Inflorescences

The biogeography of Madagascar palms J o h n D r a n s f i e l d a n d M i j o r o R a k o t oa r i n i vo Madagascar has an extraordinary palm flora, diverse in species and evolutionary lines, a diversity that poses interesting evolutionary questions. The palms in Madagascar are in stark contrast to two other families of largely tropical monocotyledons, Zingiberaceae and Araceae, where the Madagascar representation is low in diversity despite being high in endemism. The contrast between the palm flora of Madagascar and that of the whole of continental Africa is remarkable, the former with over three times the number of species as the latter. With the discovery of yet more new palms in recent fieldwork the contrast is set to become even more striking. The phylogenetic relationships of Madagascar palms are complex, with groups variously linked to related taxa in differing parts of the tropical world, while the relationships of the most diverse group of Madagascar palms, subtribe Dysidinae, remain obscure.

Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is a salt and drought tolerant fruit crop mainly cultivated in Arabian countries. Shoot
tip explants of offshoots were used traditionally for various micropropagation protocols on research or commercial levels.
However, its main disadvantage was the scarification of the entire plant. Subsequently, this hinders the micropropagation
of male and female recalcitrant individuals with no offshoots or the interesting cultivars with a limited population.
Consequently, current study is investigating the factors affecting commercial production of tissue cultured palms with
cost-effectively and short-production cycle, which may also strongly enhance the transformation protocols. The innovative
way by which the 15 cm long immature inflorescence was excised before emergence between fronds is reported herewith
this study for the first time. Established spikelet explants were able within 2-3 months only without any callus phase
to produce shining globular structures instead of immature florets. These embryogenic structures couldn’t develop
further without maturation process for 1-2 months under full darkness as well. Subsequently, well-matured embryogenic
structures were shifted to the subsequent differentiation medium under illumination conditions. After then, green shoots
and multiple somatic embryos have been subjected to the multiplication stage, then rooting and eventually successfully
transplanted in the greenhouse. All used nutrient media and their sequential usage is reported in this study by which
it became possible from one inflorescence to produce 10000 plantlets in rooting stage right now of Gulistan Pakistani
cultivar without any bad consequences on the mother tree.

Inflorescence-based micropropagation holds great potential for the multiplication of recalcitrant male and female date palm individual trees and culti-vars of commercial interests with limited populations. This can be accomplished in a short time with minimal effort as compared to the traditional practice of using shoot-tip explants. The aim of this technique is to pave the way to use inflorescence explants to micropropagate date palm by direct formation of organs (somatic embryos or shoots) and avoiding most of the constraints that face the shoot tip like high percentage of contamination in the establishment stage, heavy browning, a long time for first cluster initiation, using a considerable number of offshoots and inability to micropropagate the elite palms in case no offshoots are available. The way to excise the immature inflorescence without damage to the mother tree, composition of the nutrient medium for direct organ initiation have remained hindrances to this technique over recent decades, in addition to the technicalities for proper handling of cultures inside the laboratory and successful shifting of plants to the greenhouse. We report for the first time an innovative method used to excise the immature inflo-rescence at a suitable stage for successful culture initiation. Spikelet explants are induced to produce shining globular structures without a callus phase. Also, explants were exceptionally able to develop direct shoots. Two types of organs developed on the differentiation medium, green shoots and intact somatic embryos. Only green shoots and multiple somatic embryos were subjected to proliferation at the multiplication stage. Well-rooted plantlets were hardened and successfully established in soil.

Alien plants may be reproductively limited in exotic habitats because of a lack of mutualistic pollinators. However, if plants are adequately served by generalist pollinators, successful reproduction, naturalisation and expansion into exotic habitats may occur. Rhododendron ponticum is very successful, ecologically damaging invasive plant in Britain and Ireland, but is in decline in its native Iberian habitat. It spreads locally by sending out lateral branches, but for longer distance dispersal it relies on sexually produced seeds. Little is known about R. ponticum's pollination ecology and breeding biology in invaded habitats. We examined the flower-visiting communities and maternal reproductive success of R. ponticum in native populations in southern Spain and in exotic ones in Ireland. R. ponticum in flowers are visited by various generalist (polylectic) pollinator species in both native and exotic habitats. Although different species visited flowers in Ireland and Spain, the flower visitation rate was not significantly different. Insects foraging on R. ponticum in Spain carried less R. ponticum pollen than their Irish counterparts, and carried fewer pollen types. Fruit production per inflorescence varied greatly within all populations but was significantly correlated with visitation at the population level. Nectar was significantly depleted by insects in some exotic populations, suggesting that this invasive species is providing a floral resource for native insects in some parts of Ireland. The generality of the pollination system may be factor contributing to R.ponticum's success in exotic habitats.

