Ecological Processes

Eigenvector mapping techniques are widely used by ecologists and evolutionary biologists to describe and control for spatial and/or phylogenetic patterns in their data. The selection of an appropriate subset of eigenvectors is a critical step (misspecification can lead to highly biased results and interpretations), and there is no consensus yet on how to proceed. We conducted a ten-year review of the practices of eigenvector selection and highlighted three main procedures: selecting the subset of descriptors minimising the Akaike information criterion (AIC), using a forward selection with double stopping criterion after testing the global model significance (FWD), and selecting the subset minimising the autocorrelation in the model residuals (MIR). We compared the type I error rates, statistical power, and R² estimation accuracy of these methods using simulated data. Finally, a real dataset was analysed using variation partitioning analysis to illustrate to what extent the different selection approaches affected the ecological interpretation of the results. We show that, while the FWD and MIR approaches presented a correct type I error rate and were accurate, the AIC approach displayed extreme type I error rates (100%), and strongly overestimated the R². Moreover, the AIC approach resulted in wrong ecological interpretations, as it overestimated the pure spatial fraction (and the joint spatial-environmental fraction to a lesser extent) of the variation partitioning. Both the FWD and MIR methods performed well at broad and medium scales but had a very low power to detect fine-scale patterns. The FWD approach selected more eigenvectors than the MIR approach but also returned more accurate R² estimates. Hence, we discourage any future use of the AIC approach, and advocate choosing between the MIR and FWD approaches depending on the objective of the study: controlling for spatial or phylogenetic autocorrelation (MIR) or describing the patterns as accurately as possible (FWD).

The nature and extent of environmental disturbance associated with mining commonly entails completely new and challenging combinations of climate, lithology and landform. Consequently, the outcomes of ecological processes associated with the recovery or restoration of ecosystems cannot be predicted reliably from previously known associations between their physical and biological components. For radically disturbed sites, we propose that it is not practicable to aim for the restoration of historical ecosystems. However, hybrid (reversibly different) or novel (irreversibly different) ecosystems comprising new combinations of physical and biological components, including both native and non-native species, could provide levels of stability and functionality acceptable to all stakeholders and within feasible management regimes. We propose that limiting physical conditions of the landscape can be identified and managed, and that alternative species combinations for introduction to these new landscapes may be considered with cautious optimism.

Background This study estimated the total soil organic C (SOC) stock of the wetland influence zone of Bichitrapur mangroves in eastern India in a spatially explicit manner. Both spatial and vertical distribution of SOC densities with respect to land use/land cover (LULC) pattern were assessed. Subsequently, some site-specific management strategies were forwarded towards enhancement of C sequestration potential. Methods The changing patterns of LULC within the wetland influence zone of the site were analyzed using Landsat TM (30 m) and Pleiades-1A (2 m) imageries from 1988 to 2018. Point-specific SOC measurement was done using samples taken from four core-depth intervals (viz. D1: 0–20 cm, D2: 20–40 cm, D3: 40–70 cm, D4: 70–100 cm) at 89 locations belonging to different LULC categories. Spatial interpolation was applied on this point-based data to produce SOC density and stock models as a whole and at all core-depths. Relationships between SOC density, core-depth and present LULC wer...

Background: Soil erosion is among the foremost causes of declining soil resources in Ethiopia, which in turn affect agricultural productivity. To limit this problem, for the last two decades in Gumara watershed, soil and water conservation measures have been practiced through free labor community mass-mobilization. However, their effect on soil fertility has not been evaluated. This study investigated the impact of implemented soil and water conservation measures on fertility improvement in the Gumara watershed. Both composite and core soil samples were taken from upstream, midstream, and downstream adjacent conserved and non-conserved cultivated and grazing plots. Selected soil fertility indicators were analyzed using standard laboratory procedures. Results: Soil and water conservation practices have resulted in a statistically significantly higher mean values of total nitrogen, exchangeable Na + and Mg 2+ at p < 0.01, and of soil organic carbon and organic matter at p < 0.05 in the watershed. The clay content, soil reaction, cation exchange capacity, and exchangeable K + showed nonsignificant, but higher mean values in conserved plots. Furthermore, the effects of conservation practices on soil properties were found more effective in cultivated land uses as compared to that of grazing land uses. This is because conservation treatments had significant effects on organic carbon, total nitrogen, exchangeable Na + and Mg 2+ in cultivated land uses but only on exchangeable Na + in grazing land uses. The interaction effect of treatments and land uses did not reach a statistically significant result for any of the soil properties considered in this study. Conclusion: Conservation measures have important implications for improving soil fertility in the Gumara watershed. Therefore, proper guidance and follow-up, use of agro-forestry and grass strips, and maintenance are required for the watershed's sustainability and good soil conditions.

There is increasing recognition among anthropologists that indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast actively managed their terrestrial and marine resources and ecosystems. Such management practices ensured the ongoing productivity of valued resources and were embedded in a complex web of socio-economic interactions. Using ethnographic and archaeological data, this paper synthesizes the ecological and cultural aspects of marine management systems of coastal First Nations. We divide our discussion into four aspects of traditional management systems: harvesting methods, enhancement strategies, tenure systems, and worldview and social relations. The ethnographic data, including memories of living knowledge holders, tend to provide windows into daily actions and the more intangible aspects of management; the archaeological record provides insights into the more tangible aspects and how management systems developed through time and space. This review demonstrates not only the breadth of Northwest Coast marine management but also the value of integrating different kinds of knowledge and data to more fully document the whole of these ancient management systems.

