Sport Management and Marketing by Daniel C Funk
Journal of Business Research, 2021
Traditional sport leagues must innovate and embrace emerging trends to grow. At the forefront of ... more Traditional sport leagues must innovate and embrace emerging trends to grow. At the forefront of these trends are the inherently digital esports –competitive video game competitions. In particular, the NBA is a trailblazer in the esports industry by partnering with the video game publisher Take-Two Interactive, to create a virtual sport simulation league, the NBA 2K League. The NBA’s entrepreneurial activities create challenges regarding how to position the digital, boundary spanning product that incorporates elements from both traditional sports and esports. The current study utilized network analysis to examine three sponsorship portfolios: the NBA, the 2K League, and an existing esports league, the League of Legends Championship Series. Findings indicate that the NBA is using an innovative hybrid corporate growth strategy, with a diverse sponsorship portfolio for the 2K League. This strategy serves to mitigate the challenges of digitalization by legitimizing the 2K League across physical and virtual domains.
Journal of Sport Management, 2021
The athleisure phenomenon has initiated a fast-paced evolution in the activewear industry and cha... more The athleisure phenomenon has initiated a fast-paced evolution in the activewear industry and challenged brands to design and market activewear that fulfills consumer needs. Existing sport consumer behavior research has neglected to understand the structural relationships that connect attributes of sport products with values of sport consumers to inform values-based product design and marketing strategies. The current research utilizes the means-end chain theory and its corresponding soft laddering method to investigate the activewear consumption experience of female consumers. Findings revealed means-end chain structural relationships connecting five product attributes to three end-state values through four consequences associated with activewear consumption. Findings extend the sport management literature by understanding how sport product attributes fit into abstract consumer values and drive practical implications to enlighten activewear design and marketing.
Journal of Sport Management, 2021
Emerging technologies not only pose challenges for how sport organizations are managed but also c... more Emerging technologies not only pose challenges for how sport organizations are managed but also create opportunities for sport organizations to become more competitive by enhancing consumers’ service experience. The integration of wearable fitness technology (WFT) by health and fitness clubs provides an opportunity to examine the influence of WFT on the service experience. Although existing research on technology innovations typically examines either the individual or the organizational perspective in isolation, we use the sport experience design framework to comprehensively examine the influence of WFT on the management and perceptions of service experiences. Participants (N = 37) who took part in the qualitative study included fitness club owners (n = 13), fitness club instructors (n = 7), and fitness club members (n = 17). Findings indicate that integrating WFT enhances the service experience via increased social interaction, gamification, and accountability. However, findings also suggest that technology innovations must be integrated carefully to avoid misalignment between providers’ and users’ perceptions. Despite the potential for misalignment, emerging technologies can enhance and expand the service experience beyond the physical environment, presenting sport organizations with technology-mediated opportunities to engage consumers.
Sport Management Review, 2017
Sport Management Review celebrates 20 years of publishing research and this milestone provides an... more Sport Management Review celebrates 20 years of publishing research and this milestone provides an opportunity to reflect on sport consumer research and offer possible directions for academic research. This article utilizes a panel of 17 academic scholars to examine sport consumer research published in SMR as an exemplar; and then more broadly, how to enhance sport consumer research and identify future trends in the sport industry. This information, combined with an article analysis, revealed two key findings. First, the quality of scholarship was acknowledged with noted weaknesses related to improving and diversifying methodology, stronger attention to theoretical development, and relevance to industry. Second, traditional boundaries of sport consumer research will expand due to technology, a broadening sport landscape, and links to other academic disciplines. In order to account for industry trends and address noted theoretical limitations, a Sport Experience Design (SX) framework is introduced which consist of three interrelated elements: (a) the sport context in which a sport consumer navigates through an experience and interacts with touchpoints, (b) the sport user, with mental processes, psychological needs and personal characteristics, and (c) the sport organization, who produces the sport experience to achieve organizational goals. The framework provides a holistic consumer-centred approach that considers cognitive, organisational and physical relevant design factors that enhance customer satisfaction and engagement by improving use and pleasure of sport experiences.