Portulaca is the only genus in Portulacaceae and includes ca. 100 species with worldwide distribution. Inflorescence types in Portulaca have been used as an important character in infrageneric classifications and it has been suggested that capitula and solitary flowers derive from a cyme. The present paper focuses on the study of the diversification patterns of the inflorescence within Portulacaceae based on a phylogenetic approach. A phylogenetic framework was used to estimate the ancestral inflorescence type under parsimony and maximum likelihood criteria. The results, although ambiguous, suggest that a cymose inflorescence may have been the ancestral type for Cactineae. Diversification patterns within Portulacaceae are not clear, but it is plausible that capitula and solitary flowers are derived from a cymose inflorescence. In addition, the first two types may have evolved independently at least twice in the group. These results show that the inflorescence type has limited systematic utility, contrary to the current accepted infrageneric classifications of Portulaca, and only characterizes a group of Australian species with cymose inflorescences.

Pterisanthes (Vitaceae) is a genus of c. 20 species of scandent climbers endemic to Southeast Asia with unusual lamellate inflorescences. Molecular phylogenetic analysis supports its relationship in the well-supported Vitis– Ampelocissus–Nothocissus–Pterisanthes clade (i.e. the Ampelocissus–Vitis clade). Shoot tips and floral buds were collected from wild and greenhouse-grown P. eriopoda at different developmental stages and were examined using epi-illumination, light and scanning electron microscopy. Inflorescence and floral ontogeny was studied to discover how the lamellate inflorescence evolved and to make morphological comparisons to infer relationships with closely related members of Vitaceae. The second-order branches in P. eriopoda are racemose and develop helically around
the inflorescence axis in a similar fashion to Vitis and Ampelocissus. Inflorescence branching is restricted to the
second order in P. eriopoda, whereas in Vitis and most Ampelocissus species subsequent branching orders
culminate in the typical vitaceous determinate dichasium. In P. eriopoda subsequent lateral growth of the second-order branches combined with the inhibition of peduncle or pedicel formation and loss of dichasial branching results in the unique lamellae in Pterisanthes, on which the floral primordia arise directly in a helical pattern. Floral development in P. eriopoda is the same as in other genera of Vitaceae examined to date with initiation of floral whorls centripetally, the calyx ring developing first and calyx lobes fused to cover the petals and stamen primordia. Given the recent phylogenetic results that placed Pterisanthes firmly within Ampelocissus, the most likely scenario is that the Pterisanthes inflorescence is derived from the thyrse of an Ampelocissus-like
ancestor and that the thyrse is a morphological synapomorphy of the Ampelocissus–Vitis clade.

The subtribe Melinidinae (Poaceae: Panicoideae: Paniceae) includes 14 genera that present the PCK photosynthetic subtype in addition to several other unique and also common characters. The purpose of this research was (1) to test the monophyly of the subtribe Melinidinae, including 331 ndhF sequences of Panicoids and related genera, (2) to analyze the phylogenetic relationships among genera of Melinidinae using four cpDNA regions, and to study evolutionary trends in the homogenization of inflorescences. As a result, the monophyly of Melinidinae is supported if Urochloa venosa is excluded from the subtribe. Alloteropsis semialata subsp. semialata, an unusual PCK species, is here confirmed within the Forest shade clade. Within Melinidinae, Urochloa and Eriochloa appeared as paraphyletic and polyphyletic genera, respectively. Finally, the general trend in the evolution of the inflorescences in Melinidinae seems to be the reduction from non-homogenized to complete homogenized inflorescences.

Floral morphology, anatomy and histology were studied in representatives of all families of current Oxalidales, which were recently constituted as a result of molecular systematic studies by other authors, and are composed of families of different positions in traditional classifications (Oxalidaceae, Connaraceae, Brunelliaceae, Cephalotaceae, Cunoniaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Tremandraceae). Two of the three pairs of sister (or nested) families that come out in molecular analyses are highly supported by floral structure: Oxalidaceae/Connaraceae and Elaeocarpaceae/Tremandraceae, whereas Cephalotaceae/Cunoniaceae are not especially similar at the level of Oxalidales. Oxalidaceae and Connaraceae share petals that are postgenitally united into a basal tube (although they are imbricate in both) but free at the insertion zone, stamens that are congenitally united at the base, uniseriate glandular hairs on the stamen filaments, and ovules that are hemianatropous to almost orthotropous. The sharing of a special type of sievetube plastids and of trimorphic heterostyly, studied by other authors, should also be mentioned. With Brunelliaceae, the two families share an androgynophore and nectaries at the base of the stamens in alternisepalous sectors. Elaeocarpaceae and Tremandraceae share buzz-pollinated flowers and a syndrome of features functionally connected with it. In addition, petals are larger than sepals in advanced bud, they are valvate, involute and enwrap part of the adjacent stamens, they have three vascular traces. Lignified hairs are common on the anthers and are found in the ovary locules and on the ovules (not lignified) of representatives of both families. Ovules have a chalazal appendage, and the inner integument is much thicker than the outer.