Mendonca VMD. 1997. Predator-prey interactions in a sandy shore system in the Moray Firth, NE Scotland. PhD Thesis in Zoology (field: Ecology). Univ Aberdeen. Aberdeen, Scotland. 202 pp.

ABSTRACT: Culbin Sands is a semi-lagoon system of 1.5 ha of tidal flats, draining to the sea via a tidal gully. It has coarse sandy sediment, experiences an exposed hydrodynamic environment and is protected from the sea by a large sand dune on the seaside and a 28 ha of forest on the landwardside. As a relatively undisturbed area, it provides information useful for conservation biology, habitat management, and for better understanding of the ecology of coastal areas. Areas like Culbin are rich in epibenthic predators that use the shallow and intertidal zones as feeding grounds, as refuge from predators, or both. Many species such as flatfish and gobiids move out to the sea in autumn and return every summer in the breeding season, although the overwintering fish and shrimp that remain may also be important for the ecology of the system. Shorebirds also use the area seasonally, mainly to exploit the high abundance of food, especially during autumn and early winter. This poses the question: ‘are the effects of predation significant for their prey?’ To address this, prey and predators were regularly
sampled over 1994-1996 and the effects of predators (epibenthic fauna and shorebirds) on their invertebrate prey examined using manipulative field experiments. 56 invertebrate species were identified from the sediment at Culbin. There was little evidence of consistent and easily interpretable seasonal cycles for the main invertebrates, but several species tended to have higher abundance during the autumn or early winter. Annual production by invertebrates was 15-23 g ash free dry mass (AFDM) m-2 yr-1. Arenicola marina was the most important in terms of standing stock in the sediment, followed by the bivalve Cerastoderma edule. Production values of cockles were 1.4-3.4 g AFDM m-2 yr-1. The most abundant epibenthic species were the brown shrimp Crangon crangon, the common goby Pomatoschistus microps and plaice Pleuronectes platessa, but other fish (e.g. sandeel Amodytes tobianus, three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus, fifteen-spined stickleback Spinachia spinachia, sea scorpion Myoxocephalus scorpio, pipefish Nerophis lumbriciformis, sand goby Pomatoschistus minutus, and flounder Plactichthys flesus), crabs (e.g. shore crab Carcinus maenas and hermit crab Pagurus berhardus) and starfish Asteria rubens were also present. The most important prey were amphipods (mainly Bathyporeia spp.) for the brown shrimp and common goby, and bivalves (siphons of adult individuals) for plaice. Despite the relatively high consumption rates manipulative field experiments showed that none of the predators had significant impact on invertebrate prey densities, although shorebirds had significant size effects on the prey, especially on the larger size classes of the bivalves C. edule and Macoma balthica. These results are in line with others found all around the world such as in the Ythan estuary, Scotland (e.g. Raffaelli & Hall, 1992, Animal. Ecol. 61:551-560), USA (Wilson, 1994, J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 196:15-25), and in New Zealand (Trush et al. 1994, Mar Ecol Prog Ser 107:211-222).


RESULTING PUBLICATIONS:

(5) Mendonca VM, Raffaelli DG, Boyle, PR, Abella E. 2015. The role of the European brown shrimp Crangon crangon in the community ecology of a subarctic food web. Food Webs
https://www.academia.edu/10413497/The_role_of_the_European_brown_shrimp_Crangon_crangon_in_the_community_ecology_of_a_subarctic_food_web

(4) Mendonca VM, Raffaelli DG, Boyle PR, Emes C. 2009. Trophodynamics in a shallow lagoon off NW Europe (Culbin Sands, Moray Firth): Spatial and temporal variability of epibenthic communities, their diets, and consumption efficiency. Zool Stud 48(2): 196-214. http://ualg.academia.edu/VandaMendon%C3%A7a/Papers/662975/Trophodynamics_in_a_Shallow_Lagoon_off_Northwestern_Europe_Culbin_Sands_Moray_Firth_Spatial_and_Temporal_Variability_of_Epibenthic_Communities_Their_

(3) Mendonca VM, Raffaelli,DG, PR Boyle, Hoskins S. 2008. Spatial and temporal characteristics of benthic invertebrate communities at Culbin Sands lagoon, Moray Firth, NE Scotland, and impacts of the disturbance of cockle harvesting. Sci Mar 72(2): 265-278. http://ualg.academia.edu/VandaMendon%C3%A7a/Papers/662982/Spatial_and_temporal_characteristics_of_benthic_invertebrate_communities_at_Culbin_Sands_lagoon_Moray_Firth_NE_Scotland_and_impacts_of_the_disturbance_of_cockle_harvesting

(2) Mendonca VM, Raffaelli DG, Boyle PR, Emes C. 2007. The ecological role of overwintering fish in the food web of the Culbin Sands lagoon ecosystem, NE Scotland: Identifying major trophic links and testing effects of fish Pomatoschistus microps (Pallas) on benthic invertebrates. Sci Mar 71(4): 649-660. http://ualg.academia.edu/VandaMendon%C3%A7a/Papers/662974/The_ecological_role_of_overwintering_fish_in_the_food_web_of_the_Culbin_Sands_lagoon_ecosystem_NE_Scotland_Identifying_major_trophic_links_and_testing_effects_

(1) Mendonca VM, Raffaelli DG, Boyle PR. 2007. Interactions between shorebirds and benthic invertebrates at Culbin Sands lagoon, NE Scotland: Effects of avian predation on their prey community density and structure. Sci Mar 71(3): 579-591. http://ualg.academia.edu/VandaMendon%C3%A7a/Papers/662973/Interactions_between_shorebirds_and_benthic_invertebrates_at_Culbin_Sands_lagoon_NE_Scotland_Effects_of_avian_predation_on_their_prey_community_density_and_"""