Sport Management Review, 2001
Research on sport spectators and sport fans is examined to develop a model of the psychological c... more Research on sport spectators and sport fans is examined to develop a model of the psychological connections that individuals experience with sports or sport teams. The Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) is introduced. It provides an extended view of sport spectator and sport fan involvement, and outlines general parameters that may mediate the relationship between an individual and a sport or team. The PCM provides a framework that may account for an individual's movement from initial awareness of a sport or team to eventual allegiance. Four levels are described and differentiated: awareness, attraction, attachment and allegiance. The model proposes that the psychological connections between an individual and a sport or team are governed by the complexity and strengthening of sportrelated mental associations. The PCM provides a model that integrates current research and suggests new directions for future research and applications.
European Sport Management Quarterly, 2019
Research question: Long-term relationships between customers and organisations can benefit both p... more Research question: Long-term relationships between customers and organisations can benefit both parties. The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of service-related actions provided by a professional sport team on relationship quality (RQ). The current study is aimed at answering two research questions: (1) 'what are antecedents of RQ?' and (2) 'how do the composition and quality of services provided by sports organisations impact customer perceptions of the quality of their relationship?' Research methods: Over 3300 season ticket holders (STH) of a professional Australian Football team were surveyed. The predictive ability of the antecedents and RQ was examined by testing the direct relationship between RQ and STH behavioural intentions, including intentions of remaining a STH and referral intention. Results and findings: Four key service and performance-related antecedents (service quality, communication, administration and on-field performance) had a positive influence on RQ. RQ was a significant predictor of intentions to remain a STH and referral intention. Implications: This study contributes to sport management literature by highlighting the importance of developing high-quality relationships. Areas team management can directly control, such as good administration and communications efforts, improve perceptions of the relationship between STH and team, providing a potential buffer against unpredictable on-field outcomes that are a feature of professional sport. Our findings should encourage sport managers to use strategic service-related actions within their operations to positively influence the deep and long-lasting relationships between STH and a sports team. ARTICLE HISTORY
Sport Management Review, 2019
Keywords: Bayesian analysis Psychological involvement Segmentation Psychological Continuum Model ... more Keywords: Bayesian analysis Psychological involvement Segmentation Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) Staging algorithm A B S T R A C T The Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) represents a theoretical framework in sport management to understand why and how consumer attitudes form and change. Prior researchers developed an algorithmic staging procedure using psychological involvement to operationalize the PCM framework within sport and recreational contexts. Although this staging procedure is pragmatically sound, it rests upon a procedure that, while intuitively sensible, lacks scientific rigor. The current research offers an alternative approach to PCM segmentation using Bayesian Latent Profile Analysis (Bayesian LPA). Comparing three analyses (the conventional PCM segmentation algorithm, K-means clustering, and Bayesian LPA), results demonstrated that Bayesian LPA provides a promising and alternative statistical approach that outperforms the conventional PCM staging algorithm in two ways: (a) it has the ability to classify individuals into the corresponding PCM segments with more distinct boundaries; and (b) it is equipped with stronger statistical power to predict conceptually related distal outcomes with larger effect size.
Journal of Sport Management, 2020
To combat the declining number of finishers plaguing the distance-running industry, it is increas... more To combat the declining number of finishers plaguing the distance-running industry, it is increasingly important for organizers
to optimize event satisfaction levels. Participants’ survey responses from two distance-running events (n1 = 2,324 and
n2 = 2,526) were analyzed to challenge the traditional managerial scope and theoretical lens through which event satisfaction
is conventionally examined. Results revealed five event benefits that capture key motivational antecedents of event satisfaction.