Flowers Magnolias are a magnificent sight, which is appreciated as a symbol of Magnoliopsida. The morphology of Magnolias flowers creates the impression of their sudden appearance in fossils and in the course of evolution. Possible, Magnolias has not one flower and many flowers, but other structure. In this regard, we analyzed the variability of flowers in 3 species of Magnolia. The results of the studies showed a significant variation in the size and number of elements of the perianth, stamens and pistils, as well as a reduction in their dimensions in the centripetal direction. It is possible that the bright perianth Magnolia is a cataphyll, surrounding the inflorescence of the ear of naked, unisex flowers, in which the female flowers are located at the top, and the male flowers are concentrated at the base. This is also an occasion to revise the existing
concept of the evolution of inflorescences.

Evidence from recent research combined with an evaluation of the literature indicates that Ariraema is adapted to pollination by fungus gnats. It apparently shares this peculiarity among aroids only with the distantly related genus Arkarum. In addition to previous records from Japan and North America, systematic collections from nine Arisaema species during several

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of methyl jasmonate spraying on anthocyanin synthesis in florets of oriental hybrid lily cv. ’Sorbonne’ and its relationship with other qualified traits of cut flower. Two concentration of methyl jasmonate (0.2 and 0.4 mM) were separately sprayed on plants at three stages of inflorescence growth (flower buds initiation, florets length of 3 to 5 cm, and 2 to 3 days before harvest). Results showed that there was no significant difference between applied concentrations regarding postharvest characteristics. In case, there was obvious difference in traits among three stages of spraying. Spraying with methyl jasmonate didn’t have any significant difference on leaf greenness over postharvest period but it could preserve higher amount of fresh weight for cut flowers in the late storage life. Other traits such as petal anthocyanin content, vase life, total soluble solid and antioxidant activity were also in the highest amount in this treat...

Avocado trees (Persea americana Mill.) bearing a heavy crop produce a light "off" bloom the next spring. This results in a light crop and a subsequent intense "on" bloom the year after. The objective of the study was to quantify the effects of GA 3 canopy sprays applied to 'Hass' avocado trees during the months preceding an "off" or "on" bloom on inflorescence and vegetative shoot number and yield. The experiment was initiated approximately seven months before an anticipated "off" bloom in an attempt to increase flowering intensity and yield. GA 3 (25 or 100 mg·L -1 ) was applied to separate sets of trees in September (early stage of inflorescence initiation), November (early stage of inflorescence development), January (initial development of the perianth of terminal flowers), March (cauliflower stage of inflorescence development; only 25 mg·L -1 ), or monthly from September through January (only 25 mg·L -1 ). Control trees did not receive any treatment. GA 3 (100 mg·L -1 ) applied in September reduced inflorescence number in both years, but not yield. GA 3 (25 or 100 mg·L -1 ) applied in November before the "on" bloom reduced inflorescence number with a concomitant increase in vegetative shoot number and 47% yield reduction compared to control trees. This treatment might provide avocado growers with a tool to break the alternate bearing cycle by reducing yield in an expected "on" crop year to achieve a higher yield the following year. GA 3 (25 mg·L -1 ) applied in November or January stimulated early development of the vegetative shoot of indeterminate inflorescences. January and March applications did not affect the number of flowering or vegetative shoots produced either year. GA 3 (25 mg·L -1 ) applied in March at the start of an "off" bloom increased 2fold the production of commercially valuable fruit (213 to 269 g per fruit) compared to the control.

Lignin engineering is an attractive strategy to improve lignocellulosic biomass quality for processing to biofuels and other bio-based products. However, lignin engineering also results in profound metabolic consequences in the plant. We used a systems biology approach to study the plant's response to lignin perturbations. To this end, inflorescence stems of 20 Arabidopsis thaliana mutants, each mutated in a single gene of the lignin biosynthetic pathway (phenylalanine ammonia-lyase1

A study of the vertical distribution of flowering and fruit set and of components of yield (fruit numbers, fruit size, and fruit oil content) was maintained for 2 years in N–S- and E–W-oriented olive hedgerows of comparable structure (row spacing 4 m, hedgerow height to 2.5 m, width c. 1 m) near Toledo, Spain (39.9°N). Mean yield of the N–S orchard was 1854 kg oil/ha without difference between sides or years. Yield of the E–W orchard was greater in 2006, producing 2290 kg/ha, but only 1840 kg/ha in 2007, the same as the N–S orchard. The S side of the E–W orchard yielded more (59%) than the N side in 2007. In both orchards and years, most fruit was produced at 1.0–2.0 m height and fruit density was the most influential component in these differences, reflecting more intense bud initiation in these upper layers. Other components that determined fruit number, fertile inflorescences, fruits per fertile inflorescence, and fruit drop were not significantly different between layers. Fruit ...

