Emergent Behaviour

Purpose -This article is an edited version of a report commissioned by the British Library and JISC to identify how the specialist researchers of the future (those born after 1993) are likely to access and interact with digital resources in five to ten years' time. The purpose is to investigate the impact of digital transition on the information behaviour of the Google Generation and to guide library and information services to anticipate and react to any new or emerging behaviours in the most effective way. Design/methodology/approach -The study was virtually longitudinal and is based on a number of extensive reviews of related literature, survey data mining and a deep log analysis of a British Library and a JISC web site intended for younger people. Findings -The study shows that much of the impact of ICTs on the young has been overestimated. The study claims that although young people demonstrate an apparent ease and familiarity with computers, they rely heavily on search engines, view rather than read and do not possess the critical and analytical skills to assess the information that they find on the web. Originality/value -The paper reports on a study that overturns the common assumption that the "Google generation" is the most web-literate.

We present a novel approach to the computational study of creativity, called Artificial Creativity. Artificial Creativity promotes the study of the creative behaviour of individuals and societies in artificial societies of agents. It is similar to the approach to that taken by Artificial Life researchers involved in developing computational models. We present a framework for developing Artificial Creativity systems as an adaptation of Liu’s dual generate-and-test model of creativity. An example implementation of an Artificial Creativity system is presented to illustrate the potential benefits of our new approach as a way of investigating the emergent nature of creativity in societies of communicating agents. Finally, we discuss some future research directions that are possible by extending the abilities of individuals and studying the emergent behaviour of societies.

Questa tesi si inserisce nel dibattito interdisciplinare sull'individuazione e la promozione di modelli di governance di rete capaci di migliorare la sostenibilità sociale, ambientale ed economica dei sistemi socio-ecologici. L'originalità della ricerca risiede nel tentativo di far dialogare linguaggi, teorie e pratiche dell'antropologia con quelli dell'analisi delle reti sociali e della scienza della complessità, nell'analizzare una rete di interazione tra comunità di pratiche della società civile. L'analisi si basa su un caso studio consistente nella rete di collaborazioni tra organizzazioni della società civile di Verona e sui materiali raccolti e prodotti durante un lavoro di campo prolungato.

Emergence activity of a maternity colony of Eptesicus serotinus was monitored from May to August 1997 and 1998 at StÏ relice, Czech Republic. We focused mainly on the impact of predation risk on emergence parameters, but the effects of reproductive and climatic factors were assessed too. Observations were made with 10-days intervals during two consecutive nights from which the rst was a control and the second a treatment night. On treatment nights a stuffed specimen of Tyto alba (in 1997) or Falco tinnunculus (in 1998) was placed close to the roost exits and recorded calls of the particular species were played back towards the roost. In 1997 the bats emerged earlier during lactation than during gravidity, while in 1998 the trend was opposite. This could be explained by a different course of food availability in each year. During poor weather the number of emerged bats decreased and bats probably used an alternative roost. The predation risk did not affect the values of any emergence parameter but induced changes in relationships among emergence parameters. When bats emerged earlier and thus were exposed to increased potential predation pressure, they increased their degree of clustering to decrease the probability of being attacked. The perception of predation risk was not affected by weather conditions or reproductive period.

The traditional systems engineering (SE) methodologies for integration, verification, validation, test and evaluation (IVVT&E) throughout the lifecycle are focused on expected outcomes (behavior, capabilities), which may not necessarily apply for system of systems (SoS), where some emergent behavior and knowledge may be needed in untested scenarios (unknown environments). Next-generation SoS consisting of partially or fully decentralized systems are incorporating advances in computing, sensing, and communications operations to address uncertainty and emergence in SoS. Thus, current standardized and formalized IVVT&E methodologies will need to be modified, adapted, or an evolutionary IVVT&E framework for SoS is required to test and evaluate integrated SoS capabilities in unknown scenarios. This paper discusses several potential strategies and explores possible methodologies that may be applied to develop a SoS IVVT&E framework, as applied to an unmanned aerial system (UAS), based on existing architectural frameworks such as Department of Defense Architecture Framework (DoDAF).

