Early Metallurgy

Os vestígios da primeira metalurgia do cobre e do bronze compreendem um conjunto de objectos de tipologia restrita distribuídos pelos Distritos de Bragança, Vila Real, Braga, Porto e Viana do Castelo. Do ponto de vista cronológico pertencem aos períodos do Calcolítico que segundo as datas geralmente aceites se situa na 2ª metade do III milénio e inícios do II ou seja de c. 2700/2500 e c. 1800/1700 a.C. e do Bronze Inicial no II milénio e meio do I milénio cobrindo as datas de c. 1800/1700 a c.1500 a.C. (Jorge, 1990:163; 213).

The earliest copper objects to the south and west of the Alps. In: Pétrequin, Gauthier, Pétrequin (éd.) Jade, tome 4
Abstract : The regular presence of copper objects in assemblages dating to the fifth and the beginning of the fourth millennia in Peninsular Italy and, to a lesser extent, in southern France, is a relatively recent discovery. The question now arises of the status that should be attributed to these finds, and of what relationships existed between these areas and the metallurgical centres of southeastern Europe. The currently-available evidence suggests a phenomenon that was both precocious and complex. Importation of copper objects began in the mid-fifth millennium and reached a peak between 4300 and 4000 BC. During this peak period, which is essentially marked by the presence of axeheads of Szakálhát type – probably imported from the Carpathian Basin – imports reached the eastern part of the Po plain and Istria. In parallel, in the Po plain, a probably local-based 'industry' producing small copper artefacts (namely awls and rods) became established, its products travelling widely beyond the Po as far as central Italy and southern France. The place occupied by triangular, oval-section copper axeheads – the type of most interest to us because it is generally considered to be an imitation of jade axeheads – is unfortunately harder to discern, owing to the absence of firm contexts and the insufficient number of chemical compositional analyses that have been undertaken. Their attribution to the same chronological horizon (i.e. 4500–4000 BC) is likely but remains hypothetical, and it is currently impossible to determine whether we are dealing with locally-produced axeheads or with imports. (translated by Alison Sheridan)

This paper examines the debate concerning the spread
of early copper mining and metallurgy in Europe, in terms
both of the a priori premises of the scholars concerned
and of the actual archaeological evidence. It discusses
the development of the diffusionist paradigm exemplified
by Childe and Wertime, who argued for a single origin
for metallurgical knowledge and practice in the Near
East, and the challenge from Renfrew’s model of multiple
centres of development of copper metallurgy (the
Near East, the Balkans and Iberia). Specifically, it critiques
the neo-diffusionist model recently proposed by
Roberts, Thornton and Pigott (2009), who argue that
metallurgy developed in a single region, in the area of
eastern Anatolia and northern Iraq, from whence it diffused
to other areas.
It is shown that whether or not one agrees with the
premises of the argument put forward by Roberts et al.
(2009), the single origin diffusionist model for copper
metallurgy is unproven on the basis of the available evidence.
For example, copper smelting first appears in
the Balkans (Belovode, Serbia – 5000-4650 cal BC),
Iberia (Cerro Virtud, Almería – 4910-4460 cal BC) and
southeastern Iran (Tal-i Iblis – second half of the 6th /
first half of the 5th millennium cal BC) rather than in
Anatolia or northern Iraq.
The paper also examines the evidence for the earliest
copper mining and metallurgy in Italy and southern
France in the light of this debate, arguing that the pattern
shown by the evidence does not support a simple diffusion
from East to West.
A new model is proposed which posits that information
flowed throughout Eurasia, and that different technological
developments may in fact have first emerged in different
areas.

What are the permanent ‘workshops’ we could expect to find in the context of the Mycenaean palatial period? What changed during the post-palatial period? These are still tricky questions for which many indications in the archaeological record have to be scrutinised in the greatest detail possible. A comprehensive assessment of all archaeological indications is obviously necessary in order to recognise and define a working area or a workshop. In this synthetic contribution I would like to discuss the areas for working and processing of metal and pottery in the lower citadel at Tiryns. They shall be analysed as regards their character (‘permanent’ versus ‘domestic’) and their possible relevance to central administration.

No Chalcolithic molds with casting heart are known from the contemporary Bulgarian lands. The Pločnik type copper hammer-axes are accepted to be the earliest implements for which a mold with casting heart is needed. The date of their appearance is controversial. I accept that in the present day Bulgarian lands they occur in the time interval between 4700 and 4550 cal. BC. This is done basis of: 1. revision of the relative chronology of the hoard from Rakilovtsi (Pernik district); 2. the new absolute dates from the “Pločnik hoards horizon” and Varna I necropolis; 3. critical analysis of the available data for the territorial distribution of the Pločnik type hammer-axes and their stone prototypes.
Therefore, the occurrence of the molds with casting heart in the contemporary Bulgarian lands can be dated to the time interval 4700-4550 cal. BC. These are the earliest known dates for the use of such an advanced casting technology in Europe and Anatolia.