Background Land degradation through soil erosion by water is severe in the highlands of Ethiopia. In order to curb this problem, the government initiated sustainable land management interventions in different parts of the country since 2008, and in Geda watershed since 2012. However, the impacts of the interventions on soil properties were not assessed so far. Thus, this study investigated the impacts of sustainable land management interventions on selected soil properties in Geda watershed. Soil samples were collected from treated and untreated sub-watersheds at the upper and lower landscape positions, from cropland and grazing lands at two soil depths (0–15 cm and 15–30 cm). Selected soil physicochemical properties were assessed with respect to landscape position, land-use type, and soil depth in both treated and untreated sub-watersheds. Results Generally, most of the soil physicochemical properties differed greatly across sub-watersheds, land-use types, and soil depths. Clay, el...

Herbivory is a fundamental process that controls primary producer abundance and regulates energy and nutrient flows to higher trophic levels. Despite the recent proliferation of small-scale studies on herbivore effects on aquatic plants, there remains limited understanding of the factors that control consumer regulation of vascular plants in aquatic ecosystems. Our current knowledge of the regulation of primary producers has hindered efforts to understand the structure and functioning of aquatic ecosystems, and to manage such ecosystems effectively. We conducted a global meta-analysis of the outcomes of plant–herbivore interactions using a data set comprised of 326 values from 163 studies, in order to test two mechanistic hypotheses: first, that greater negative changes in plant abundance would be associated with higher herbivore biomass densities; second, that the magnitude of changes in plant abundance would vary with herbivore taxonomic identity. We found evidence that plant abundance declined with increased herbivore density, with plants eliminated at high densities. Significant between-taxa differences in impact were detected, with insects associated with smaller reductions in plant abundance than all other taxa. Similarly, birds caused smaller reductions in plant abundance than echinoderms, fish, or molluscs. Furthermore, larger reductions in plant abundance were detected for fish relative to crustaceans. We found a positive relationship between herbivore species richness and change in plant abundance, with the strongest reductions in plant abundance reported for low herbivore species richness, suggesting that greater herbivore diversity may protect against large reductions in plant abundance. Finally, we found that herbivore–plant nativeness was a key factor affecting the magnitude of herbivore impacts on plant abundance across a wide range of species assemblages. Assemblages comprised of invasive herbivores and native plant assemblages were associated with greater reductions in plant abundance compared with invasive herbivores and invasive plants, native herbivores and invasive plants, native herbivores and mixed-nativeness plants, and native herbivores and native plants. By contrast, assemblages comprised of native herbivores and invasive plants were associated with lower reductions in plant abundance compared with both mixed-nativeness herbivores and native plants, and native herbivores and native plants. However, the effects of herbivore–plant nativeness on changes in plant abundance were reduced at high herbivore densities. Our mean reductions in aquatic plant abundance are greater than those reported in the literature for terrestrial plants, but lower than aquatic algae. Our findings highlight the need for a substantial shift in how biologists incorporate plant–herbivore interactions into theories of aquatic ecosystem structure and functioning. Currently, the failure to incorporate top-down effects continues to hinder our capacity to understand and manage the ecological dynamics of habitats that contain aquatic plants.

There is an unprecedented array of new satellite technologies with capabilities for advancing our understanding of ecological processes and the changing composition of the Earth’s biosphere at scales from local plots to the whole planet. We identified 48 instruments and 13 platforms with multiple instruments that are of broad interest to the environmental sciences that either collected data in the 2000s, were recently launched, or are planned for launch in this decade. We have restricted our review to instruments that primarily observe terrestrial landscapes or coastal margins and are available under free and open data policies. We focused on imagers that passively measure wavelengths in the reflected solar and emitted thermal spectrum. The suite of instruments we describe measure land surface characteristics, including land cover, but provide a more detailed monitoring of ecosystems, plant communities, and even some species then possible from historic sensors. The newer instruments...

Stand-level retention is an important component of sustainable forest management which aims to balance ecological, social and economic objectives. Long-term retention of mature forest structures at the time of harvesting (variable retention) is intended to produce future forest stands that more closely resemble conditions that develop after natural disturbances, thereby maintaining greater diversity of habitats for a variety of organisms. Structure includes features such as live and dead trees representing multiple canopy layers, undisturbed understory vegetation and coarse woody debris. Over the past two decades, variable retention has become common on forest lands in the temperate rainforests of coastal British Columbia (BC) and has been applied to a lesser extent in inland forest types. Our review of studies in BC and in similar forest types in our region indicates that both aggregated and dispersed retention can contribute to biodiversity conservation by providing short-term 'life-boating' habitat for some species and by enhancing the structural characteristics of future stands. For example, greater abundance of species present in the pre-harvest forest have been documented for vegetation, birds, carabid beetles, gastropods, ectomycorrhizal fungi and soil fauna in retention cutblocks compared to clearcuts. There are, however, some negative consequences for timber production such as wind damage to retained trees and reduced growth rates of tree regeneration compared to clearcuts. The authors suggest an adaptive management approach for balancing competing objectives when faced with uncertainty. This includes monitoring the implementation and effectiveness of various strategies for achieving goals. Over two decades of experience applying variable retention harvesting to industrial-scale management of forest lands in BC suggests that it is possible to balance production of wood with biodiversity conservation.