Natural disturbances play a key role in ecosystem dynamics and are important factors for sustainable forest ecosystem management. Quantitative models are frequently employed to tackle the complexities associated with disturbance processes. Here we review the wide variety of approaches to modelling natural disturbances in forest ecosystems, addressing the full spectrum of disturbance modelling from single events to integrated disturbance regimes. We applied a general, process-based framework founded in disturbance ecology to analyze modelling approaches for drought, wind, forest fires, insect pests and ungulate browsing. Modelling approaches were reviewed by disturbance agent and mechanism, and a set of general disturbance modelling concepts was deduced. We found that although the number of disturbance modelling approaches emerging over the last 15 years has increased strongly, statistical concepts for descriptive modelling are still largely prevalent over mechanistic concepts for explanatory and predictive applications. Yet, considering the increasing importance of disturbances for forest dynamics and ecosystem stewardship under anthropogenic climate change, the latter concepts are crucial tool for understanding and coping with change in forest ecosystems. Current challenges for disturbance modelling in forest ecosystems are thus (i) to overcome remaining limits in process understanding, (ii) to further a mechanistic foundation in disturbance modelling, (iii) to integrate multiple disturbance processes in dynamic ecosystem models for decision support in forest management, and (iv) to bring together scaling capabilities across several levels of organization with a representation of system complexity that captures the emergent behaviour of disturbance regimes.

We investigate the concept of Smart Business Networks by using Beer's Viable System Model (VSM) to analyse how such a network mitigates the affect of emergent, and therefore unforecastable, demands upon the networked businesses. We examine the requirements for network smartness, highlight some significant properties of one Smart Network and use our case analysis and concepts from systems theory to suggest some general properties such as natural stability and distributed capability. We have found that smartness is distributed and shared behavioural process standards can act to stabilise complex systems. This is important because it mitigates emergent behaviour within increasingly complex business networks. The contributions of our article apply both to academics and business practitioners and are in its illustration and investigation of one Smart Business Network including how the smart capability functions at a strategic, business process and technical level; and the use of Beer's VSM to analyse an electricity market.

A numerical model detailing the functioning and emergent behaviour of an eroding coastal system is described. Model output from a 50-km study region centred on the soft-rock shore of northeast Norfolk was verified through comparison with cliff recession rates that were extracted from historical maps spanning more than a century. Predictions were then made for the period 2000 to 2100 under combined climatic change and management scenarios. For the scenarios evaluated, the model was relatively insensitive to increases in offshore wave height and moderately sensitive to changes in wave direction, but the most important effects were associated with accelerated sea-level rise (SLR). In contrast to predictions made using a modified version of the Bruun rule, the systems model predicted rather complex responses to SLR. For instance, on some sectors of coast, whereas the Bruun rule predicted increased recession under accelerated SLR, the systems model actually predicted progradation owing to the delivery of sediment from eroding coasts up-drift. By contrast, on coasts where beaches are underlain by shore platforms, both the Bruun rule and the systems model predicted accelerated recession rates. However, explicit consideration of the interaction between beach and shore platform within the systems model indicates that these coasts have a broader range of responses and lower overall vulnerability to SLR than predicted by the Bruun rule.

We investigate the concept of Smart Business Networks by using Beer's Viable System Model (VSM) to analyse how such a network mitigates the affect of emergent, and therefore unforecastable, demands upon the networked businesses. We examine the requirements for network smartness, highlight some significant properties of one Smart Network and use our case analysis and concepts from systems theory to suggest some general properties such as natural stability and distributed capability. We have found that smartness is distributed and shared behavioural process standards can act to stabilise complex systems. This is important because it mitigates emergent behaviour within increasingly complex business networks. The contributions of our article apply both to academics and business practitioners and are in its illustration and investigation of one Smart Business Network including how the smart capability functions at a strategic, business process and technical level; and the use of Beer's VSM to analyse an electricity market.