Collectively, these benefits, including euphoric, fitness, competition, social, and entertainment benefits, influenced
event satisfaction levels (R2 = 43%) and repeat consumption intentions (R2 = 23%). For event organizers to foster event
satisfaction, it is central to encourage event preparation and participation that promotes the enjoyment of physical activity,
fitness and appearance enhancement, socialization, competition, and excitement among registrants. Academics should also
extend their scope of event satisfaction to fully capture the entirety of event experience lifecycles (e.g., from registration through
event participation).
Journal of Sport Management, 2019
Market trends indicate the distance running event industry is facing a running recession. Since 2... more Market trends indicate the distance running event industry is facing a running recession. Since 2013, consumer demand has declined annually while supply increased. The current research provides insight into why running as a recreational activity is declining and implications for organized events' utility. Based on seven years of participants' postevent surveys from a long-distance running event, the value placed on hedonic, symbolic, and lifestyle features of running (i.e., running involvement) is gradually declining, which corresponds to a decline in annual event participation. Results are based on analyses of both a time series of cross-sections (N = 23,790) and a panel of multiyear respondents (n = 461). Also, there are gender differences in the rates at which running involvement declined. These results shed light onto a sociopsychographic explanation for the declining levels of running event participation and general interest in running.
International Journal of Sport Management, 2019
The purpose of this study was to examine how program directors are creating acceptance for esport... more The purpose of this study was to examine how program directors are creating acceptance for esports within the heavily regulated environment of U.S. colleges and universities, and explore how these strategies, and their efficacy, are influenced by program location (i.e., athletics departments vs. student affairs). The study is guided by the theory of institutional work, with particular emphasis on institutional creation. Through this lens, the analysis focuses on identifying creation strategies tied to esports integration, highlighting unique challenges that facilitate and/or con-strain this process, and exploring differences between different departments (i.e., athletics departments vs. student affairs). The discussion provides theoretical insight on how actors within heavily regulated environments create acceptance for novel activities, and offers practical recommendations for the future development of collegiate esports.
Journal of Sport Management, 2019
Self-reflection on knowledge generation in sport management is essential for continued growth and ... more Self-reflection on knowledge generation in sport management is essential for continued growth and remains a prevailing topic for recipients of the Earle F. Zeigler Award. To date, two perspectives largely guide such evaluation: What makes a theoretical contribution and what constitutes new theory. The 2018 Earle F. Zeigler Address introduces a third perspective based on the concept of diffusion to explore three elements: article innovation, communication channel, and social system that contribute to producing and spreading new knowledge. This examination utilizes data and information collected from sport management articles, journal citations, a case study, editorial board membership characteristics, and my coauthor network and publishing experiences. Holistically, the evidence collected provides insight into how and why ideas could spread in sport management. Unfortunately, for new and emerging scholars, spreading ideas through academic journals will be uncomfortably slow and managing expectations important. However, by understanding the academic publishing ecosystem, scholars can improve chances for idea diffusion through selecting appropriate journal outlets, establishing interpersonal connections, creating weak and strong coauthor ties, and engaging in programmatic research. This address concludes with strategies to help navigate spreading research ideas by setting realistic goals, optimizing the coauthor network, and reinvesting in the original idea.
Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2018
eSports, organized video game competitions, are growing in popularity, with top tournaments drawi... more eSports, organized video game competitions, are growing in popularity, with top tournaments drawing crowds of spectators rivaling traditional sporting events. The extent to which eSport operates similarly to traditional sport is vital to developing marketing strategies for the eSport industry and inform academic research on eSport. Prior research examined eSports in isolation from traditional sports, overlooking comparisons to understand the degree to which eSport spectators are motivated similarly to traditional sport spectators. The current study measures widely-used sport consumption motives to examine their influence on eSport spectatorship and consumption behaviors (i.e., game attendance frequency, media usage, and merchandise purchase). Based on spectator motives across one traditional sport and two eSport contexts, current study identifies motives salient to eSport consumption, advances the debate on eSports as sport, and provides actionable strategies for sports marketers to reach eSport spectators.