Caracterização anatômica de folhas e inflorescências de espécies de Lavanda (Lamiaceae) utilizadas como medicinais no Brasil Charcacterization of the anatomy of leaves and inflorescenses of the Lavender species (Lamiaceae) used as medicine in Brazil.

Variations can be observed in pollinator assemblages of exotic species in response to changes in environment or to variables that did not receive much attention. This paper is the first approximation of the abundance of pollinator species associated with Eucalyptus nitens in a Clonal seed-bank plantation (CSBP) of the farm "Rucamanqui", Huepil, Biobío Region in Chile. Between October and November 2010, we examined the variation of pollinator's entomofauna of E. nitens. Environmental factors, such as temperature and the number of open flowers per plant, were registered to determine the level of dependence on the frequency of visits. The most abundant insects visiting E. nitens belonged to the orders Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera. However, the proportion of individuals in each group of flower visitors varied considerably among the sampling months: Hymenoptera (203), Coleoptera in October and Coleoptera , Hymenoptera (57) in November. For Hymenoptera, environmental temperature was significant compared to frequency of visitors; whereas for Coleoptera, the number of open flowers per plant has been significant for insect activity. Results show that the visit frequency of pollinators in E. nitens is highly variable within the sampling period and temperature and density of open flowers per plant can produce variations within the group of pollinators.

Miconia caluescens DC (Melastomataceae) is a dominant invasive species in the tropical oceanic island of Tahiti (French Polynesia, South Pacific Ocean), where it was introduced as an ornamental plant. Whereas this small tree is sparse in its native range of Central America, it has spread in 'Tahiti into a wide variety of habitats including native wet forests. The remarkable success of this invasion is due in great part to prolific reproduction: a mature tree can bear up to 220 inflorescences with an average of 1330 AowerslinHorescence, 208 fruitslinfructescence and 175 seeddfruit. l w o and a half years of phenological observations in a highly invaded site indicated that three major peaks of flowering occurlyear over brief periods: Hower anthesis lasted a few days and pollen grain germination suggested a short stigmatic receptivity of only a few hours; no pollinators were observed foraging on flowers during our survey; the production of fruits containing viable seeds in bagged inflorescences showed that self-fertilization can occur; pollen-ovule ratio (log P I 0 = 2.68) suggested facultative xenogamy; bagged isolated flowers to test for autogamy and style cutting to learn whether apomixis occured or not were not conclusive. The flowering phenology and the breeding system of M. caluescens enable this plant to build up rapidly successful populations from even a single propagule on the island of Tahiti and on other sites of introducrion. The vegetation structure of Polynesian native forests compared to Neotropical rain forests probably plays an important role in determining the reproductive success of M. caluescens and could provide a complementary explanation of the biological invasion processes in tropical oceanic islands.

The inflorescences of the genus Nassauvia are analyzed following Troll’s comparative-morphological approach. Eight types of synflorescences are recognized, each defined by a particular combination of six developmental processes: truncation, proliferation, shortening of internodes, homogenization of paraclades, suppression of paraclades and shortening of peduncles. Decomposing each inflorescence type into six characters, each referring to a hypothesized developmental process, makes the data suitable for cladistic analysis. The synflorescence patterns described in the present analysis mostly correlate with currently accepted infrageneric classifications; discrepancies are discussed. Inflorescences currently described as „pseudocephalia” are shown to be strongly condensed panicles or stachyoids of heads. Sister group inspection suggests the condensed panicle of heads to be the basal inflorescence condition within the genus Nassauvia.

The circumscription and phylogenetic position of the tribe Durioneae (Bombacaceae or /Malvaceae/Helicteroideae) was investigated by supplementing a previously published ndhF data set. The present analysis supports a narrow conception of Durioneae (excluding Camptostemon and Papuodendron) and confirms a close relationship with Helicteres, Reevesia, Ungeria, and Triplochiton (all of traditional Sterculiaceae). Phylogenetic relationships within Durioneae were inferred from a combined analysis ofndhF and ITS sequences. These data suggest that Neesia is sister to a clade comprising all other five genera of core Durioneae, and that Coelostegia + Kosterrnansia form a clade that is sister to Cullenia + Boschia + Durio. Various morphological features support these relationships. However, characters usually considered diagnostic for the entirety of Durioneae, such as a densely lepidote lower leaf surface and uni-or polylocular anthers, appear to be apomorphic within this clade. Likewise, spiny fruits and large arils covering the seeds are not plesiomorphic for Durioneae, in contradiction to Corner's classic Durian Theory. The phylogeny suggests that bat-and bird-pollination evolved from beetle-pollination and that this transition was coincident with extensive androecial modification. Similarities due to convergent evolution of floral traits in relation to pollination by birds and mammals probably account for the erroneous, traditional placement of Durioneae in Bombacaceae.