Previous research has shown how dynamical systems theory provides a relevant framework for investigating decision-making behavior in sport. The aim of this study was to adopt concepts and tools from nonlinear dynamics in examining effects of boxer-target distance and perceived punching efficiency on emergent decision-making during a typical practice task in boxing. Results revealed the existence of critical values of scaled distances between boxers and targets for first time appearance and disappearance of a diverse range of boxing actions including jabs, hooks and uppercuts. Reasons for the diversity of actions were twofold: i) abrupt (qualitative) changes in the number of the possible punches, i.e. motor solutions to the hitting task; and ii), fine modification of the probabilities of selecting specific striking patterns. Boxers were able to exploit the emerging perception of strikeability, leading to a changing diversity of selected actions and a cascade of abrupt changes in the perceptual-motor work space of the task. Perceived efficiency of a punching action by the participants also changed as a function of the scaled distance to a target and was correlated with the probability of occurrence of specific boxing actions. Accordingly, scaled distance-dependent perceived efficiency seems an important perceptual constraint in the training task of punching a heavy bag in boxers.

For many years the full potential of creating and leveraging integrated health ICT systems such as electronic health records to improve healthcare delivery, reducing its cost and promoting prevention has been elusive. Traditional health ICT business, innovation, development and adoption models have failed to address chronic road blocks to realizing its full potential and have led to many high profile failures. The chronic symptoms include persistent barriers to integration and interoperability, high cost, duplication of effort, and poor, to no support for collaborative, "evidence based" medicine. This paper provides a review of case studies and analysis on how open innovation, or open source processes, can break the grid lock and bring the fundamental paradigm shift needed to exploit the full potential of health ICTs. The paper will discuss how the open innovation model, as applied to health ICT, provides a framework for harnessing the naturally occurring "bottom up" forces and emergent behaviour found in complex adaptive systems such as healthcare. It does this by describing a model and context for collaborative, open, peer reviewed, evidence-based innovation and technology transfer processes. Evidence from case studies are presented on how open ICT innovation in healthcare provides essential feed backloops for supporting, researching, developing and disseminating while driving continuous quality improvement at a global scale.

Natural disturbances play a key role in ecosystem dynamics and are important factors for sustainable forest ecosystem management. Quantitative models are frequently employed to tackle the complexities associated with disturbance processes. Here we review the wide variety of approaches to modelling natural disturbances in forest ecosystems, addressing the full spectrum of disturbance modelling from single events to integrated disturbance regimes. We applied a general, process-based framework founded in disturbance ecology to analyze modelling approaches for drought, wind, forest fires, insect pests and ungulate browsing. Modelling approaches were reviewed by disturbance agent and mechanism, and a set of general disturbance modelling concepts was deduced. We found that although the number of disturbance modelling approaches emerging over the last 15 years has increased strongly, statistical concepts for descriptive modelling are still largely prevalent over mechanistic concepts for explanatory and predictive applications. Yet, considering the increasing importance of disturbances for forest dynamics and ecosystem stewardship under anthropogenic climate change, the latter concepts are crucial tool for understanding and coping with change in forest ecosystems. Current challenges for disturbance modelling in forest ecosystems are thus (i) to overcome remaining limits in process understanding, (ii) to further a mechanistic foundation in disturbance modelling, (iii) to integrate multiple disturbance processes in dynamic ecosystem models for decision support in forest management, and (iv) to bring together scaling capabilities across several levels of organization with a representation of system complexity that captures the emergent behaviour of disturbance regimes.

Previous research has shown how dynamical systems theory provides a relevant framework for investigating decision-making behavior in sport. The aim of this study was to adopt concepts and tools from nonlinear dynamics in examining effects of boxer-target distance and perceived punching efficiency on emergent decision-making during a typical practice task in boxing. Results revealed the existence of critical values of scaled distances between boxers and targets for first time appearance and disappearance of a diverse range of boxing actions including jabs, hooks and uppercuts. Reasons for the diversity of actions were twofold: i) abrupt (qualitative) changes in the number of the possible punches, i.e. motor solutions to the hitting task; and ii), fine modification of the probabilities of selecting specific striking patterns. Boxers were able to exploit the emerging perception of strikeability, leading to a changing diversity of selected actions and a cascade of abrupt changes in the perceptual-motor work space of the task. Perceived efficiency of a punching action by the participants also changed as a function of the scaled distance to a target and was correlated with the probability of occurrence of specific boxing actions. Accordingly, scaled distance-dependent perceived efficiency seems an important perceptual constraint in the training task of punching a heavy bag in boxers.

