Economics & foreign trade

The aim of this paper is to present scope and nature of the commodity trade between Poland (PL) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H), with relevant figures from the European Union (EU) trade used as a benchmark. In 2011 Poland was seventh most important trade partner for Bosnia among the EUcountriesboth for export and for import -following three "old-Europe" (EU15) and three "new-Europe" (EU12) countries. In the past 10 years Polish export to Bosnia & Herzegovina grew 4 times, reaching a level of 109 mln EUR in 2011, whereas Bosnia's export to Poland grew almost 9 times, exceeding 38 mln EUR.

In the light of a recent surge in the amount of research and policy formulation in the field of trade finance, this paper sets out to discover and summarize the contemporary consensus on the subject with a particular emphasis on the role of public trade finance facilities within the wider ecosystems of export finance and international trade. The enquiry relies on a review of the most recent academic literature in the field, a limited survey of institutional, policy and other non-academic publications pertaining to trade finance, and a comparison of information available on several institutions that administer public trade finance facilities.
The author finds that there exists no clear consensus on the exact effects of trade finance on trade, the causes of demand for trade finance, or its interaction with other financial and economic variables. It thus remains unclear if, how much and what type of government intervention in the trade finance market is desirable from the perspective of sustained economic growth and trade. Nonetheless, there is evidence that the risk and credit markets for international trade show substantial market failure and that government sponsored trade finance fulfils various essential functions in the international economy, over and beyond market correction.

Foreign trade has been playing a vital role in the economic progress and prosperity of every country. In modern days foreign trade has assumed an immense prominence and substance for economic development of a country because of interdependence of economies, increasing specialization and joining regional cooperation. In 1991, the major program of economic reform were introduced which emphasize on external sector wherein the protective tariffs were decreased, changes into foreign investment and the restrictive import licensing system was relaxed and simplified. After the New economic reforms, India's foreign trade has undergone substantial changes, volume of trade rose up and composition of trade was also frequently changed. The main objective of the paper is to study the trends of India's foreign trade pre and post new economic reforms in India. The entire data for the present study is collected from the secondary sources. The collected data has been analyzed by using Paired t-test from SPSS software package and graphs. The findings of this paper said that there is positive relationship between economic reforms and India's foreign trade. A push has been given to the exports but analyzes says that the increasing rate of imports is higher in comparison to the increasing rate of exports.

Although in principle neo-liberal ideology has never featured much in the history of Indonesian foreign economic policy (FEP), the same cannot be said about current Indonesian FEP. Both external factors (e.g. the changing global and regional economic environment) and internal factors (e.g. the emergence of new intellectual groups and individuals keen to promote economic reforms) are central to the promotion of neo-liberal economic ideology in the country. While it remains to be seen whether the market reform agenda is good or bad for the country, one thing is certain: there is a significant gap between the more socialist approach on which the Indonesian economy is supposedly based and the neo-liberal principles embedded in the economic policies that nearly all post-reform governments have pursued. As a result, the paper argues for the need for Indonesia to revisit its constitution so as to allow more flexibility in its economic policy-making process.

Looking at the recent developments in the field of science and technology, it seems that it is a very rapid transformation. This transformation affects many aspects of the society such as economic, social, prosperity, communication, but this paper will focus especially on the economic effects of scientific and technological developments. Looking at the countries that are leading the world economy, it is inevitable that the common aspects of these countries are in the field of information and technology. Many things in the world are changing very quickly now. This change has been observed in this report on the basis of some macroeconomic indicators that the countries that have been in a better position to succeed in the economic arena have not succeeded in this change or those that are late in making up. Especially the efforts of countries such as USA, China, Japan, which are a serious force in the world economy, have shown the most important differences in science and technology from other countries played an important role. In this study, it was tried to determine the level of the role of scientific and technological developments in developments in the world economy by using macroeconomic indicators in general. This study also analyzed the countries' R & D expenditures, Technology levels, Welfare levels, growth and development rates.

