarizes the model’s consequences for social identification, social cognition, and intergroup relations. The evidence strongly supports the notion that the needs for inclusion and differentiation influence self-categorization resulting in a curvilinear relation between group inclusiveness and group identification. The existing evidence also indicates that the two needs influence perceptions and judgments of the self and others and the nature of intragroup and intergroup relations. The chapter concludes by discussing the interplay of the needs for inclusion and differentiation across levels of the self
and how the needs for inclusion and differentiation influence which level of self (individual or collective) is motivationally primary.

Humans are driven by a variety of needs, motives, and goals. Dating back to the early part of the twentieth century, researchers have attempted to understand human behavior by linking behavior to underlying motivations(e.g., . In line with this tradition of examining human behavior within the framework of individual goals and motivations, researchers studying group behavior and intergroup relations from a social identity perspective (e.g., recognized that multiple motives may operate in a group context. Behavior is driven not only by realistic concerns (e.g., conflicts over resources), but also by individuals' desire for positive social identity. In answer to the question of why individuals identify with groups (particularly minimal groups that appear to hold little significance for group members), Thrner (1975) argued that "subjects will identify with a social category to the extent that such identification enables them to achieve value significance, to the extent that it is the category most relevant to the "desire for positive self-evaluation" (pp. 19-20). Thus, the social identity approach to intergroup relations has always incorporated the concept of needs and motives for understanding intergroup behavior. However, what has been missing to some extent from earlier formulations of social identity theory (SIT: and self-categorization theory (SCT: Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987) is an integration of the variety of individual needs (beyond positive distinctiveness) that might come into play within group contexts and how these needs might interact with cognitive and structural variables to produce particular patterns of intragroup and intergroup behavior.

This chapter reviews the extensive literature on bias in favor of in-groups at the expense of out-groups. We focus on five issues and identify areas for future research: (a) measurement and conceptual issues (especially in-group favoritism vs. out-group derogation, and explicit vs. implicit measures of bias); (b) modern theories of bias highlighting motivational explanations (social identity, optimal distinctiveness, uncertainty reduction, social dominance, terror management); (c) key moderators of bias, especially those that exacerbate bias (identification, group size, status and power, threat, positive-negative asymmetry, personality and individual differences); (d) reduction of bias (individual vs. intergroup approaches, especially models of social categorization); and (e) the link between intergroup bias and more corrosive forms of social hostility.

As a test of optimal distinctiveness theory, we examined the opposing motivations of inclusion/belongingness and differentiation/distinctiveness as predictors of group identification in a sample of anime fans. Participants were recruited from an anime convention and from anime-related websites and completed measures of inclusion, intergroup distinctiveness, and identification with the anime community. The results were in line with optimal distinctiveness theory, as participants who felt a sense of belongingness and who perceived the anime fandom as distinct from other groups reported the highest degree of identification with the fandom. The results illustrate the relative normality of the anime fandom, insofar as its group identification is driven by the same motivations that underlie identification with other groups.

This research examined reasons for the frequently obtained finding that members of numerically minority groups exhibit greater intergroup discrimination than members of majority groups and also sought to determine the conditions under which members of both majority and minority groups exhibit intergroup discrimination. Experiment 1 examined the role of group identification and found that discrimination by members of a majority group was equivalent to that of minority group members when identification was experimentally induced. Experiments 2 and 3 examined further the underlying bases for minority and majority discrimination. Consistent with predictions derived from optimal distinctiveness theory (Brewer, 1991), identification with the in-group was found to be a necessary condition underlying intergroup discrimination, but motivations for discrimination varied as a function of satisfaction with in-group size and distinctiveness.