Intensive forest management has been applied in most Fennoscandian forests for a period of almost one felling rotation. This paradigm has produced even-aged and even-structured forests of different successional stages that cover about 90% of forest land. At the same time, wildfires have been nearly eliminated in most of the Fennoscandian nature. Consequently, hundreds of species are red-listed because of forest management. To support these species, forest management requires improvements. Variable retention forestry and habitat restoration have been suggested to mitigate negative effects of forest management on biodiversity, and these have been practiced to some extent during the past few decades. Here, we review experimental results on the effects of variable retention and two restoration measures (prescribed burning and artificial addition of coarse woody debris) on different species groups in Fennoscandia. Our key findings are as follows: (i) Many species respond positively to felling within a few years, apparently due to released and often ephemeral resources, such as fresh residue and stumps. Species associated with shady conditions are negatively impacted, but any retention supports many of these, and their species composition remains almost unaffected with 50-70% retention of the initial tree volume. (ii) These effects remain detectable for at least 10-30 years or, according to some studies, nearly 100 years, e.g., in polypore fungi. (iii) Initial effects of prescribed burning on most species groups (apart from pyrophiles) are negative, but within 10-15 years post-fire sites begin to support many rare and threatened deadwood-dependent species. Epiphytic lichens, however, remain negatively affected. (iv) Artificial addition of deadwood (mostly high stumps) supports a wide spectrum of deadwood-dependent species, but the species composition differs from that of naturally died trees. (v) Moisture and micro-habitat variation are crucial for forest species at harvested sites, at least in forests dominated by Norway spruce. We conclude that felling method as such is of little importance for threatened forest species, although retention mitigates many negative effects. These species require microclimatic continuity, and maintenance and active increase of legacies, such as deadwood of different qualities (species, downed/standing, snag/log/stump, decay stage), very old trees, and tree species mixtures.

Introduction: Urban flora is an important component of human-dominated ecosystems that links urban dwellers with nature. This study aims at compiling and analysing the alien and native vascular plant species of some selected habitats in the Srinagar city, Kashmir, India.

Patchy distributions within landscapes may be caused by migration in response to different types of habitat patches. Intertidal boulder fields are landscapes in which boulders are discrete habitat patches, often with chitons attached to their under-surfaces. Chiton densities and associations with patch-edges differed between boulders overlying coarse-vs fine-sediment types, with greater densities occurring over fine-sediments. We tested if adult migration caused between-boulder distributions by measuring immigration and emigration following experimental replacement of coarse sediments with fine-sedimentå under boulders. We also assessed if the manipulations altered chiton positions relative to patch-edges, and large-scale generality was tested by including data from two continents. The manipulations did not influence the association of chitons with edges or amounts of emigration, but chitons did display positive density-dependent immigration that mirrored their distributional patterns, indicating the importance of immigration. Strikingly, all results were consistent between continents despite involving different species and even genera of chitons. By using boulder fields as a small-scale, easily manipulated landscape, we show that, even in sedentary organisms, patchy distributions within landscapes can be caused by migration alone, without the need to invoke mortality or larval recruitment.

Introduction: Resource managers need spatially explicit models of hydrologic response to changes in key climatic drivers across variable landscape conditions. We demonstrate the utility of a Basin Characterization Model for California (CA-BCM) to integrate high-resolution data on physical watershed characteristics with historical or projected climate data to predict watershed-specific hydrologic responses. Methods: The CA-BCM applies a monthly regional water-balance model to simulate hydrologic responses to climate at the spatial resolution of a 270-m grid. The model has been calibrated using a total of 159 relatively unimpaired watersheds for the California region. Results: As a result of calibration, predicted basin discharge closely matches measured data for validation watersheds. The CA-BCM recharge and runoff estimates, combined with estimates of snowpack and timing of snowmelt, provide a basis for assessing variations in water availability. Another important output variable, climatic water deficit, integrates the combined effects of temperature and rainfall on site-specific soil moisture, a factor that plants may respond to more directly than air temperature and precipitation alone. Model outputs are calculated for each grid cell, allowing results to be summarized for a variety of planning units including hillslopes, watersheds, ecoregions, or political boundaries.

Soil is the most vital non-renewable natural resource, which perform major environmental functions. Soil is an actively living system which consist diversity of micro and macro fauna and flora, which plays major role in maintaining the soil quality. Soil micro organisms are responsible for the decomposition of organic matter in soil, thus soil quality assessment is very important to maintain the ecological processes in soil. Soil chemical and physical properties can be used as indicators of soil quality assessment. That’s why soil quality assessment is important for agro sustainable development. The aim of this study is to provide base line information set, on soil quality assessment of Altit Hunza. Physiochemical and fertility status of Altit soil Hunza-Nagar of Pakistan were investigated during 2013-2014. The whole location was divided into four clusters, form each cluster soil samples were collected from agriculture, orchards and forest area. Total 120 soil samples have been coll...

Tidal oscillations systematically flood salt marshes, transporting water, sediments, organic matter, and biogeochemical elements such as silica. Here we present a review of recent studies on these fluxes and their effects on both ecosystem functioning and morphological evolution of salt marshes. We reexamine a simplified model for the computation of water fluxes in salt marshes that captures the asymmetry in discharge between flood and ebb. We discuss the role of storm conditions on sediment fluxes both in tidal channels and on the marsh platform. We present recent methods and field instruments for the measurement of fluxes of organic matter. These methods will provide long-term data sets with fine temporal resolution that will help scientists to close the carbon budget in salt marshes. Finally, the main processes controlling fluxes of biogenic and dissolved silica in salt marshes are explained, with particular emphasis on the uptake by marsh macrophytes and diatoms.