Resumo: A Compra e Venda Internacional de Mercadorias trata-se de um fenômeno remoto que, com o surgimento da nova ordem mundial, vem se adaptando a esse novo cenário internacional. Frente a relações de natureza tão complexa nasce a necessidade do estudo de seus contratos regentes, cláusulas comuns e nuances, de modo a possibilitar a solução de eventuais controvérsias. A unificação da legislação aplicável se mostra indispensável ao esforço comum com o fito de evitarem-se litígios, se afigurando verdadeiro escopo entre as partes contratantes. Palavras-chave: Compra e Venda Internacional de Mercadorias; Contrato Regente; Cláusulas Contratuais. Abstract: The International Purchase and Sale of Merchandise is a remote phenomenon that, with the emergence of the new world order, has been adapting to this new international scenario. Faced with relationships of such complex nature is born the need to study their regent contracts, common clauses and nuances, in order to enable the solution of any controversies. The unification of the applicable legislation proves indispensable to the common effort with the aim of avoiding litigation, appearing true scope between the contracting parties. Introdução O comércio internacional tem se afigurado cada vez mais relevante para empresas e nações sendo considerado verdadeiro mecanismo de geração de recursos e renda. A inclusão no comércio internacional tem proporcionado sucesso e prosperidade para

Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Turkey, and South Africa guided its foreign economic policies to comply with the Washington Consensus measures and implemented strategies to attract foreign investment to their territories as a possible way out from the external debt crisis of the eighties. Once multilateral trade rules were agreed under the World Trade Organization (WTO), those countries encouraged its domestic
trade policies to cope with both the organization principles and international investment standards promoted by the World Bank. After the CIVETS acronym was created in 2009 as a group
of promissory emergent economies, transnational economic groups focused its attention on the “new investment miracles”, but none interest has been shown by the CIVETS governments
to coordinate its foreign economic policies in
investment issues. The current Colombian administration
self-claimed the leadership of the group, showing the political will to go further, but without followers CIVETS keeps as an acronym. I argue that emergent economies recognized in CIVETS exemplify a case of foreign economic policies convergence facilitated by systemic reasons, such their common necessity to overcome historic processes of economic transition and insert successfully to the world trade; as
well as domestic variables such the ideas of the CIVETS decision policy makers.

The subject of the research is the analysis of the competitiveness and comparative advantage of the agricultural products and processed food products of Bulgaria on the international market. The study covers the period from 1998 to 2017. In order to measure the level of comparative advantage of the export and the degree of specialization in international trade RCA and GL indices have been used. The aim of or research was to identify products that have previously before the EU accession had, and still have, export potential. That is, the objective was to point the trend of changes in the foreign trade of processed food sector in the period before and after the EU accession in 2007. The results indicate that after joining the EU Bulgaria has changed its foreign trade structure. The decrease of exports and increase of imports of processed food sector products requires a comprehensive export strategy in order to strengthen its competitiveness.

У даній статті визначені тенденції та проблеми у розвитку зовнішньоторговельної діяльності України у контексті структурних змін у світовій торгівлі.
Функціонування економіки України протягом останніх років незалежності переважно було орієнтоване на короткострокове одержання доходу, що спричинило її неефективну міжнародну спеціалізацію, формування небезпечної залежності від кон‟юнктури світових товарних і фінансових ринків, обумовлюючи високу вразливість макроекономічної стабільності. Крім того, скорочення зовнішнього попиту та зниження цін на основні позиції вітчизняного експорту у кризові періоди призводили до його скорочення. Зовнішньоторговельна відкритість національної економіки поряд з посиленням інтеграційних процесів країни до світової економіки та зміцненням міжнародного співробітництва створює підґрунтя для підвищення рівня незахищеності внутрішнього ринку та стає каналом перенесення турбулентності світової економіки у національний економічний простір. Надмірна відкритість економіки може стати джерелом загроз національній економіці через сферу зовнішньої торгівлі.