Discrete-element, individual-based and agent-based modelling techniques represent the interactions of individuals or entities with one another and their environments by sets of computational rules. These methods are now being used in geophysics, ecology, zoology, and increasingly in the social sciences. A characteristic is that the "agents" are embedded in an environment with which they interact, so that joint evolution of physical, ecological and socio-economic systems can be studied; this makes them of interest in integrated geographical investigation. Of particular interest is the fact that they allow the study of macro-scale emergent behaviour generated by multiple individual actions. Discrete techniques have the potential to create integrated models that cross disciplines. Similar computational methods can be employed to control the spatial search process, deal with irregular or changing boundaries, and to track the evolution of systems where preservation of heterogeneity across space and time is important. The complex series of feedbacks between the diVerent types of system can thus be modelled within a single computational framework. Humans modelled in this way as "agents" can allow the collective eVect of many interacting individuals to generate emergent structures at the community scale. The structural characteristics of their social and natural environments will inXuence their behaviour, while at the same time constituting emergent consequences of their actions. The principal challenge of the latter is to Wnd those sets of rules that represent the beliefs and desires of real human agents, accurately reXecting the cultural context, while allowing us to explore the social and economic limitations of agents to take action. This paper reviews and illustrates discrete methods applicable to a range of geographical enquiries, and with particular reference to individual-and agent-based methods, assesses the rich diversity of approaches that must be combined to take full advantage of their potential to explore interactions of social and environmental processes.

Using only simple rules for local interactions, groups of agents can form self-organizing super-organisms or “flocks” that show global emergent behavior. When agents are also extended with memory and goals the resulting flock not only demonstrates emergent behavior, but also collective intelligence: the ability for the group to solve problems that might be beyond the ability of the individual alone. Until now, research has focused on the improvement of particle design for global behavior; however, techniques for human-designed particles are task-specific. In this paper we will demonstrate that evolutionary computing techniques can be applied to design particles, not only to optimize the parameters for movement but also the structure of controlling finite state machines that enable collective intelligence. The evolved design not only exhibits emergent, self-organizing behavior but also significantly outperforms a human design in a specific problem domain. The strategy of the evolved design may be very different from what is intuitive to humans and perhaps reflects more accurately how nature designs systems for problem solving. Furthermore, evolutionary design of particles for collective intelligence is more flexible and able to target a wider array of problems either individually or as a whole.

Natural disturbances play a key role in ecosystem dynamics and are important factors for sustainable forest ecosystem management. Quantitative models are frequently employed to tackle the complexities associated with disturbance processes. Here we review the wide variety of approaches to modelling natural disturbances in forest ecosystems, addressing the full spectrum of disturbance modelling from single events to integrated disturbance regimes. We applied a general, process-based framework founded in disturbance ecology to analyze modelling approaches for drought, wind, forest fires, insect pests and ungulate browsing. Modelling approaches were reviewed by disturbance agent and mechanism, and a set of general disturbance modelling concepts was deduced. We found that although the number of disturbance modelling approaches emerging over the last 15 years has increased strongly, statistical concepts for descriptive modelling are still largely prevalent over mechanistic concepts for explanatory and predictive applications. Yet, considering the increasing importance of disturbances for forest dynamics and ecosystem stewardship under anthropogenic climate change, the latter concepts are crucial tool for understanding and coping with change in forest ecosystems. Current challenges for disturbance modelling in forest ecosystems are thus (i) to overcome remaining limits in process understanding, (ii) to further a mechanistic foundation in disturbance modelling, (iii) to integrate multiple disturbance processes in dynamic ecosystem models for decision support in forest management, and (iv) to bring together scaling capabilities across several levels of organization with a representation of system complexity that captures the emergent behaviour of disturbance regimes.