Dwarf dogwoods (or the bunchberries) are the only suffrutex in Cornaceae. They are attractive ground cover ornamentals with clusters of small flowers surrounded by petaloid bracts. Little has been reported on plant regeneration of dogwoods. As a step toward unraveling the molecular basis of inflorescence evolution in Cornus, we report an efficient regeneration system for a dwarf dogwood species C. canadensis through organogenesis from rejuvenated leaves, and characterize the development of the plantlets. We used the nodal stem segments of vegetative branches as explants. Micropropogated shoots were quickly induced from axillary buds of nodes on an induction medium consisting of basal MS medium supplemented with 4.44 lM BAP and 0.54 lM NAA. The new leaves of adventitious shoots were used as explants to induce calli on the same induction medium. Nearly 65% of leaf explants produced calli, 80% of which formed adventitious buds. Gibberellic acid (1.45 lM) added to the same induction medium efficiently promoted quick elongation of most adventitious buds, and 0.49 lM IBA added to the basal MS medium promoted root formation from nearly 50% of the elongated shoots. The growth of plantlets in pot soil was characterized by the development of functional woody rhizomes, which continuously developed new aboveground vegetative branches, but not flowering branches, within the past 12 months. Potential reasons causing the delay of flowering of the regenerated plants are discussed. The establishment of this regeneration system facilitates developing a genetic transformation system to test candidate genes involved in the developmental divergence of inflorescences in Cornus.

Phylogenetic relationships in the tribe Millettieae and allies in the subfamily Papilionoideae (Leguminosae) were reconstructed from chloroplast trnK/matK sequences. Sixty-two accessions representing 57 traditionally recognized genera of Papilionoideae were sampled, including 27 samples from Millettieae. Phylogenies were constructed using maximum parsimony and are well resolved and supported by high bootstrap values. A well-supported ''core Millettieae'' clade is recognized, comprising the four large genera Millettia, Lonchocarpus, Derris, and Tephrosia. Several other small genera of Millettieae are not in the core Millettieae clade. Platycyamus is grouped with Phaseoleae (in part). Ostryocarpus, Austrosteenisia, and Dalbergiella are neither in the core Millettieae or Phaseoleae clade. These taxa, along with core Millettieae and Phaseoleae, form a monophyletic sister group to Indigofereae. Cyclolobium and Poecilanthe are close to Brongniartieae. Callerya and Wisteria belong to a large clade that includes all the legumes that lack the inverted repeat in their chloroplast genome, which confirms previous rbcL and phytochrome gene family phylogenies. The evolutionary history of four characters was examined in Millettieae and allies: the presence of canavanine, inflorescence types, the dehiscence of pods, and the presence of winged pods. trnK/matK sequence analysis suggests that the presence of a pseudoraceme or pseudopanicle and the accumulation of nonprotein amino acids are phylogenetically informative for Millettieae and allies with only a few exceptions.

The content of free sugars and the activities of enzymes involved in carbon metabolism-sucrose synthase, acid and alkaline invertase, phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase, malic enzyme and isocitrate dehydrogenase were determined during seed development in mungbean pods. A decrease in carbohydrate content of pod wall from 10 to 25 days after¯owering (DAF) and a concomitant increase in the seed till 20 DAF was observed. Sucrose remained the dominant soluble sugar in the pod wall and seed. In the branch of in¯orescence and pod wall, the activities of sucrose metabolizing enzymes, viz. acid and alkaline invertase, sucrose synthase (synthesis and cleavage) and sucrose phosphate synthase were higher at 5±10 DAF, whereas in seed the maximum activities of these enzymes were observed at the time of maximum seed ®lling stage (10±20 DAF). High activities of sucrose synthase at the time of rapid seed ®lling can be correlated to its sink strength. Higher activities of phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase in the branch of in¯orescence and pod wall than in seed may indicate the involvement of the fruiting structure for recapturing respired CO 2 . High activities of isocitrate dehydrogenase and malic enzyme in the seed at the time of rapid seed ®lling could provide NADPH and carbon skeletons required for the synthesis of various seed reserves. #

Inflorescence, apical and lateral buds of Musa balbisiana 'Kluai Hin' (BBB group) were used to culture on MS medium supplemented with 22 µM BA and 15% (v/v) coconut water. Comparison of bud orientation showed that the best response of in vitro shoot tip proliferation was obtained with abaxial surface of buds lying down i.e. one side touching the medium (tilt). Mass propagation of shoot tips was obtained when cultured buds on MS medium containing 44 µM BA. Rooting was achieved by transferring the isolated shoots to MS basal medium without growth regulators. Rooted plantlets were acclimatized and successfully established in soil.