This thesis creates a theoretical framework that explains the size of polities in world systems. Namely, it explains the size of nations during the rise of the territorial state, and additionally explains the emergence of supranational polities in a globalized world. The question this thesis seeks to answer is whether there exists a – previously undetected – underlying parameter that governs the size of “nations” and “civilizations”,  and which would account for both phenomena. The hypothesis is that there is a direct correlation between the size of the world system and the size of the dominant actors within the system. To this end, the thesis applies a theory from the field of social psychology, called optimal distinctiveness theory, to the world-system level  explaining  the size of both nations and civilizations.
The study focuses on two case studies, one from each of two different world systems. The first case study will be the formation and consolidation of the German nation from the end of the Holy Roman Empire to the founding of the German Empire. The second case study will deal with the ongoing formation of the European Union. This paper stipulates that both these cases are functions of the same principle of optimal distinctiveness. Group identities were successful when they were of an appropriate size relative to that of the total size of the system to which they belong. This size needed to be powerful enough to secure the group interest, while small enough to remain distinct. The claim is that a system confined to European actors produced nations and the new global system produces “civilizations”.
This work identifies one underlying reason for the existence of the national and supranational structures, which are the subject matter for the field of political science and international relations. By understanding the reason that nations of certain sized polities formed instead of others, we may better understand recent trends in nationalism. Additionally this allows us to understand an underlying reason behind the formation of the European Union, a subject which has gained in importance over the recent years. This thesis postulates that we are currently in the midst of a transition in the world system, with the types and sizes of emerging dominant actors changing as well.  In gaining an understanding of the forces that form polity size, potential trajectories of various regions in the world become clearer.
This thesis does not intend to contravene most current theories surrounding issues of nationality and identity. Instead, it intends to explore a complementary role that can be used in conjunction to many different schools of thought. Previous works have focused on how the nation-state arose and the different socio-political, economic, or military reasons that drove the process. This thesis deals with the question of why particular nations arose and not others, either larger or smaller.
According to the optimal distinctiveness theory, individuals are caught between two separate forces concerning how large an in-group they wish to belong to. The first is the individual's desire to belong to a group that is large enough to fulfill the psychological needs of inclusiveness and collective identity, where the individual feels part of something larger than itself. The second need – with which this comes into conflict – is the individual's wish to be separate from others in order to form a distinct exclusive identity. Because of this, individuals are pushed to form groups that are small enough to be distinct yet large enough to be meaningful. This thesis proposes that actors on the world system level are formed in a similar manner.
In the first case study will examine the formation of German nationalism during the nineteenth century. This is a century that commenced with Napoleon's conquests, which put a final end to the Holy Roman Empire. This was followed with the formation of a German confederation in the congress of Vienna, which also included Austria. During the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848, the subject of German nationality was debated from a wide variety of angles. Questions of what “Germany” meant and what it should include were actively debated among the members of the parliament. Different options were put forth with goals ranging from the small to the very large. Bavaria wanted a three-state solution, with Austria, Prussia, and a Bavarian-led “third Germany” composing separate states. Austria pushed for a large “Greater Germany”, which would include all of its Slavic holdings as well as the areas under the German Confederation. Prussia pushed for a “Little Germany”, which would include the German territory not under Austrian rule. These options were debated according to the size and strengths of the various proposed states as well as the legitimizing identity that would be needed in each case.
The thesis shows how much of this discourse surrounded the search for a definition of Germany that would produce a polity of a certain size. The prospective Germans wanted an optimally distinct polity large enough to compete with other European states but not too large that it would include too wide a difference of peoples. To this end, Germany was defined in a way which excluded areas detrimental to the distinctiveness of the German state and included areas which increased its power.
The section dealing with the European Union will looks at the creation of the union from its beginnings after World War II until today. The European polity was formed in the context of the post-WWII world system. This is a time which saw both the decolonization of Europe's colonial empires and the emergence of the US and USSR as the dominant powers in the world. The formation of the European Union was driven by the need to form an optimally distinct polity capable of competing with the “superpowers” of a global age. To achieve this European membership and identity is being tailored to meet that need.
In both cases, special attention is given to those areas and peoples about which there was a question surrounding their inclusion within the polity. In the German case, this concerns Austria, Slavic peoples under Austrian control, and parts of Poland under Prussian control, among others. In the European case, Turkey, Eastern Europe, and also Great Britain. It is through those gray-area cases, where the merits of  inclusion or exclusion were actively debated, that the forces of optimal distinctiveness may best be seen.
These two different case studies provide complementary understandings that may help  to revise existing paradigms that limit our conception of identity, and better enable us to understand the trials involved during polity formation and system change. One example of this is how each setback or obstacle for the European Union is considered a sign of its downfall by the popular press. However, when compared  to the parallel occurrences of German princes and royals obstructing the creation of a German state, national and state objections against the European project are placed in a more understandable historical context.
Similarly, the current nations of Europe are so ingrained in our collective consciousness that it is indeed difficult to conceptualize what pre-German Germany actually meant. By considering the familiar pre-EU Europe for comparison, it is possible to understand how an identity can shift from being unimportant in terms of political structure to being the basis thereof. By presenting the facts in such a manner, it is shown that a persistent drive toward polities of an optimally distinct nature  has been the basis for both the nationalism of the 19th century and the EU as a civilization in the present.

