Distinctiveness

We present an extensive evaluation of 17 confidence measures for stereo matching that compares the most widely used measures as well as several novel techniques proposed here. We begin by categorizing these methods according to which aspects of stereo cost estimation they take into account and then assess their strengths and weaknesses. The evaluation is conducted using a winner-take-all framework on binocular and multibaseline datasets with ground truth. It measures the capability of each confidence method to rank depth estimates according to their likelihood for being correct, to detect occluded pixels, and to generate low-error depth maps by selecting among multiple hypotheses for each pixel. Our work was motivated by the observation that such an evaluation is missing from the rapidly maturing stereo literature and that our findings would be helpful to researchers in binocular and multiview stereo.

The motive to attain a distinctive identity is sometimes thought to be stronger in, or even specific to, those socialized into individualistic cultures. Using data from 4,751 participants in 21 cultural groups (18 nations and 3 regions), we tested this prediction against our alternative view that culture would moderate the ways in which people achieve feelings of distinctiveness, rather than

Although the relation between tonality and musical memory has been fairly well-studied, less is known regarding the contribution of tonal-schematic expectancies to this relation. Three experiments investigated the influence of tonal expectancies on memory for single tones in a tonal melodic context. In the first experiment, listener responses indicated superior recognition of both expected and unexpected targets in a major tonal context than for moderately expected targets. Importantly, and in support of previous work on false memories, listener responses also revealed a higher false alarm rate for expected than unexpected targets. These results indicate roles for tonal schematic congruency as well as distinctiveness in memory for melodic tones. The second experiment utilized minor melodies, which weakened tonal expectancies since the minor tonality can be represented in three forms simultaneously. Finally, tonal expectancies were abolished entirely in the third experiment through the use of atonal melodies. Accordingly, the expectancy-based results observed in the first experiment were disrupted in the second experiment, and disappeared in the third experiment. These results are discussed in light of schema theory, musical expectancy, and classic memory work on the availability and distinctiveness heuristics. Citation: Vuvan DT, Podolak OM and Schmuckler MA (2014) Memory for musical tones: the impact of tonality and the creation of false memories. Front. Psychol. 5:582.

The social identity approach comprising of the social identity theory and its extension – the self-categorization theory is one of the most popular theories in social psychology. This paper uses the self-categorization theory (mainly) to understand individuals’ motives to belong and to be distinct from the (multiple) groups they may be part of. It is concluded that self-categorization theory, though largely believed to be explaining only the need for inclusiveness, does in fact, explain much about the need for distinctiveness in individuals.

The production effect is the superior retention of material read aloud relative to material read silently during an encoding episode. Thus far it has been explored using isolated words tested almost immediately. The goal of this study was to assess the efficacy of production as a study strategy, addressing: (a) whether the production benefit endures beyond a short session, (b) whether production can boost memory for more complex material, and (c) whether production transfers to educationally relevant tests. In Experiment 1 a 1-week retention interval was included, and a production effect was observed. In Experiment 2 a production effect was observed for both word pairs and sentence stimuli. In Experiment 3 educationally relevant essays were read and tested with a fill-in-the-blanks test: Memory was superior for questions that probed information that had been read aloud relative to information that had been read silently. We conclude that the production benefit is enduring and generalises to text and different test formats, indicating that production constitutes a worthwhile study strategy.

Memory for emotional events is usually very good even when tested shortly after study, before it is altered by the influence of emotional arousal on consolidation. Immediate emotion-enhanced memory may stem from the influence of emotion on cognitive processes at encoding and retrieval. Our goal was to test which cognitive factors are necessary and sufficient to account for EEM, with a specific focus on clarifying the contribution of attention to this effect. In two experiments, participants encoded negative-arousing and neutral pictures. In Experiment 1, under divided-attention conditions, negative pictures were better attended and recalled even when they were matched with neutral pictures on semantic relatedness and distinctiveness, and attention at encoding predicted subsequent emotion-enhanced memory. The memory advantage for emotional stimuli was only abolished when attention to emotional and neutral stimuli was also matched, under full-attention in Experiment 1 and under divided-attention in Experiment 2. Emotional memory enhancement was larger in Experiment 1 when the control of organization and distinctiveness was relaxed. These findings suggest that attention, organization and distinctiveness provide a necessary and sufficient account for immediate emotion-enhanced free recall memory.► Attention, organization and distinctiveness are necessary and sufficient to account for enhanced memory for emotional stimuli. ► When attention to emotional and neutral stimuli is equivalent, memory for these stimuli is equivalent. ► Attention only mediated the effects of emotional arousal on memory when primary distinctiveness was controlled.