Background Soil erosion is one of the major threats in the Ethiopian highlands. In this study, soil erosion in the Muga watershed of the Upper Blue Nile Basin (Abay) under historical and future climate and land use/land cover (LULC) change was assessed. Future LULC was predicted based on LULC map of 1985, 2002, and 2017. LULC maps of the historical periods were delineated from Landsat images, and future LULC was predicted using the CA–Markov chain model. Precipitation for the future period was projected from six regional circulation models. The RUSLE model was used to estimate the current and future soil erosion rate in Muga watershed. Results The average annual rate of soil erosion in the study area was increased from about 15 t ha −1  year −1 in 1985 to 19 t ha −1  year −1 in 2002, and 19.7 t ha −1  year −1 in 2017. Expansion of crop cultivation and loss of vegetation caused an increase in soil erosion. Unless proper measure is taken against the LULC changes, the rate of soil loss...

Introduction: The study was conducted in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, in the Western Ghats to understand the effect of a single fire event on tree diversity and regeneration status. Four forest patches were selected which were unburned, 2-year-old burn, 5-year-old burn, and 15-year-old burn. Three 0.1 ha square plots were laid randomly in all four patches and analyzed for tree diversity, stand structure, and regeneration of tree species. Results: A total of 4129 individuals of tree species were recorded in field surveys, comprising 3474 seedlings, 121 saplings, and 534 trees. Totally, 40 tree species were recorded in study plots, from which 28 species were seedlings, 16 species were saplings, and 37 species were at tree stages. Conclusions: Tree diversity decreased in 2-year-old and 5-year-old burnt plots and was reached to the level of unburnt plots in 15 years of interval. Stems of small size classes started increasing after the fire. Seedling density increased linearly in subsequent ...

Over the last century, Eucalyptus has rapidly expanded across the globe. It has become the most planted tree species. Environmentalists fear this for the perceived negative eco-hydrological impact. Foresters and wood industries support its expansion looking at its socio-economic benefits. Ethiopia is one of the countries where Eucalyptus dominates forest development gains in the last century. The main purpose of this review is to evaluate the expansion, benefit and challenges of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia. Eucalyptus was introduced to Africa, and Ethiopia, around the end of the 19 th century, in 1890s. Since then it has continued to expand to cover wider geographic areas within Ethiopia: highland and lowland. It is providing multiple purposes, economic and social, for millions of households in urban and rural areas. It has substituted effectively some of the natural forest's functions, principally in wood supply; hence this way it has contributed to reducing pressure and in slowing down deforestation. Yet Eucalyptus sustained blame for ecosystem water and soil nutrient drains, and allelopathic effect to suppress native flora growth. Studies on these aspects of Jaleta et al.; JAERI, 6(3): 1-12, 2016; Article no.JAERI.22841 2 the genus are inconclusive. Some argue the extravagant use of water and nutrient, while others argue otherwise. There are studies that show water and nutrient use of Eucalyptus is based on availability: for instance, dry season and wet season uses are not the same. The most known about Eucalyptus is its high nutrient and water use efficiency. Therefore, when evaluated on per volume of water, nutrient and land allocated for biomass production, Eucalyptus will provide the highest biomass return. This may make it the preferred species. The paper concludes that the development of Eucalyptus forestry is crucial in narrowing the gap between forest product demand and supply in the current context of Ethiopia and most African countries, but such development should be managed with proper silviculture: Planted in the right site and tended properly to optimize its positive values and reduce possible negative effects.

Introduction: The potential of periurban agrarian ecosystems is recognized as one of the cornerstones for improving urban sustainability; however, this potential has been disregarded in spatial planning and decision making. The main goal of the PAEc-SP project was to assess the feasibility of integrating periurban agricultural areas into spatial planning by developing a viable ecosystem services-based methodology.

Background Land use/cover and management practices are widely known to influence soil organic matter (SOM) quality and quantity. The present study investigated the effect of different land use, i.e., forests viz. mixed forest cover (MFC), Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC-dominated forest cover (PFC), and cultivated sites viz. agriculture field (AF), vegetable field (VF), respectively, on soil parameter, microbial activity, and enzymes involved in soil nutrient cycle in a semiarid region of India. Results The results showed a significant reduction (P &lt; 0.05) in soil carbon (SC), soil nitrogen (SN) content (~ 30–80%) and consequently the soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) (~ 70–80%), soil basal respiration (SBR), soil substrate-induced respiration (SSIR), and soil enzyme activities (β-glucosidase, acid phosphatase, and dehydrogenase) under cultivated sites in comparison with forest sites. Pearson’s correlation showed that a positive correlation of SC with SMBC, SBR, SSIR (P &lt; 0.01)...

The dryland area in Ethiopia covers a substantial region endowed with diverse plant resources. However, the landmass has received less attention even if it has high ecological, environmental, and economic uses. The present study was conducted in Hirmi woodland vegetation, which is one of the dryland areas in Ethiopia, with the objective of investigating the floristic composition, plant community types, vegetation structure, community-environment relations and its regeneration status. Vegetation and environmental data were collected from 80 sampling plots with a size of 25 m × 25 m designated as the main plots. Diameter at breast height (DBH), height, basal area, density, vertical structure, importance value index (IVI), and frequency were computed. Species diversity and evenness were analyzed using Shannon diversity and evenness indices. The plant community types and vegetation-environment relationships were analyzed using classification and ordination tools, respectively. A total o...