Etlingera elatior are large ginger plants growing in clumps. rhizomes are stout, strongly aromatic and found just below ground level. crushed leaves emit a pleasant sour fragrance which is distinctive of the species. leaves are entirely green with young leaves sometimes flushed pink. Inflorescences, borne on erect stalks protruding from the ground, are large and attractive with showy bracts. Native to Malaysia and indonesia, E. elatior is widely cultivated in Southeast asia. the species is used as food, condiment, medicine, and ornament. The current knowledge on the phytochemistry of leaves, inflorescences, and rhizomes of E. elatior is reviewed. Some insights on the pharmacological properties of the species are discussed. they include antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, tyrosinase inhibition, cytotoxic, and hepatoprotective activities.

Sex determination in maize is controlled by a developmental cascade leading to the formation of unisexual florets derived from an initially bisexual floral meristem. Abortion of pistil primordia in staminate florets is controlled by a tasselseed-mediated cell death ...

Evidence from recent research combined with an evaluation of the literature indicates that Ariraema is adapted to pollination by fungus gnats. It apparently shares this peculiarity among aroids only with the distantly related genus Arkarum. In addition to previous records from Japan and North America, systematic collections from nine Arisaema species during several

W arm-season turfgrass production in the United States is dominated by two species, bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. var. dactylon] and St. Augustinegrass [Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walt.) Kuntze]. Other warm-season species have been investigated recently to provide alternatives to these grasses and to decrease the management inputs of warm-season turfgrasses. Evaluated alternative species include buff alograss [Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm.] (Riordan, 1991), centipedegrass [Eremichloa ophiuroides (Munro) Hack.] (Hanna, 1995), mesquitegrass [Hilaria belangeri (Steud.) Nash] (Mancino, 1988), saltgrass [Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene] (Hughes et al., 2002), seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum Sw.) (Duncan, 2000), and zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.) (Engelke, 2000). Common carpetgrass (Axonopus fi ssifolius Raddi) is a warmseason species that may have merit for improvement as a lowmaintenance turfgrass for use on roadsides and lawns in the southeastern United States and lower latitudes.

One hundred and eight species ofCecidomyiinae (Cecidomyiidae) were found in association with 53 species of plant distributed among 42 genera and 32 families at restingas of Barra de Marica, ltaipua~u and Carapebus. Ninety four gall midge species were cecidogenous, four predaceous, five inquilinous of galls and five were free living. Galling species were associated with 47 plant species belonging to 36 genera and 28 families. The majority of the galls occurred on the leaves (N = 63); 13 on buds; nine on inflorescence, closed flower or flower peduncle; tlu-ee on fruits and one on tendril. Myrtaceae were the richest plant family in number of galls followed by Burseraceae, Nyctaginaceae, Sapotaceae, Elythroxylaceae, Malpighiaceae and Solanaceae. New records of host plants and localities were recorded. Seventy nine Cecidomyiinae species were tound at Restinga of Barra de Marica, 64 at Carapebus and 41 at Itaipua~lI. Sorensen's index revealed that the restingas of Barra de Marica and Itaipua~u are more similar in Cecidomyiinae fauna, confirming a positive relation between geographical proximity and fauna similarity. KEY WORDS. Cecidomyiidae, Diptera, gall, restinga The restinga or coastal shrub zone is a very complex environment whose diversity is exceeded only by rain forests. Their flora has been originated from the Atlantic Forest and the plant families best represented in these areas are Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Orchidaceae, Myrtaceae, Poaceae, Bromeliaceae and Compositae. Among them, Myrtaceae contributes significantly to its flora characterisation, being Eugenia Linnaeus the biggest genus in number of species (RIZZrN l 1979). Cecidomyiidae are the most common gall makers throughout the world. They comprise about 5000 known species, but on ly 500 have been recorded in the Neotropical region, reflecting the scarcity of taxonomic stud ies in this zoogeographical region.. Cecidomyiidae are divided into three subfamilies: Lestremiinae, Porricondylinae and Cecidomyiinae. The tirst two include mycophagous and free-living phytophagous species. The last includes all gall makers, as well as predators, inquilines, free-living phytophagous and mycophagous species. As the Cecidomyiinae comprise species of economic interest, it is much better known than the other subfam ili es. Besides the gall makers, other organ isms are commonly found inside the gall , living as inquilines, predators or parasitoids. The parasitoids are considered to be the most important natural enemies of gall midges. MONTEIRO et at. (1993) reco rded 93 kinds of insect gall s in the restingas of Barra de Marica and Arraial do

Caracterização anatômica de folhas e inflorescências de espécies de Lavanda (Lamiaceae) utilizadas como medicinais no Brasil Charcacterization of the anatomy of leaves and inflorescenses of the Lavender species (Lamiaceae) used as medicine in Brazil.