The goal of the present study was to find evidence for a multisensory generalization effect (i.e., generalization from one sensory modality to another sensory modality). The authors used an innovative paradigm (adapted from Brunel, Labeye, Lesourd, & Versace, 2009 ) involving three phases: a learning phase, consisting in the categorization of geometrical shapes, which manipulated the rules of association between shapes and a sound feature, and two test phases. The first of these was designed to examine the priming effect of the geometrical shapes seen in the learning phase on target tones (i.e., priming task), while the aim of the second was to examine the probability of recognizing the previously learned geometrical shapes (i.e., recognition task). When a shape category was mostly presented with a sound during learning, all of the primes (including those not presented with a sound in the learning phase) enhanced target processing compared to a condition in which the primes were mos...

According to the influential model of Bruce and Young (1986) socially relevant facial information is processed separately from facial information leading to individual face recognition. In recent years functional imaging has identified a network of distinct occipitotemporal cortex areas for the processing of these two kinds of information. Functionally it is not clear at which processing level the ''social'' and the ''recognition'' pathways diverge. The study of subjects with a profound face recognition and learning deficit (congenital prosopagnosia*cPA) promises for a better understanding of this issue. We therefore tested the perception of attractiveness (a cue of prime social importance) and distinctiveness (a facial feature related to recognition) in 14 people with cPA. Although attractiveness ratings were highly consistent with controls, cPA subjects' distinctiveness ratings showed random patterns. This dissociation of normal attractiveness processing and impaired distinctiveness processing in cPA helps to specifies the nature of the impairment in this condition while shedding light on the functional architecture of normal face processing.

W ramach 5-czynnikowego eksperymentu manipulując opisami ośmiu sytuacji kryzysowych i trzema czynnikami (powszechność, wybiórczość, spójność) sprawdzano, w jaki sposób wpływają one na postrzeganie przyczyn negatywnych zdarzeń w przedsiębiorstwie. W badaniach wzięło udział 400 studentów. Wyniki badań wykazały wyraźną tendencje do upatrywania przyczyny sytuacji kryzysowej w podmiocie gospodarczym bez względu na racjonalne przesłanki. Kluczowym czynnikami warunkującymi kierunek atrybucji przyczynowej była specyfika sytuacji kryzysowej i informacja na temat spójności. Najmniej istotna w procesie atrybucji była informacja o powszechności zdarzenia. Wyniki badań są konfrontowane z normatywnymi oczekiwaniami wynikającymi z modelu współzmienności Kelley’a.

Słowa kluczowe: atrybucja przyczynowa, powszechność, wybiórczość, spójność, sześcian Kelley’a, sytuacja kryzysowa, przedsiębiorstwo, eksperyment

Three experiments examined developmental changes in serial recall of lists of 6 letters, with errors classified as movements, omissions, intrusions, or repetitions. In Experiments 1 and 2, developmental differences between groups of children aged from 7 to 11 years and adults were found in the pattern of serial recall errors. The errors of older participants were more likely to be movements than were those of younger participants, who made more intrusions and omissions. The number of repetition errors did not change with age, and this finding is interpreted in terms of a developmentally invariant postoutput response inhibition process. This interpretation was supported by the findings of Experiment 3, which measured levels of response inhibition in 7-, 9-, and 11-year-olds by comparing recall of lists with and without repeated items. Response inhibition remained developmentally invariant, although older children showed greater response facilitation (improved correct recall of adjacent repeated items). Group differences in the patterns of other errors are accounted for in terms of developmental changes in levels of output forgetting and changes in the efficiency of temporal encoding processes.

Dilution is one of the most controversial and complex phenomena which modern trademark law seeks to regulate (section I). Against the background of international, US and EC anti-dilution systems, conceptual inconsistencies can be identified even with regard to basic notions, such as the definition of subject matter eligible for protection (section II) and the preservation of distinctiveness and repute as main purposes of protection (section III). Not surprisingly, these conceptual difficulties have repercussions on the relation between protected subject matter and the purposes of anti-dilution protection (section IV). An attempt to clarify matters, however, sheds light on a further conceptual challenge. On its merits, the unanswered question posed by the dilution doctrine is whether trademark rights should be expanded to property rights in gross (concluding section V).

Computer Security System / technology have passed through several changes. The trends have been from what you know (e.g. password, PIN, etc) to what you have (ATM card, Driving License, etc) and presently to who you are (Biometry) or combinations of two or more of the trios. This technology (biometry) has come to solve the problems identified with knowledge-based and token-based authentication systems. It is possible to forget your password and what you have can as well be stolen. The security of determining who you are is referred to as BIOMETRIC. Biometric, in a nutshell, is the use of your body as password. This paper explores the various methods of biometric identification that have evolved over the years and the features used for each modality.