Sport Management Review, 2018
A B S T R A C T Consumer demand for eSport and the growth of organized video game competitions ha... more A B S T R A C T Consumer demand for eSport and the growth of organized video game competitions has generated considerable attention from the sport, event, and entertainment industries. eSport therefore represents a novel and popular area for sport management academics to conduct research, educate students, and service industry. However, despite growth and acceptance by consumers and practitioners, academics debate eSport's position within the domain of sport management, their debates largely concentrated around the question of whether eSport can be classified as sport. In this article, the authors argue for the inclusion of organized eSport events and competitions within sport management vis-à-vis eSport's meeting certain defining criteria of sport in general. eSport's connection to traditional sport and defining characteristics are addressed to support eSport's role as a sport entertainment product recognized by industry as representing a substantial growth opportunity for sport and related organizations. As eSport continues to evolve, practitioners face managerial challenges that are similar to those in traditional sport, particularly in areas of governance and diversity. Sport management academics should embrace the potential of eSport in order to examine this evolution and provide guidance to industry through education and research.
Journal of Sport Management, 2019
Limited research has examined psychological involvement change using a longitudinal design. This ... more Limited research has examined psychological involvement change using a longitudinal design. This study explored stability and change in the three facets of psychological involvement pleasure, centrality, and sign
that occurred over a 2-year period and examined key behavioral correlates of the observed change. Data were collected three times through online surveys from participants (N = 482) of an annual 10-mile running event in the United States. Latent growth modeling analyses revealed that, on
average, the levels of pleasure, centrality, and sign in running slightly decreased over time. Growth mixture modeling analyses offer evidence that different patterns of change exist within each facet of psychological involvement. The findings further indicate that changes in the number of events participated in each year are the most important behavioral correlates of psychological involvement change. The results provide sport managers with implications for promoting long-term engagement with the activity through event participation and postevent phases
Sport Management Review, 2018
A B S T R A C T While the female activewear market is growing rapidly, research on activewear con... more A B S T R A C T While the female activewear market is growing rapidly, research on activewear consumption and female consumers is lagging. Existing researchers have failed to produce an in-depth understanding of female consumers' perceptions of activewear, thereby providing limited insights for the activewear industry. Drawing upon brand association theory and the functional, expressive, and aesthetic model, the authors identify important attributes of activewear brands and how attributes lead to benefits pursued by female activewear consumers. Focus groups were conducted with 72 female activewear consumers in Australia. Findings reveal three product-related attributes (functional design, colour, and size and fit) and two non-product-related attributes (price and model imagery) influence the fulfillment of four benefits (mood enhancement, exercise facilitation, healthy and active lifestyle, and physical fit body image). This research contributes theoretical and empirical knowledge about activewear consumption and the vertical structure of brand associations. Findings of this research can help activewear brands deliver benefits to female consumers through improved product designs and marketing strategies. Crown
Understanding the role of the league brand on consumers' support for individual teams is importan... more Understanding the role of the league brand on consumers' support for individual teams is important for the successful management and marketing of both leagues and teams. In the current research, brand architecture and brand association literature are integrated to examine the role of the league brand on the relationship between the team brand and team-related behavior. Data from an online survey of professional soccer league consumers (N = 414) were analyzed using structural equation modeling with bootstrapping procedures. The relationship between the team brand and team-related behavior was partially mediated by the league brand. Findings of this research contribute new knowledge by empirically demonstrating that characteristics of the league brand have an influence on team-related behavioral intentions. Furthermore, we contribute a different analytical approach for brand association research using formative indicators to measure team and league brand associations. In the managerial implications, we outline how league managers can support individual teams and how team managers can leverage off the league brand to attract consumers.