Background and aims-In Cyperaceae, the single-ovuled, usually triangular gynoecia are widely considered to have a basic number of three carpels, often reduced to two, resulting in dimerous pistils. However, laterally flattened dimerous pistils cannot be explained by any existing carpel reduction theories, because a single stigma in median position replaces the two adaxial stigmata. This paper presents a comparative study of the ontogenetic and anatomical adaptations facilitating the origin of new pistil forms in Cyperoideae, focusing on modified gynoecia. It includes a re-evaluation of Blaser's (1941) anatomical studies in Cyperaceae. We aim to test Blaser's hypothesis that is based on an acropetal developmental model of the floral vasculature and the general Cyperoid ontogenetic model of Vrijdaghs et al. (2009), which states that cyperoid ovaries originate from an annular primordium. Methods-SEM, dark field and phase contrast microscopy. Key Results-All cyperoid pistils studied develop according to a cyperoid floral ontogenetic pattern, in which carpel primordia are congenitally fused. In Pycreus sanguinolentus (and other species), separate procambial initiation zones were observed in both the flower receptacle and separate floral primordia, which connect (or not) at later developmental stages. Conclusions-The presence of an annular ovary primordium instead of individual carpel primordia, combined with the bidirectional development of the pistil vasculature liberate the developing gynoecium from the structural constraints proper to a typical carpellate organisation. Procambial initiation zones in the receptacular vascular plexus and in individual floral primordia constitute the basis for the formation of a flexible vascular system in cyperoid flowers. Moreover the development of the ovary and ovule are decoupled. Consequently, in Cyperoideae the acquired developmental freedom of the pistil resulted in various adaptations.

Efficient shoot bud formation (94.5  7.59%), in vitro regeneration and production of flowers were obtained from sterile plants of Begonia x hiemalis Fotsch. An in vitro regeneration was attempted using immature reproductive organs, which were not commonly used before, such as young inflorescences, peduncles and petals of flowers collected in the field. The flower segments were cultured on solid Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium, supplemented with various concentrations and combinations of plant growth regulators (PGRs) and adenine. Within 8 weeks of the culture period, the highest frequency of reproductive shoot regeneration (red calyx, 8.50%) was obtained from explants of immature inflorescence cultured on the MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg L-1 benzyl amino purine (BA) and 1.0 mg L-1 1-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), added with 40 mg L-1 adenine and 3% sucrose. To attain further root growth and maturity, the clonal plantlets (with or without reproductive shoots) were excised and sub-cultured onto the MS medium fortified with 1.0 mg L-1 Gibberellic acid (GA 3). 87% of the regenerated plantlets were successfully acclimatized o n 2 : 1 : 1 r a t i o o f p e a t : s o i l : s a n d , under greenhouse conditions. All of them were capable of producing true-to-type flowers. The in vitro developed reproductive shoots, also further generated complete, small flowers, which were morphologically similar to the in vivo types, following an ex vitro acclimatization. This study provides an alternative approach to generate early flowering in Begonia without undergoing the full growth cycle and hence can help overcome problems associated with flower growth and development in this species. The present study revealed that floral parts (inflorescence, peduncle and petals) could also be used as a source of explants besides the commonly used tissues such as leaf, stem, shoot and root segments.

A new species of Asclepiadaceae, Gymnema kollimalayanum A. Ramachandran & M.B.Viswan., sp. nov. is described here from the Kollihills in the Eastern Ghats of Peninsular India. Th is species is allied to G. hirsutum Wight & Arn. by habit, woody stems, milky latex, umbellate cymose infl orescence, 5-merous fl owers, calyx, corolla, anthers, follicles and comose seeds but diff ers by size and shape of leaves being elliptic or elliptic-rotund, subtruncate at base, abruptly acute at apex, longer petioles, arrangement of fl owers, longer pedicels, shape and size of calyx, corolla, larger size of follicles, seeds and coma. RÉSUMÉ Une nouvelle espèce de Gymnema (Asclepiadaceae) des Kollihills en Inde péninsulaire. Une nouvelle espèce d'Asclepiadaceae, Gymnema kollimalayanum A. Ramachandran & M.B.Viswan., sp. nov. est décrite de la région des Kollihills dans l'est des Ghats d'Inde péninsulaire. Cette espèce est proche de G. hirsutum Wight & Arn. par son aspect, ses tiges ligneuses, son latex laiteux, ses infl orescences ombellées cymeuses, ses fl eurs 5-mères, son calice, sa corolle, ses anthères, ses follicules et ses graines avec touff e de poils mais diff ère par la taille et la forme des feuilles qui sont elliptiques ou elliptiques-arrondies, subtronquées à la base, abruptement aiguës à l'apex, ses pétioles plus longs, l'arrangement des fl eurs, ses pédicelles plus longs, la forme et la taille du calice, de la corolle, et des follicules, graines et touff e de poils de plus grande taille.