Background Bush clearing of encroached rangelands is crucial for restoration of herbaceous cover and diversity. Regeneration after bush clearing depends largely on the soil seed bank (SSB) size and composition. To assess the potential of the SSB to facilitate post-clearing herbaceous restoration, we examined the SSB density, composition and diversity and similarity between SSB and aboveground vegetation (AGV). Methods The study was conducted in semi-arid rangelands of Maseding and Kgomokgomo in North-West Province of South Africa. In each rangeland, all woody plants in three 1250 m2 plots were cut using saws and loppers, with the stumps treated with picloram. Paired observations were conducted in cleared and uncleared microsites. Soil samples were collected at three depths (0–10, 10–20 and 20–30 cm) in each microsite in April (pre-treatment), August, October and December 2016 and in April and August 2017. SSB was assessed using seedling emergence method, whereas pre- and post-cleari...

Introduction: Community perception plays a significant role in rangeland resource management. Traditional rangeland management practices by the pastoral communities are based on accumulated knowledge in connection to their local environment. Pastoralism played a vital role in food production and sustaining its inhabitants in arid environment for millennia. However, national policies and development interventions in East African pastoral systems have often overlooked pastoralism while centered on the modernization of agricultural sector for economic development and poverty reduction. Methods: We used household survey, focus group discussion, key informant interview, and individual questionnaire to understand the perceptions and attitude of Afar pastoralists towards rangeland resource use and conservation practices, as well as impacts of development intervention on traditional rangeland resource use and conservation practices. The data were analyzed using index ranking and descriptive statistics.

Introduction: Pastoral communities have a comprehensive knowledge of their environments. This knowledge was acquired through extensive observation of the local environment and continuous herding practices. Pastoralists' wisdom about their local environment and adaptation strategies to climate change is essential for sustainable development. Thus, appreciation of pastoralists' knowledge about their environment is also important for the integration of indigenous knowledge with the proper application of scientific approach to fit with the prevailing ecological potential of pastoral areas. Methods: Data were collected using focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and in-depth interviews. The in-depth interviews were conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire that was administered to 100 household heads with the age of above 50 years old. Respondents were randomly drawn from selected Pastoralists Associations (PAs) of two study districts. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics as well as the logit model. The logit model was used to analyze the different coping strategies of pastoralists to overcome the failure of rain during different seasons. This was done by complementing pastoralists' indigenous knowledge of time-series-based analysis across four seasons (Kerma, Gillal, Hagay, and Sugum) vs. the existing meteorological records. Forty years (from 1971 to 2011) of existing metrological data were used to compare the empirical evidence with pastoralists' perceptions. Results: Respondents mentioned that livestock number was the best indicator for evaluating rangeland condition in Afar region. The existing empirical evidence based on metrological data did not show any significant decline in precipitation for the last four decades between 1971 and 2011 as opposed to the perception of pastoralists where 80% of them reported a decline in precipitation. A one unit increase in labor force suggested about 16.1% decrease in the choice of livestock selling as coping strategy in Afar pastoral areas of NorthEast of Ethiopia. The non-intervened pastoral households had more preference (3.78%) to practice herd splitting than those pastoral households in the intervened district. Similarly, the non-intervened pastoral households had 4.43% more preference to use crop residue for livestock feeding than pastoral HHs in the intervened areas.

A review of jellyfish aggregations focused on India’s coastal waters was conducted, with the aim to enhance understanding of conducive conditions and subsequent ecological impacts. Jellyfish swarming, as well as their beach strandings, have been reported from many areas of the world—including India’s coastal waters. A variety of natural (winds, tidal fronts, surface currents, water temperature, salinity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen) and anthropogenic (water quality deterioration, overfishing, translocation, habitat modification) factors play pivotal roles in triggering jellyfish aggregations. Jellyfish aggregation events in the forms of their swarming in coastal waters and beach strandings have resulted in ephemeral nuisances such as water quality deterioration, food chain alterations, hindrance in seawater uptake by power plants, clogging of nets during fishing operations, and tourism declines. Several well-known Indian tourist beaches (e.g., Puri, Chennai, Goa, and Mumbai) have ex...

Understanding the upstream-downstream linkages in hydrological processes is essential for water resources planning in river basins. Although there are many studies of individual aspects of these processes in the Himalayan region, studies along the length of the basins are limited. This study summarizes the present state of knowledge about linkages in hydrological processes between upstream and downstream areas of river basins in the Himalayan region based on a literature review. The paper studies the linkages between the changes in the physical environment of upstream areas (land use, snow storage, and soil erosion) and of climate change on the downstream water availability, flood and dry season flow, and erosion and sedimentation. It is argued that these linkages are complex due to the extreme altitudinal range associated with the young and fragile geology, extreme seasonal and spatial variation in rainfall, and diversity of anthropogenic processes. Based on the findings, the paper concludes that integrated systems analysis is required to understand the holistic complexity of upstream-downstream linkages of hydrological processes in the river basin context. The integrated land and water resources management (ILWRM) approach can be instrumental in developing adaptive solutions to problems and can also enable stakeholders of upstream and downstream areas with various interests and needs to work together for the better utilization and management of land and water resources. As a part of this, the specific circumstances of the upstream communities, who live in fragile and inaccessible mountain areas with limited resource opportunities, should be taken into account so that incentive mechanisms can be established to encourage and acknowledge their contribution.