Journal of Business Research, 2017
This study examines whether consumers' perceptions of corporate social responsibility (CSR) activ... more This study examines whether consumers' perceptions of corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities can predict behavioral loyalty, and how two attitudinal constructs drawing from the means-end chain model—involvement and commitment—mediate this relationship. A field study of 634 customers of an Australian professional football team was conducted by combining attitudinal surveys with actual behavioral data collected one year later. The results revealed a positive mediating effect of involvement on the relationship between perceived CSR and behavioral loyalty. However, when the effect of involvement on behavioral loyalty was mediated by commitment, the indirect effect of perceived CSR turned negative. The findings of this study indicate that the contribution of CSR initiatives to behavioral loyalty is not as robust as past research suggests, and is also contingent upon specific psychological states activated by consumers' perceptions of such initiatives.
The importance of team brand associations in sport management research is well documented, but th... more The importance of team brand associations in sport management research is well documented, but the formation and stability of these associations has not been investigated. The current research tested the development, change, and predictive ability of brand associations over time. Longitudinal quantitative data were collected from consumers of a new Australian Football League (AFL) team (N = 169) at 3 points in time. One-sample t-tests revealed that brand associations had developed through marketing communications and the launch of the team before the team had played its first AFL game. Repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance and latent growth modeling showed that brand associations changed over time, reflecting consumers' experiences with the team. A cross-lagged panel model highlighted that brand associations influenced consumer loyalty in the future. Consequently, sport managers are provided with insights on the development of and change in brand associations that new consumers link with sport teams.
Sport Management Review, 2018
Two key law-like patterns – the double jeopardy and duplication of purchase laws – have consisten... more Two key law-like patterns – the double jeopardy and duplication of purchase laws – have consistently been found to explain and predict consumer behavior across a wide range of industries. There has been speculation that these empirical generalisations may not hold in the case of professional team sport brands. The reasons given include the passionate loyalty of sport fans, the fact that two sport teams must be consumed at once in any contest, and the strong geographic dominance of sport brands. In this study, we examine the applicability of these two law-like generalisations to professional team sport. With a few caveats, these law-like patterns hold, suggesting that sport team brands operate in line with what is known about other consumer markets. Results suggest the unique aspects of the sport market do not meaningfully impact consumer behavior and therefore sport brands should be managed in fundamentally the same way as most consumer markets.
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Sport Management and Marketing by Daniel C Funk
to optimize event satisfaction levels. Participants’ survey responses from two distance-running events (n1 = 2,324 and
n2 = 2,526) were analyzed to challenge the traditional managerial scope and theoretical lens through which event satisfaction
is conventionally examined. Results revealed five event benefits that capture key motivational antecedents of event satisfaction.
Collectively, these benefits, including euphoric, fitness, competition, social, and entertainment benefits, influenced
event satisfaction levels (R2 = 43%) and repeat consumption intentions (R2 = 23%). For event organizers to foster event
satisfaction, it is central to encourage event preparation and participation that promotes the enjoyment of physical activity,
fitness and appearance enhancement, socialization, competition, and excitement among registrants. Academics should also
extend their scope of event satisfaction to fully capture the entirety of event experience lifecycles (e.g., from registration through
event participation).
that occurred over a 2-year period and examined key behavioral correlates of the observed change. Data were collected three times through online surveys from participants (N = 482) of an annual 10-mile running event in the United States. Latent growth modeling analyses revealed that, on
average, the levels of pleasure, centrality, and sign in running slightly decreased over time. Growth mixture modeling analyses offer evidence that different patterns of change exist within each facet of psychological involvement. The findings further indicate that changes in the number of events participated in each year are the most important behavioral correlates of psychological involvement change. The results provide sport managers with implications for promoting long-term engagement with the activity through event participation and postevent phases
to optimize event satisfaction levels. Participants’ survey responses from two distance-running events (n1 = 2,324 and
n2 = 2,526) were analyzed to challenge the traditional managerial scope and theoretical lens through which event satisfaction
is conventionally examined. Results revealed five event benefits that capture key motivational antecedents of event satisfaction.