The production, consumption and exchange of luxury goods have played a major role in the communication of social groups across geographical distance and cultural boundaries. The prestige gold discovered in the burial sites from the northwest China, the Sayan-Altai to the Southern Urals provide rich evidence of craft specialization and extended cultural contacts in the Eurasia of the Early Iron Age (7 th-3 rd centuries BC). This paper discusses the transfer of images and technologies of Scytho-Siberian goldsmith practice in the Eastern Eurasia in light of archaeological discoveries in the northwest China, the eastern Kazakhstan and the Altai Mountains region, with a focus on the mold-pressing technology. 奢侈品的制作、消费和交换在跨区域、跨文化交流中扮演着主要角色。中国 西北、萨彦-阿尔泰到南乌拉尔山地区早期铁器时代（公元前七到前三世纪）墓 葬中发现的大量黄金饰品为欧亚草原的工艺制作和文化互动提供了丰富的实物 依据。本文以模压技术为例，依据甘肃清水刘坪、马家塬，新疆巴里坤和东哈萨 克斯坦波莱尔、阿尔泰山巴泽雷克等地区的考古发现，讨论斯基泰—西伯利亚黄 金制作技术和相关图像在欧亚大陆东部的传播。

During D. Levi's excavations at the South Slope of the Athenian Acropolis in 1922 significant evidence for a prehistoric occupation of this area came to light. Some of this material was published later in a brief article. From the study of the finds and from the stratigraphic evidence, Levi thought that the area he excavated in 1922, between the Odeion of Herodes Atticus and the Temple of Asklepius, was a Neolithic hut. His reason was based on the hearth he found and the ceramics belonging to the Middle and Late Neolithic. During a recent study of the archeological finds from the excavations, pottery dated to the Final Neolithic has also been recognized. Among these finds from the " Neolithic hut " , a specific group of fragments now seems to have had a different use from that hypothesized by Levi in his publication. Those are perforated clay fragments, that were probably part of a chimney from a shaft furnace/furnaces in use for metallurgical activities. Technological and archaeometric analysis in progress will investigate the validity of this interpretation.

The argument in this article has two premises: First, migration and other forms of human movement have been the norm throughout human history. Second, western Scandinavia is rife with readily exploitable copper ores, and there might have been attempts at utilizing these in the 3rd millennium BC. Building on the concept of travelling metallurgists as an element in the expansion of the Bell Beaker phenomenon in combination with anthropological perspectives on prospecting, the article explores how prospecting for metal would have been adapted to the landscapes of western Scandinavia. Generally, although prospecting seldom leads to successful metal production, and is difficult to study archaeologically, it will often have a significant transformative impact – on both the external and indigenous actors and societies. Two archaeological sites in western Norway are expressly discussed, Slettabø in Rogaland and Skrivarhelleren in Sogn. The latter is particularly relevant as a historical case of prospecting and mining from the 1700s AD and offers insights into movement in a fjord and upland landscape.

Copper metallurgy was probably introduced to Ireland in the mid-third millennium BC, as part of the Beaker network of contacts across north-west Europe. The technological influences are poorly understood, however it is clear from a rich artifact record that there was considerable expertise in the production of copper in Ireland from 2400 BC onwards. This paper will examine aspects of the first copper production in Ireland, from the inception of metal use to the widespread adoption of tin-bronze by 2000 BC.