Most of the science and practice of conservation planning has focused on terrestrial environments (Vance-Borland et al. 2008), just as this book has, with similarly threatened marine and freshwater systems receiving less attention. In contrast to land, anthropogenic changes to marine and freshwater systems are less easily observed and, until recently, the phrase "out of sight, out of mind" aptly applied to the conservation of these systems. As human impacts on marine and freshwater systems have become increasingly apparent (e.g., fisheries collapses), there has been an increasing realization that these ecosystems require protection, better resource management, and conservation (Nel et al. 2009; Sala and Knowlton 2006). Biodiversity in marine and freshwater is declining alarmingly, and humans are starting to feel the effects of reductions in ecosystem services (Worm et al. 2006). Increased conservation of marine and freshwater systems is therefore necessary, and a key part of these efforts will be conservation planning. The goals of this chapter are to provide an overview of established good practices in marine and freshwater conservation planning, highlight distinctive characteristics of marine and freshwater systems important for their conservation, and place these systems in the broader framework of conservation planning (Margules and Pressey 2000; Pressey and Bottrill 2009). We highlight elements of marine and freshwater systems that differ both from each other and from terrestrial systems, and discuss how these differences influence approaches to planning. Also, despite some differences between aquatic and terrestrial systems, many of the principles, lessons, tools, and techniques for terrestrial conservation planning described in other chapters of this book can be adapted to marine and freshwater systems. We also pinpoint some emerging and cuttingedge conservation issues and practices, but the predominant focus of this chapter is on established good practices.

Introduction: Community perception plays a significant role in rangeland resource management. Traditional rangeland management practices by the pastoral communities are based on accumulated knowledge in connection to their local environment. Pastoralism played a vital role in food production and sustaining its inhabitants in arid environment for millennia. However, national policies and development interventions in East African pastoral systems have often overlooked pastoralism while centered on the modernization of agricultural sector for economic development and poverty reduction. Methods: We used household survey, focus group discussion, key informant interview, and individual questionnaire to understand the perceptions and attitude of Afar pastoralists towards rangeland resource use and conservation practices, as well as impacts of development intervention on traditional rangeland resource use and conservation practices. The data were analyzed using index ranking and descriptive statistics. Results: The results showed that livestock holding per household was higher on average (22.90 ± 2.27 Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU)) in the non-intervened woreda than in the intervened woreda (8.30 ± 3.85 TLU). Respondents mentioned that livestock productivity was adversely affected by a number of factors such as invasion of Prosopis juliflora (Dergi Hara), shrinkage in the capacity of rangelands (Beadu and Bebea'), and recurrent droughts. Scarcity of grazing resources attributed to the invasion of Dergi Hara and drought created livestock feed crisis with strong implication on the livelihood of pastoralists. Our results showed that the traditional resource management practices such as mobility, herd splitting, and diversification had a role to contribute to the improvement of rangeland management and conservation of biodiversity. Traditional rules and seasonal-based grazing patterns of riversides during drought were perceived as key elements for rangeland resource management and conservation of rangeland resources in the study area. Conclusions: Communities' perception showed that the traditional practices of rangeland management systems are effective and environmentally sustainable. In contrast, inappropriate development interventions put rangelands under severe pressure. Although development interventions were aimed at improving the condition of Afar rangeland, they could not bring any enduring solution in terms of improvement of rangeland resources.

The dryland area in Ethiopia covers a substantial region endowed with diverse plant resources. However, the landmass has received less attention even if it has high ecological, environmental, and economic uses. The present study was conducted in Hirmi woodland vegetation, which is one of the dryland areas in Ethiopia, with the objective of investigating the floristic composition, plant community types, vegetation structure, community-environment relations and its regeneration status. Vegetation and environmental data were collected from 80 sampling plots with a size of 25 m × 25 m designated as the main plots. Diameter at breast height (DBH), height, basal area, density, vertical structure, importance value index (IVI), and frequency were computed. Species diversity and evenness were analyzed using Shannon diversity and evenness indices. The plant community types and vegetation-environment relationships were analyzed using classification and ordination tools, respectively. A total o...

Background Land degradation through soil erosion by water is severe in the highlands of Ethiopia. In order to curb this problem, the government initiated sustainable land management interventions in different parts of the country since 2008, and in Geda watershed since 2012. However, the impacts of the interventions on soil properties were not assessed so far. Thus, this study investigated the impacts of sustainable land management interventions on selected soil properties in Geda watershed. Soil samples were collected from treated and untreated sub-watersheds at the upper and lower landscape positions, from cropland and grazing lands at two soil depths (0–15 cm and 15–30 cm). Selected soil physicochemical properties were assessed with respect to landscape position, land-use type, and soil depth in both treated and untreated sub-watersheds. Results Generally, most of the soil physicochemical properties differed greatly across sub-watersheds, land-use types, and soil depths. Clay, el...

Retention approaches in forest management are today common in several North European countries, integrated into the clearcutting practice as a way to promote biodiversity and maintain ecosystem functions. Individual green trees and retention patches (tree groups) are retained at final harvest, and deadwood is left at site or created. Here, we review research on retention in Sweden, Finland, Norway, the Baltic States, and NW Russia, with special focus on biodiversity. Following the first publication in 1994, about 180 peer-reviewed articles have been published. We present results from a systematic search of the retention literature, separated into the following topics: buffer zones, retention patches, high stumps, other types of deadwood, European aspen Populus tremula, and cost-efficiency. Russian literature is synthesized separately since studies from this region have so far almost exclusively been published in the Russian language. Furthermore, we describe six ongoing large-scale,...