Collectively, these benefits, including euphoric, fitness, competition, social, and entertainment benefits, influenced
event satisfaction levels (R2 = 43%) and repeat consumption intentions (R2 = 23%). For event organizers to foster event
satisfaction, it is central to encourage event preparation and participation that promotes the enjoyment of physical activity,
fitness and appearance enhancement, socialization, competition, and excitement among registrants. Academics should also
extend their scope of event satisfaction to fully capture the entirety of event experience lifecycles (e.g., from registration through
event participation).
that occurred over a 2-year period and examined key behavioral correlates of the observed change. Data were collected three times through online surveys from participants (N = 482) of an annual 10-mile running event in the United States. Latent growth modeling analyses revealed that, on
average, the levels of pleasure, centrality, and sign in running slightly decreased over time. Growth mixture modeling analyses offer evidence that different patterns of change exist within each facet of psychological involvement. The findings further indicate that changes in the number of events participated in each year are the most important behavioral correlates of psychological involvement change. The results provide sport managers with implications for promoting long-term engagement with the activity through event participation and postevent phases
industry. Mandatory directives such as social distancing and stay-at-home
/shelter-in-place orders reduce disease transmission and protect the health
and well-being of the public. However, such strategies might impair active
leisure participation. We identify challenges and constraints of engaging in
active leisure activities during the pandemic and explore how the general
public can use technology and big data analytics to negotiate constraints
during this uncertain time. Creative applications of big data analytics
demonstrate that negotiating active leisure constraints and battling the
pandemic are not contradictory goals. We recommend society to harness
the power of these data-driven tools to effectively navigate interpersonal,
structural, and intrapersonal constraints to active leisure while improving
the efficiency with which we combat the spread of COVID-19.
Methods: Twelve-year state-level data (2003−2014) were obtained from 5 secondary sources (n=611). Healthcare costs were captured by Medicare Parts A and B spending. Fixed-effect models were estimated in 2019 to assess the relationship between the state-level physical activity prevalence
and Medicare costs. The potential lagged associations were captured by lagged variables of physical activity prevalence (i.e., t1, t2, and t3).
Results: Physical activity prevalence was not associated with Medicare costs occurring in the concurrent and subsequent year (p>0.05); however, the 2-year lagged variable (p=0.03) and the 3-year lagged variable (p=0.01) for physical activity prevalence were negatively associated with Medicare
costs, indicating a time-lagged relationship. It was estimated that a 10 percentage point increase in physical activity prevalence in each state is associated with reduced Medicare Parts A and B costs of 0.4% after 2 years and 1.0% after 3 years.
Conclusions: Results revealed a time lag effect highlighted by a delayed inverse relationship between state-level physical activity prevalence and healthcare costs among older adults. This evidence offers governments and communities new insights to guide policymaking on long-term public
investment in physical activity intervention programs.
on employees within the industry of collegiate recreation. In this study, 2,474 National Intramural and Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) professional and student members were sent a survey in which
621 participated and 522 were analyzed. Results indicate employees with young children and those in early career positions may experience significant work–family conflict/family–work conflict and burnout.
competitive setting, has increased in popularity as part of growing
adventurous leisure participation. This study reports results from a
survey of 717 adventure racing participants in Australia examining
sporting identity, motivations and contributions to physical
activity. Participants were motivated to engage in the event by
physical, nature and adventure elements, with social factors also
being important for teams. Participants are unlikely to identify
themselves as adventure racers, rather having a specific sport that
they regularly participate in. Whilst adventure racing has limited
tourism potential, it offers positive participation aspects to
individuals, and a variety of commercial opportunities for sponsors
and host destinations
Key words: recreation, sport participation, motivation, constraints
These chapters are followed by a selection of international case studies on topics such as female sport fans, college sports, marathons and community engagement. The book’s companion website also provides additional resources exclusively for instructors and students, including test banks, slides and useful web links.
As the only up-to-date textbook to focus on consumer behaviour in sport and events, Sport Consumer Behaviour: Marketing Strategies offers a truly global perspective on this rapidly-growing subject. This book is an invaluable resource for anyone involved in the sport and events industries, from students and academics to professional marketers.