Südwestbulga rien; Strumata l; Djakovo; Äneol ithikum ; Chalko lithikum ; Sied lung; frü he Kupfennetallurgie. Bulgarie du Sud-Ouest; val lee de Ia Struma; Djakovo; Neo li thique final; Chalco lithique; habitat; metallurgie precoce du cuivre. Southwestern Bulgaria; Strumatal; Djakovo; Eneolithic Age; C ha lk o lithi c Age; Settlement; Early Copper Metallurgy. Im Jahre 1980 führteSt. Cochadiiev auf einer seit 1943 bekannten kupferzeitliehen Siedlung beim Dorf Djakovo (Kr. Kjustendil, Bulgarien) kleinflächige Grabungen durch. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird die heute zerstörte Fundstelle umfassend vorgestellt und erneut diskutiert. Bei der Durchsicht der Grabungsdokumentation zeigte sich, daß nur ein geringer Teil der Funde einem der beiden von Cochadiiev festgestellten Straten der Siedlung zugeordnet werden kann . Im Ergebnis liegt dennoch ein Fundkomplex des unteren Horizontes in Sondage l vor, der als geschlossener Befund betrachtet werden kann . Darüber hinaus kann gezeigt werden, daß die Funde einem eng umgrenzten Zeitabschnitt angehören, wodurch eine gemeinsame Betrachtung des gesamten Fundmateriales -trotz der Durchmischung -sinnvoll erscheint. Die relativchronologische Stellung der Siedlung bei Djakovo zwischen dem frühäneolithischen Komplex Dikili Tash-Slatino und dem spätäneolithischen Krivodol-Salcu{a-Bubanj Hum l-Verband kann vor allem durch die Analyse der keramischen Formen bestätigt werden. Diese Beobachtungen führen schließlich zu einer engeren chronologischen Abfolge der beiden großen Kulturkomplexe als bislang angenommen. Radiokarbonmessungen zeigen, daß der Übergang in der Mitte des 5. Jahrtausends stattfand. St. Cochadiiev mena en 1980, pres du village de Djakovo (district de Kjustendil), de petites fouilles sur un habitat chalcolithique connu depuis 1943. Cet article presente de maniere exhaustive le site detruit aujourd'hui et le soumeta une nouvelle discussion . Lors de l'examen de La documentation des fouilles, il s'est revele que seule une faiblepartiedes trouvailles pouvait etre attribuee a l'une des deux couches de l'habitat observees par Cochadiiev. Nous avons cependant obtenu pour resultat un ensemble de l'horizon inferieur qui peut etre considere comme un contexte clos. De plus, nous pouvons demontrer que les trouvailles se situent dans une periode tres courte, ce qui legitime, malgre les melanges, une approche globale de La totalite du materiel. C'est surtout a travers l'analyse des formes ceramiques que l'on peut confirmer La position chronologique relative de cet habitat entre le complexe Dikili Tash -Slatino du debut du Neolithique final et le groupe culturel de Krivodol-Salcufa-Bubanj Hum I de La fin du Neolithique final. Ces observations debouchent finalement sur une sequence chronologique des deux grands complexes culturels plus serree qu'on ne le pensait jusqu'ici. Des mesures du radiocarbone demontrent que La transition s'opera au milieu du 5" millenaire. in 1980, St. Cochadiiev conducted small-scale excavations at the Copper Age settlement discovered in 1943 near the village of Djakovo (Kjustendil region, Bulgaria). This article provides a detailed description and review of the now ruined site. On inspecting the excavation documentation, the author found that only a small portion of the finds can be attributed to one of two settlement strata determined by Cochadiiev. Yet the evidence indicates a find complex of the lower horizon in Sondage l, which can be considered a closer find. In addition, it can be demonstrated that the finds Diesem Bericht li egt die überarbeitete Fassung einer Magisterarbeit zugrunde, die am 12. 07. 2000 an der Phil osophischen Fakultä t I der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin vo rge legt wurde. Die Niederschrift erfo lgte zeitlich parallel zur Vorlesung "Die Kupfe rzeit in Südost-und Mitteleuropa" von B. Hänsel an der Freien Uni vers ität Berlin. Der Text hat di eser Lehrveranstaltung viele Anregungen zu verda nken. Praehistorische Zeitschrift 76 . Band, S. 129-178 130 Raiko Krauß belang to a narrowly defined time period. Therefore, it makes sense to reassess the material in its entirety, despite the heterogeneity. The relative-chronological dating of Djakovo settlement between the Early Eneolithic Dikili Tash-Slatino complex and the Late Eneolithic Krivodol-Salcufa-Bubanj Hum l complex was verified, notably by typological analysis of the ceramics. These observations ultimately suggest a closer chronological sequence of the two great cultural complexes than previously assumed. Radiocarbon dating shows that the transition took place in the middle of the fifth millennium B. P. Jlpe3 1980 2. om Cm. Lfoxaibtcuee 6Jlxa npoeeOe/iu pa3KOnKu Ha 02pa!iu'le/ia nAOUf, 6bpxy e/ieOAumlio ceAUUfe npu c. f/,flKoeo ( KwcmeliOUACKO ) , Koemo om 1943 2. e uJeecmrw Kamo npaucmopulleCKU o6eKm. HacmOflUJUfl mpyiJ cu nocmaeu 3a !feA oa npeiJcma6fl u om li060 ceAUUjemo npe3 cpeoama t-ta 5. eeK npeou Xpucma. Die prähi storisch e Siedlung beim Dorf Djakovo, Kr. Kjustendil (B ulgarien ) 13 l Ab h. 2. Di e Fun dstelle heure, Blick \'Oll Sti dwesten (Aufnahme R. Krauf\) Abh. 3. Natlirliches Profil im Osten der Insel (A ufna hm e R. Krauf\) Siedlung, di e heute nur noch wenige M ete r als In sel aus e in em Stau see ragt (Abb. 1-2). Der Hü ge l besteht in seinem G rund srock au s Diorit. An der Oberflä che ist d e r Fels stark verw irren , so d,l!l man ,lllch ohne beso nd ers harre Werkze uge Löcher in da s we iche Geste in g raben kann. Über d em Fels ha t sich braun er Boden gebildet, de sse n Gru ndla ge ein fe in e r Kies -da s Verwitterun gs produkt des Felses -ist (A bb. 3). Di e Anhöh e am Rande ein e r we iten , fruc h tbaren , von Bächen durchzogene n Talse nke bot sich in ideal er We ise zur Besiedlung durch ein e Ackerbau und Vi ehzu cht treib end e Bevö lk erung an. Auf d em inte rnational en Sympos ium " Da s Neolithikum in Südosteuropa-Tell Karano vo 1947-1997" harr e ic h Gelege nh eit, mich mit H e rrn Ste fan Coclud ziev (Uni vers ität Veliko T1rnovo) bekannt zu machen. Noc h während d es Kongresses bot Coc had ziev an, di e Fund e sein er Ausgrab un g d e r än eolithi sc he n Sied lun g im J1hre 1980 e rn eut zu bearbeiten und di e G rabungse rgebni sse ein er end g ültigen Publibnion zuzuführen.