Previous research has substantiated the targeting of various demographic subgroups by the tobacco industry through marketing practices. However, relatively little research has examined targeting of Asians and Pacific Islanders. Based on prior tobacco document research citing the use of identity-based marketing strategies, a content analytic scheme was developed to assess if these strategies were applied to the Asian and AAPI populations. The study was grounded in social identity theory and optimal distinctiveness theory paradigms in order to develop a coherent analytic framework. Keyword searches of documents were conducted and a random sample of the documents of interest was drawn. These data suggest that the tobacco industry targeted Asians and Pacific Islanders in the United States and abroad via interpersonal and commercial communication tactics. These strategies were carefully orchestrated and employed as a result of sophisticated analyses of the social identities and value systems of the source culture populations. Barriers to reaching this culturally and linguistically heterogeneous market were overcome via the construct of collectivism. At the same time, more Westernized Asians were targeted via advertisements that blended a hybrid Western style identity. For both source and immigrant cultures, the industry attempted to facilitate identity construction and maintenance through smoking.

This study aims to establish a conceptual framework on the characteristics of idioculture in crowd computing, as well as the antecedents and consequences of idioculture. Idioculture is defined as distinct cultural elements that characterize a certain group. It is important in group interaction because it can be used as a tool to seek a group's optimal distinctiveness, which is a natural human desire to maintain a balance between being too inclusive or too personalized in crowd settings. In order to provide empirical data for the conceptual framework, this study developed a crowd computing system prototype, named event-driven social media (EDSM), which supports idioculture emergence and sharing in a crowd setting. The prototype was implemented in a massive-scale event involving approximately 20,000 people. The study results were derived from content analysis on 5988 text messages from 1510 users exchanged through EDSM during the event and interviews with 15 users after the event. The findings revealed that group cultures were triggered by EDSM to become idioculture, and the idioculture shared through EDSM affected user experience. First, sources of idioculture included collective, playful, and routine-breaking group cultures. Second, the characteristics of idioculture included catchwords, humorous references, and nicknames. Third, by sharing idioculture, users of EDSM were able to experience social connectedness, group cohesion, and social enjoyment. This study ends with implications on the design of EDSM from the perspective of HCI.