Doğal sistemleri anlama biçimimiz, özellikle son yüzyılda gerçekleşen bilimsel gelişmeler ile birlikte  oldukça gelişmiştir. Farklı bilim disiplinlerinin arasındaki muğlak sınırlar etrafında, doğadaki davranışların, son derece kompleks; fakat birbirleri içinde farklı ölçeklerde harmoni içinde büyüyen sistemler bütünü olduğu görülmüştür. Beliren davranış, morfogenetik süreçler gibi kendiliğinden örgütlü sistem tasarımları, sistem teorisi etrafında kurallı tasarım organizasyonları üretmenin önemini ortaya koyar. Doğal sistemleri tam olarak çözümlemek ve bunu birebir tasarım bilgisine dahil etmek, iki durumun süreçlerinin farklı işlemesinin de sebebiyle neredeyse imkansızdır. Doğayı tam olarak çözümlemektense, onu bir yeniden yapım sürecine sokarak kendi içinde sentetik ve doğalın bir arada olduğu yeni bir organizasyon üretmek mümkün olabilir. Bu bahsedilen organizasyon, bir mimari tasarım seminer dersi boyunca katılımcılar ile birlikte denenmiştir. Ders boyunca fiziksel materyal etkileşim deneyleri yapılmış ve bu deneylerin getirdiği sonuçlar ile bazı sayısal tasarım teknikleri tasarlanarak uygulanmıştır. Elde edilen yeni teknik ile, belirlenen bir mimari programda, tasarım bilgisi, mimariyi üretmek üzerine kullanılmıştır.

Large populations of bacteria communicate by sending into the environment some specific signalling molecules. A bacterium will sense the population density by the concentration of the signalling molecule. This process, known as "quorum sensing", is used in this paper to show the emergent behaviour of a bacterium colony in various circumstances. The biochemistry associated with quorum sensing has been modelled and an agent based approach has been used to simulate the behaviour of the colony. In addition, a 3-D environment has been created to illustrate how the emergent behaviour occurs within the colony as a result of local immediate real-time interactions, while a data file is generated to visualise the behaviour of the colony over time as a 2D graph.

Natural disturbances play a key role in ecosystem dynamics and are important factors for sustainable forest ecosystem management. Quantitative models are frequently employed to tackle the complexities associated with disturbance processes. Here we review the wide variety of approaches to modelling natural disturbances in forest ecosystems, addressing the full spectrum of disturbance modelling from single events to integrated disturbance regimes. We applied a general, process-based framework founded in disturbance ecology to analyze modelling approaches for drought, wind, forest fires, insect pests and ungulate browsing. Modelling approaches were reviewed by disturbance agent and mechanism, and a set of general disturbance modelling concepts was deduced. We found that although the number of disturbance modelling approaches emerging over the last 15 years has increased strongly, statistical concepts for descriptive modelling are still largely prevalent over mechanistic concepts for explanatory and predictive applications. Yet, considering the increasing importance of disturbances for forest dynamics and ecosystem stewardship under anthropogenic climate change, the latter concepts are crucial tool for understanding and coping with change in forest ecosystems. Current challenges for disturbance modelling in forest ecosystems are thus (i) to overcome remaining limits in process understanding, (ii) to further a mechanistic foundation in disturbance modelling, (iii) to integrate multiple disturbance processes in dynamic ecosystem models for decision support in forest management, and (iv) to bring together scaling capabilities across several levels of organization with a representation of system complexity that captures the emergent behaviour of disturbance regimes.

Complex systems such as many Critical Infrastructures require new approaches in Risk Assessment and Management. In a complex system the emergent nature of much of its behaviour renders it difficult to enumerate the potential impacts of a range of scenarios. For Risk Assessment and Management a link must be made between the potential threat events and their final consequence. Given the complexity, interconnectivity, interdependency and potential geographical distribution of systems a simulation based approach offers a solution by allowing for consideration of the emergent behaviour of the system. It would, moreover, be desirable to combine an effective security documentation system with a simulation system to explore the range of system risk scenarios. This paper discusses the role of such a tool.

This article analyses a flocking algorithm that was developed specifically for small and simple swarm robots. It is similar to traditional flocking algorithms for swarm robots, however it does not need communication nor global information. Its only requirements are at least 4 circumferential distance sensors which can have very limited range. This is possible because our algorithm generates emergent alignment of flock members. We show an analysis of our simulations and a short overview of a real robot experiment.