Introduction: Multi-temporal land-use and land-cover data provides a historical vehicle for determining and evaluating long-term trends in bio-physical landscapes. Land-use and land-cover assessment and mapping is one of the most useful applications of geographic information system (GIS) for planning, management, and development. This study analyses the spatio-temporal pattern of forest cover dynamics for three decades in Falgore Game Reserve in Kano, Nigeria. The dynamics of forest cover transition during 1985-2015 was analysed using multi-temporal Landsat imagery. Results: The spatio-temporal analysis shows that moderate woodland dominated in 1985 (46%) and 2005 (57%) but was replaced by open woodland in 2015 which accounts for 58% of the total area of Falgore Game Reserve (FGR) currently. Dense woodland occupied the least area of the total forest estate that varied between 17% in 1985 and 1% in 2015. The results indicate that dense woodland, moderate woodland, and very open woodland were decreased at annual average rate of 3, 1, and 0.4%. Open woodland had expanded from 21,127 ha in 1985 to 53,392 ha in 2015. The main drivers of forest resource degradation in the area were found to be excessive fuelwood collection, overgrazing, agricultural expansion, and forest fire. Conclusions: These findings suggest that protection strategies employed in FGR were not effective as deforestation is still evident in the reserve. Government and environmental based NGOs should therefore prioritize effective and efficient conservation strategy for present and future use of forest resources, in addition to the provision of alternative livelihood sources to communities proximate to the reserve. This will ensure the socioeconomic well-being of the locals and sustainable conservation of biological diversity in the area.

Background: Ethiopia is frequently cited as a country that is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change. The country's high vulnerability arises mostly from climate-sensitive agricultural sector that suffers a lot from risks associated with rainfall variability. The vulnerability factors (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity) of the agricultural livelihoods to climate variability and change differ across agro-ecological systems (AESs). Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze AES-specific vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate variability and change in the Fincha'a sub-basin. We surveyed 380 respondents from 4 AESs (highland, midland, wetland, and lowland) randomly selected. Furthermore, focus group discussion and key informant interviews were also performed to supplement and substantiate the quantitative data. Livelihood vulnerability index was employed to analyze the levels of smallholders' agriculture vulnerability to climate variability and change. Data on socioeconomic and biophysical attribute were collected and combined into the indices and vulnerability score was calculated for each agro-ecological system. Results: Considerable variation was observed across the agro-ecological systems in profile, indicator, and the three livelihood vulnerability indices-Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change dimensions (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity) of vulnerability. The lowland AES exhibited higher exposure, low adaptive capacity, and high vulnerability, while the midland AES demonstrated lower exposure, higher adaptive capacity, and lower vulnerability. The wetland and highland AESs scored intermediate results. Conclusion: Our results suggest that resilience-building adaptation strategies are vital to reduce the vulnerability of smallholder farmers. The measures taken should consider site-specific agro-ecological system requirements to reduce the vulnerability of smallholder mixed crop-livestock agriculture system. Since the approach based on the long-term realization of the community, any strategy designed based on such assessments is applicable to local condition.

Background: Ethiopia is frequently cited as a country that is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change. The country's high vulnerability arises mostly from climate-sensitive agricultural sector that suffers a lot from risks associated with rainfall variability. The vulnerability factors (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity) of the agricultural livelihoods to climate variability and change differ across agro-ecological systems (AESs). Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze AES-specific vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate variability and change in the Fincha'a sub-basin. We surveyed 380 respondents from 4 AESs (highland, midland, wetland, and lowland) randomly selected. Furthermore, focus group discussion and key informant interviews were also performed to supplement and substantiate the quantitative data. Livelihood vulnerability index was employed to analyze the levels of smallholders' agriculture vulnerability to climate variability and change. Data on socioeconomic and biophysical attribute were collected and combined into the indices and vulnerability score was calculated for each agro-ecological system. Results: Considerable variation was observed across the agro-ecological systems in profile, indicator, and the three livelihood vulnerability indices-Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change dimensions (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity) of vulnerability. The lowland AES exhibited higher exposure, low adaptive capacity, and high vulnerability, while the midland AES demonstrated lower exposure, higher adaptive capacity, and lower vulnerability. The wetland and highland AESs scored intermediate results. Conclusion: Our results suggest that resilience-building adaptation strategies are vital to reduce the vulnerability of smallholder farmers. The measures taken should consider site-specific agro-ecological system requirements to reduce the vulnerability of smallholder mixed crop-livestock agriculture system. Since the approach based on the long-term realization of the community, any strategy designed based on such assessments is applicable to local condition.

Understanding the upstream-downstream linkages in hydrological processes is essential for water resources planning in river basins. Although there are many studies of individual aspects of these processes in the Himalayan region, studies along the length of the basins are limited. This study summarizes the present state of knowledge about linkages in hydrological processes between upstream and downstream areas of river basins in the Himalayan region based on a literature review. The paper studies the linkages between the changes in the physical environment of upstream areas (land use, snow storage, and soil erosion) and of climate change on the downstream water availability, flood and dry season flow, and erosion and sedimentation. It is argued that these linkages are complex due to the extreme altitudinal range associated with the young and fragile geology, extreme seasonal and spatial variation in rainfall, and diversity of anthropogenic processes. Based on the findings, the paper concludes that integrated systems analysis is required to understand the holistic complexity of upstream-downstream linkages of hydrological processes in the river basin context. The integrated land and water resources management (ILWRM) approach can be instrumental in developing adaptive solutions to problems and can also enable stakeholders of upstream and downstream areas with various interests and needs to work together for the better utilization and management of land and water resources. As a part of this, the specific circumstances of the upstream communities, who live in fragile and inaccessible mountain areas with limited resource opportunities, should be taken into account so that incentive mechanisms can be established to encourage and acknowledge their contribution.