Previous research has substantiated the targeting of various demographic subgroups by the tobacco industry through marketing practices. However, relatively little research has examined targeting of Asians and Pacific Islanders. Based on prior tobacco document research citing the use of identity-based marketing strategies, a content analytic scheme was developed to assess if these strategies were applied to the Asian and AAPI populations. The study was grounded in social identity theory and optimal distinctiveness theory paradigms in order to develop a coherent analytic framework. Keyword searches of documents were conducted and a random sample of the documents of interest was drawn. These data suggest that the tobacco industry targeted Asians and Pacific Islanders in the United States and abroad via interpersonal and commercial communication tactics. These strategies were carefully orchestrated and employed as a result of sophisticated analyses of the social identities and value systems of the source culture populations. Barriers to reaching this culturally and linguistically heterogeneous market were overcome via the construct of collectivism. At the same time, more Westernized Asians were targeted via advertisements that blended a hybrid Western style identity. For both source and immigrant cultures, the industry attempted to facilitate identity construction and maintenance through smoking.

Objectives: Much of the literature on team identification has focused on assessing outcomes to the construct rather than on motives for its development and maintenance. This article comments on research and theorising in social psychology that can contribute to an understanding of motives for team identification. Design: A review and comment on the application of theories of intergroup bias to the study of team identification. Method: Four modern theories of intergroup bias-social identity theory, optimal distinctiveness theory, uncertainty-identity theory, and terror management theory-are overviewed. Potential applications of these theories to future research on motives for team identification are also offered. Results: It is argued that the four theories share similar tenets with reference to motives for social identity. A programme of research that evaluates these motives in the context of sport team identification is offered. Conclusions: It is hoped that this paper will stimulate research into precursors of team identification and that the findings from such research will help sport teams and governing bodies to promote or control certain types of spectator behaviour. r

Knowing how humans differentiate children from adults has useful implications in many areas of both forensic and cognitive psychology. Yet, how we extract age from faces has been surprisingly underexplored in both disciplines. Here, we used a novel data-driven experimental technique to objectively measure the facial features human observers use to categorise child and adult faces. Relying on more than 35,000 trials, we used a reverse correlation technique that enabled us to reveal how specific features which are known to be important in face-perception – position, spatial-frequency (SF), and orientation – are associated with accurate child and adult discrimination. This showed that human observers relied on evidence in the nasal bone and eyebrow area for accurate adult categorisation, while they relied on the eye and jawline area to accurately categorise child faces. For orientation structure, only facial information of vertical orientation was linked to face-adult categorisation, w...

Leonardelli, Pickett, Joseph and Hess integrate Brewer’s (1991) optimal distinctiveness theory with the nested categorical context typically descriptive of an organization’s internal structure, where individuals belong to groups (subgroups) nested within more inclusive superordinate groups (such as functional units nested within an organization). It is ideal for employees to simultaneously identify with the subgroup and superordinate group, that is, to engage what is called a “dual identity,” as doing so aligns the loyalty and the interests of subgroup members with the superordinate group as a whole. However, the authors first review evidence that individuals identify more with the subgroup and less with the superordinate group, what the authors call “dueling identities,” because individuals prefer the more distinctive subgroups to superordinate groups. The authors then argue that such dueling identities can be transformed into a dual identity were the subgroup and superordinate gro...

Despite the insistence in interpretive policy analysis that the discursive construction of problems must be understood in terms of their historical and spatial context, it remains an open question how cities provide such a context. We argue that cities as a distinct form of sociation enable certain (discursive) actions, while restricting others. Taking both the interest of interpretive policy analysis in the social construction of political reality and holistic concepts of approaching the distinctiveness of cities as starting points, we scrutinize how the cities of Frankfurt/Main, Dortmund, Birmingham, and Glasgow provide distinct contexts for the construction of local policy problems. Based on an inquiry into urban discourses we ask, first, how problematizations involve locally specific attributions of problem causes and responsibilities for problem solving and, second, how this is related to a locally distinct understanding of the city's past, present, and future.

Researchers studying social identity and intergroup relations have traditionally approached group behavior as an interaction between the individual, the group, and the social context in which the individual and group are embedded. Tis approach has been quite fruitful, as evidenced by the proliferation of theories and studies over the last several decades that have identified the psychological and sociocontextual features that are likely to give rise to particular group behaviors (eg, in-group bias, discrimination, intergroup hostility). ...