Mostefaoui, S. and Rana, OF and Foukia, N. and Hassas, S. and Di Marzo Serugendo, G. and Van Aart, C. and Karageorgos, A. (2003) Self-Organising Applications: A Survey. In: Workshop Notes: First International Workshop on Engineering Self-Organising Applications, at AAMAS, Jul 2003, Melbourne, Australia. ... Full text not available from this archive. ... AgentLink is the European Commission's IST-funded Coordination Action for Agent-Based Computing and is coordinated by the University of Liverpool and University of Southampton If you encounter ...

A framework for understanding and exploiting embodiment is presented which is not dependent on any specific ontological context. This framework is founded on a new definition of embodiment, based on the relational dynamics that exist between biological organisms and their environments, and inspired by the structural dynamics of the bacterium Escherichia coli. The definition draws on the idea of mutual perturbation between a system (biological organism, robot, or software agent) and its environment, enabling structural coupling between the two. The framework provides a vocabulary and concepts that can be used to discuss and analyse embodiment in any kind of environment, not just the material world. Rather than blurring boundaries between disciplines and domains, this permits the characterisation of distinctions and common features between them, in a manner meaningful to all parties. Other benefits include the potential quantification of embodiment, and access to practical and theoretical ideas associated with material embodiment for those working with non-material systems. The relational embodiment definition is illustrated by ongoing experimental work in which the relational dynamics that exist between E. coli and its environment are applied in a variety of environments, both software and material, using a Cellular Automata-based system with artificial 'sensory' and 'effector' surfaces. This experimental system is also used to outline a biologically grounded, dynamical systems-based approach to the generation of behaviour in a variety of operational environments, exploiting features of the embodiment framework presented.

The article identifies the combined influence of the Web Experience (or online experience) components on the online consumer’s behaviour from three different angles: (1) The relative importance of the online experience factors in choosing an online vendor, (2) the actual effect of these factors on the vendor choice and (3) the influence of personal and behavioural characteristics on the virtual shopping behaviour. The results identify early symptoms of an emerging behavioural convergence among Internet users of different cultures and nationalities, suggesting that cultural and behavioural differences in the physical world could have limited influence on people’s behaviour in the virtual marketplace. This outcome could suggest the emergence of a global virtual village, an issue worth of further scholastic research but also an issue of particular importance for global Web vendors and web site designers.

We present a novel approach to the computational study of creativity, called artificial creativity. Artificial creativity promotes the study of the creative behaviour of individuals and societies in artificial societies of agents. It is similar to the approach to that taken by Artificial Life researchers involved in developing computational models. We present a framework for developing artificial creativity systems as an adaptation of Liu's dual generate-and-test model of creativity. An example implementation of an artificial creativity system is presented to illustrate the potential benefits of our new approach as a way of investigating the emergent nature of creativity in societies of communicating agents. Finally, we discuss some future research directions that are possible by extending the abilities of individuals and studying the emergent behaviour of societies.

Background: Children display a variety of behaviour during anaesthetic recovery. The purpose of this study was to study the frequency and duration of emergence behaviour in children following anaesthesia and the factors that alter the incidence of various emergence behaviour following anaesthesia. Methods: A prospective study of children who required outpatient lower abdominal surgery was designed to determine an incidence and duration of emergence agitation. We developed a 5-point scoring scale to study the postanaesthetic behaviour in these children. The scale included behaviour from asleep (score ¼ 1) to disorientation and severe restlessness (score ¼ 5). Children were scored by a blinded observer every 10 min during the first hour of recovery or until discharge from same day surgery. Results: We found 27 of 260 children experienced a period of severe restlessness and disorientation (score 5) during anaesthesia emergence. Thirty percent of the children (79/260) experienced a period of inconsolable crying or severe restlessness (score 4 or 5) following anaesthesia. The frequency of this behaviour was greatest on arrival in the recovery room, but many children who arrived asleep in the recovery room later experienced a period of agitation or inconsolable crying. Conclusions: Repeated assessments of behaviour following anaesthetic recovery are required to define an incidence and duration of emergence agitation. Emergence agitation occurs most frequently in the initial 10 min of recovery, but many children who arrive asleep experience agitation later during recovery.