We have studied the influence of the Argentine ant, Linepithema humile, on the pollination of Euphorbia characias, a deciduous insectpollinated shrub. The observations were made in two adjacent areas (invaded and non-invaded by L. humile) in a Mediterranean cork-oak forest. In the invaded area, L. humile has replaced most of the native ants that climb up this plant's inflorescences. Five native ant species were detected in the non-invaded areas and only one in the invaded area. The number of visitors to infested inflorescences (1.54 ± 1.86 visitors/10 min observation) was lower than in non-infested inflorescences in the invaded area (3.74 ± 4.19 visitors/10′), and in the non-invaded areas (4.16 ± 5.00 visits/10′). For several species of flower-visiting insects, no differences were detected between the time spent in the flowers and the number of flowers visited in the two areas, except for Eristalis tenax, a dipteran which visited more flowers (15.2 ± 11.1 flowers visited/10′) and spent more time (9.4 ± 5.8 sec) in the non-invaded area than in the invaded area (7.8 ± 8.2 flowers visited/10′ and 5.3 ± 2.1 sec, respectively). The relative representation of insect orders in the two areas was not different. A significant reduction in fruit-set and seed-set was detected in the invaded area. These results suggest that the Argentine ant may greatly affect the reproductive success of components of the Mediterranean flora.

Due to altered ecological and evolutionary contexts, we might expect the responses of alien plants to environmental gradients, as revealed through patterns of trait variation, to differ from those of the same species in their native range. In particular, the spread of alien plant species along such gradients might be limited by their ability to establish clinal patterns of trait variation. We investigated trends in growth and reproductive traits in natural populations of eight invasive Asteraceae forbs along altitudinal gradients in their native and introduced ranges (Valais, Switzerland, and Wallowa Mountains, Oregon, USA). Plants showed similar responses to altitude in both ranges, being generally smaller and having fewer inflorescences but larger seeds at higher altitudes. However, these trends were modified by region-specific effects that were independent of species status (native or introduced), suggesting that any differential performance of alien species in the introduced range cannot be interpreted without a fully reciprocal approach to test the basis of these differences. Furthermore, we found differences in patterns of resource allocation to capitula among species in the native and the introduced areas. These suggest that the mechanisms underlying trait variation, for example, increasing seed size with altitude, might differ between ranges. The rapid establishment of clinal patterns of trait variation in the new range indicates that the need to respond to altitudinal gradients, possibly by local adaptation, has not limited the ability of these species to invade mountain regions. Studies are now needed to test the underlying mechanisms of altitudinal clines in traits of alien species.

Experiment took place in the open field in the Vegetable Experimental Station of Agricultural University near Cracow in the years 2008-2010. In the experiment twelve, polish-bred determinate tomato cultivars: were used. In the end of growing season, morphological features of plant were measured, concerning: height of plant, number of lateral shoots, length and thickness of the internode and the number of inflorescences per plant. Harvesting was performed once, at the stage of maturity of individual cultivars. The yield and its structure was calculated. The results were statistically analyzed using NIR Fisher's test, with p=0.05. The dependences of the marketable yield and total yield of tomato plants from morphological characteristics that may affect the yield were analyzed, using multiple regression. The amount of total and marketable yield was negatively correlated with an extensive vegetative growth of tomato plants. Among all the tested cultivars Ondraszek was characterized by the most preferred morphological features and creates one of the highest yields. Cultivars Ondraszek, Sokal F 1 and Batory F 1 were characterized higher marketable yield, than 'Hetman F 1 '. Total and marketable yield depended about 40% on tomato plant morphological features.

Additional index words. mutation breeding, ornamental plant breeding, Sorghastrum nutans Abstract. Immature inflorescences of a Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash selection were cultured on CCm medium with 5 mgÁL -1 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 1 mgÁL -1 N 6benzyladenine (BA) for 5 weeks. Callused inflorescence cultures were placed on CCm medium with 1 mgÁL -1 BA (CCmB 1 ) and 0 or 250 mgÁL -1 ethidium bromide (EtBr) for 24 h. Cultures were transferred to CCmB 1 without EtBr for shoot regeneration and then to CCm without plant growth regulators for rooting. Rooted shoots were transferred to soil under greenhouse conditions and then to the field. Fifteen putative M 1 mutants with atypical phenotypes were detected among 71 EtBr-treated regenerants. Two selfincompatible putative M 1 mutants were progeny-tested by using a wild-type Indiangrass seedling as the pollen parent. M 1 selection ISU06-35 was a dwarf mutant whose M 2 testcross progeny segregated 1:1 tall:dwarf seedlings. M 1 selection ISU06-56 was a redflowered mutant whose M 2 testcross progeny segregated 1:1 green-flowered:redflowered seedlings. These results are consistent with both M 1 mutants being dominant nuclear mutations.