Since a few years, part of the research conducted at the site of Tell Halula concerns the characterisation of the mortuary practices during the oldest phases of occupation, dating to the Middle and Late PPNB. These practices appear to have been constant and very homogeneous: the body was placed in a individual pit, corresponding to a primary burial excavated inside the houses, near the entrance area. More than hundred burials have been discovered: they are currently under study before their fi nal publication. However, one of the most interesting aspects is the presence of grave goods found in more than half of the burials. It consists of personal adornments, such as stone beads and shells that were part of necklaces, bracelets and headdresses, as well as stone plaques and fl int and bone tools. Among these objects, is particularly noteworthy the exceptional presence in eleven graves of copper objects, of which a detailed analysis is presented in this paper.

New Lead Isotope results are presented from samples taken from binary bronze weapons of different typology from the Ría de Huelva Hoard. These results are confronted with the lead isotope data available from local (Sud-Portuguese Zone), regional (Ossa-Morena, Alcudia, Los Pedroches, Linares-La Carolina…) and Mediterranean (Sardinia) mineralizations. The comparison shows a diverse origin of the metal used for the weapons, the exclusion of the use of local mineral resources and the consistency with particular mineral deposits of regional and Mediterranean areas.

A women’s burial of the Early Bronze Age that was uncovered near Ammerbuch-Reusten, Tübingen district in autumn 2020 shows clear relations to burial rites of the Final Neolithic in central Europe. The only grave good was in the rear of the burial. A small spiral ring made of gold wire at the left side of the burial at hip level, which can be considered to be the earliest securely dated precious metal find in southwestern Germany. The find fits into a small series of early spiral rings made of gold wire, which are among the oldest precious metal finds in central Europe. Its composition with c. 20 % silver and less than 2 % copper as well as traces of platinum and tin indicates the use of a naturally occurring gold alloy, most likely from so-called alluvial deposits obtained by panning from rivers. The trace element pattern strongly suggests that this type of gold derives from Cornwall, specifically from River Carnon. The burial matches a group of other burials from the Bronze Age on ...

The descendants of the “Ymyjakhtakh” — the “Sugunnakh” population who mastered the bronze casting trade continued to live in the east Siberian Transpolar region after the end of the Neolithic in the 1st millennium BC — 1st millennium AD. The goods of the Sugunnakh culture were almost identical to the goods of the Ymyjakhtakh population, which earlier made their distinction difficult. It were only the presence of the independent bronze metallurgy traces at the post-Ymyjakhtakh occupation sites, as well as the radiocarbon dates, that offered this opportunity. The Sugunnakh culture sites of the Bronze Age have been so far discovered in the lower reaches of the Indigirka and the Lena rivers, and, apparently, in the territory of the Taimyr Peninsula and Chukotka. The Bronze casting technologies were, most likely, acquired by the Sugunnakh population from the population of the Ust-Milskaya culture of the middle of the 2nd–1st millenniums BC, the main areal of which was located below the Polar circle. Only a few Ust-Milskaya sites were discovered in some transpolar districts of Yakutia and the Taimyr Peninsula. Further study should give an answer to the question, which complexes of the Ymyjakhtakh appearance of the transpolar region belonged to the Sugunnakh culture.