Large populations of bacteria communicate by sending into the environment some specific signalling molecules. A bacterium will sense the population density by the concentration of the signalling molecule. This process, known as "quorum sensing", is used in this paper to show the emergent behaviour of a bacterium colony in various circumstances. The biochemistry associated with quorum sensing has been modelled and an agent based approach has been used to simulate the behaviour of the colony. In addition, a 3-D environment has been created to illustrate how the emergent behaviour occurs within the colony as a result of local immediate real-time interactions, while a data file is generated to visualise the behaviour of the colony over time as a 2D graph.

Swarm robotics is a relatively new technology that is being explored for its potential use in a variety of different applications and environments. Previous emerging technologies have often overlooked security until later developmental stages, when it has had to be undesirably ...

An important aspect of creative design is the concept of emergence. Though emergence is important, its mechanism is either not well understood or it is limited to the domain of shapes. This deficiency can be compensated by considering definitions of emergent behaviour from the Artificial Life (ALife) research community. With these new insights, it is proposed that a computational technique, called evolving representations of design genes, can be extended to emergent behaviour. We demonstrate emergent behaviour in a co-evolutionary model of design. This co-evolutionary approach to design allows a solution space (structure space) to evolve in response to a problem space (behaviour space). Since the behaviour space is now an active participant, behaviour may emerge with new structures at the end of the design process. This paper hypothesizes that emergent behaviour can be identified using the same technique. The floor plan example of (Gero & Schnier 1995) is extended to demonstrate how behaviour can emerge in a co-evolutionary design process.

Motivation -The socio-technical challenges created by Tangible User Interfaces with regards to invasiveness, privacy, visibility, control, etc. have been pointed out by several authors, but this case study focuses on two, more basic socio-technical aspects regarding the user's perspective and interaction with others. The paper presents a case study regarding the design of the interaction of interactive urban furniture, Wi-roni, for browsing information on the Web through a gesturebased interface in a public space.

We present a swarm-based, 3-dimensional model of the human immune system and its response to first and second viral antigen exposure. Our model utilizes a decentralized swarm approach with multiple agents acting independently—following local interaction rules—to exhibit complex emergent behaviours, which constitute externally observable and measurable immune reactions. The two main functional branches of the human immune system, humoral and cell-mediated immunity, are simulated. We model the production of antibodies in response to a viral population; antibody-antigen complexes are formed, which are removed by macrophages; virally infected cells are lysed by cytotoxic T cells. Our system also demonstrates reinforced reaction to a previously encountered pathogen, thus exhibiting realistic memory response.

Video-image analysis can be an efficient tool for microcosm experiments portraying the modulation of individual behaviour based on sociality. The Norway lobster, Nephrops norvegicus is a burrowing decapod the commercial capture of which occurs by trawling only when animals are engaged in seabed excursions. Emergence behaviour is modulated by the day–night cycle but a further modulation occurs upon social interaction

Discrete-element, individual-based and agent-based modelling techniques represent the interactions of individuals or entities with one another and their environments by sets of computational rules. These methods are now being used in geophysics, ecology, zoology, and increasingly in the social sciences. A characteristic is that the "agents" are embedded in an environment with which they interact, so that joint evolution of physical, ecological and socio-economic systems can be studied; this makes them of interest in integrated geographical investigation. Of particular interest is the fact that they allow the study of macro-scale emergent behaviour generated by multiple individual actions. Discrete techniques have the potential to create integrated models that cross disciplines. Similar computational methods can be employed to control the spatial search process, deal with irregular or changing boundaries, and to track the evolution of systems where preservation of heterogeneity across space and time is important. The complex series of feedbacks between the diVerent types of system can thus be modelled within a single computational framework. Humans modelled in this way as "agents" can allow the collective eVect of many interacting individuals to generate emergent structures at the community scale. The structural characteristics of their social and natural environments will inXuence their behaviour, while at the same time constituting emergent consequences of their actions. The principal challenge of the latter is to Wnd those sets of rules that represent the beliefs and desires of real human agents, accurately reXecting the cultural context, while allowing us to explore the social and economic limitations of agents to take action. This paper reviews and illustrates discrete methods applicable to a range of geographical enquiries, and with particular reference to individual-and agent-based methods, assesses the rich diversity of approaches that must be combined to take full advantage of their potential to explore interactions of social and environmental processes.