A women’s burial of the Early Bronze Age that was uncovered near Ammerbuch-Reusten, Tübingen district in autumn 2020 shows clear relations to burial rites of the Final Neolithic in central Europe. The only grave good was in the rear of the burial. A small spiral ring made of gold wire at the left side of the burial at hip level, which can be considered to be the earliest securely dated precious metal find in southwestern Germany. The find fits into a small series of early spiral rings made of gold wire, which are among the oldest precious metal finds in central Europe. Its composition with c. 20 % silver and less than 2 % copper as well as traces of platinum and tin indicates the use of a naturally occurring gold alloy, most likely from so-called alluvial deposits obtained by panning from rivers. The trace element pattern strongly suggests that this type of gold derives from Cornwall, specifically from River Carnon. The burial matches a group of other burials from the Bronze Age on ...

A  women’s  burial  of  the  Early  Bronze  Age  that  was  uncovered  near  Ammerbuch-Reusten,  Tübingen  dis-trict in autumn 2020 shows clear relations to burial rites of the Final Neolithic in central Europe. The only grave good was  in  the  rear  of  the  burial.  A  small  spiral  ring  made  of  gold  wire  at  the  left  side  of  the  burial  at  hip  level,  which  can  be  considered  to  be  the  earliest  securely  dated  pre-cious  metal  find  in  southwestern  Germany.  The  find  fits  into a small series of early spiral rings made of gold wire, which are among the oldest precious metal finds in central Europe. Its composition with c. 20 % silver and less than 2 % copper as well as traces of platinum and tin indicates the  use  of  a  naturally  occurring  gold  alloy,  most  likely  from so-called alluvial deposits obtained by panning from rivers. The trace element pattern strongly suggests that this type of gold derives from Cornwall, specifically from River Carnon. The burial matches a group of other burials from the Bronze Age on the plateau and is apparently related to a hilltop settlement on the nearby Kirchberg of Reusten.

Based on the written historical, folklore sources and field data, it was attempted to produce a culturological reconstruction explaining the origin of cultural practices and foundations related to the process of metalworking practiced by the Kazakhs. The field data testify of the fact that in the recent past, opening of a new smith, beginning of the operation of a Kazakh smith, and the actual smith reflected magical manipulations and archaic beliefs in industrial rites. The semantic circle of Turkic words defining the notion of a “smith” indicates numerous of cultural layers and changes in the history of metalworking of steppe Eurasia, their desacralization. In the contemporary world, the patron favoring the smiths and jewelers of the Kazakhs, as well as for other Islam peoples of the Central Asia, is Prophet Dā'ūd (Dāwūd) (equivalent in English: David). Fairytale prose, mythology and ritual practices of the Kazakhs feature earlier characters, including forgotten female characters related to the notation of the word “copper” (mys, zhez), master of the underworld Bopy khan, who, perhaps, has even more ancient roots originating from the cult of the Earth Mother. The Turkic ethnogony demonstrates that the ancient Turks originated from the steel workers and horse-breeders. An eloquent testimony of the paleometal era in the traditional worldview of the Kazakhs remains the tales, myths, lexical facts and sacral and ritual practices which have survived until today.

The concern of this paper is to examine the contribution which archaeological science has made to the study of some 2000 years of Bronze Age metallurgy in Britain and Ireland. This will require some element of review to identify the main research trends over almost two centuries of interest shown by the scientific community.  This interest, as with conventional archaeological approaches, has largely focused on finished metalwork, its technical production and economic context.  As the artefactual side of Bronze Age research has declined in recent years, so also has the level of scientific investigation.  The explanation partly lies in those same root problems which have dogged artifact-based approaches to the insular Bronze Age - problems of context and association, weak chronology and poor understanding of metal use and deposition.

This is not an issue of resources or scientific achievement, rather one of application and research direction.  There have been important advances in recent years, both conceptually in how we approach metal in the Bronze Age and archaeologically in terms of increased understanding of mining and deposition. And yet, the contribution of science to this research often appears opportunistic in its application and overly specialist in publication. While excellent artefact studies have been presented in recent years, there is currently a lack of synthesis at many levels.  It is thus timely to review the contribution which archaeological science has made in the study of early insular metallurgy and to consider future research directions in this field.