Presents results of free-recall experiments conducted in France, Gabon and Nepal, to test predictions of a cognitive model of religious concepts. The world over, these concepts include violations of conceptual expectations at the level of domain knowledge (e.g., about 'animal' or 'artifact' or 'person') rather than at the basic level. In five studies we used narratives to test the hypothesis that domain-level violations are recalled better than other conceptual associations. These studies used material constructed in the same way as religious concepts, but not used in religions familiar to the subjects. Experiments 1 and 2 confirmed a distinctiveness effect for such material. Experiment 3 shows that recall also depends on the possibility to generate inferences from violations of domain expectations. Replications in Gabon (Exp. 4) and Nepal (Exp. 5) showed that recall for domain-level violations is better than for violations of basic-level expectations. Overall sensitivity to violations is similar in different cultures and produces similar recall effects, despite differences in commitment to religious belief, in the range of local religious concepts or in their mode of transmission. However, differences between Gabon and Nepal results suggest that familiarity with some types of domain-level violations may paradoxically make other types more salient. These results suggest that recall effects may account for the recurrent features found in religious concepts from different cultures.

The motive to attain a distinctive identity is sometimes thought to be stronger in, or even specific to, those socialized into individualistic cultures. Using data from 4,751 participants in 21 cultural groups (18 nations and 3 regions), we tested this prediction against our alternative view that culture would moderate the ways in which people achieve feelings of distinctiveness, rather than influence the strength of their motivation to do so. We measured the distinctiveness motive using an indirect technique to avoid cultural response biases. Analyses showed that the distinctiveness motive was not weaker-and, if anything, was stronger-in more collectivistic nations. However, individualism-collectivism was found to moderate the ways in which feelings of distinctiveness were constructed: Distinctiveness was associated more closely with difference and separateness in more individualistic cultures and was associated more closely with social position in more collectivistic cultures. Mul...

Three hypotheses of forgetting from immediate memory were tested: time-based decay, decreasing temporal distinctiveness, and interference. The hypotheses were represented by 3 models of serial recall: the primacy model, the SIMPLE (scale-independent memory, perception, and learning) model, and the SOB (serial order in a box) model, respectively. The models were fit to 2 experiments investigating the effect of filled delays between items at encoding or at recall. Short delays between items, filled with articulatory suppression, led to massive impairment of memory relative to a no-delay baseline. Extending the delays had little additional effect, suggesting that the passage of time alone does not cause forgetting. Adding a choice reaction task in the delay periods to block attention-based rehearsal did not change these results. The interference-based SOB fit the data best; the primacy model overpredicted the effect of lengthening delays, and SIMPLE was unable to explain the effect of delays at encoding. The authors conclude that purely temporal views of forgetting are inadequate. 1 We use immediate memory as an umbrella term for short-term memory and working memory, which we regard as largely the same construct investigated with different emphases in different research traditions. As we explain later, our experiments and modeling are relevant for both literatures.

Culture permeates even the most imposing industrial building. Driven by global city making, city leaders see culture as a key to bolstering a new economy and to dealing with decayed urban sites. However, regional practices of creating creative strategies differ, as actors are not “ ...

Within the andean regime three-dimensional trademarks are registrable, but not Las Prohibiciones al Registro de las Marcas Tridimensionales: Su Regulaci6n en el Regimen Andino y la Necesidad de una Aplicaci6n Restrictiva. Pac6n, A./pp. 11-49 all shapes are susceptible to being registered as marks. Otherwise, shapes will result from the nature of the goods themselves could be substracted from public domanin and competition. The exclusion from registering those shapes of goods wich are necessary to obtain a technical result is due to the distinctive sign's own nature which, unlike technical creations, can be extended indefinitely in time. Besides these two special grounds for refusal of three-dimensional marks, the Andean regime has included another: the exclusion to register exclusively common shapes; in addition to the general prohibitions regarding generic and common signs to which three-dimensional marks are also subjected. The different consequences of one and the other exclusions (the possibility to acquire distinctiveness, in the second case), force a restrictive application of the exclusions for shapes of common use at the substantive examination.

Like faces, body postures are susceptible to an inversion effect in untrained viewers. The inversion effect may be indicative of configural processing, but what kind of configural processing is used for the recognition of body postures must be specified. The information available in the body stimulus was manipulated. The presence and magnitude of inversion effects were compared for body parts, scrambled bodies, and body halves relative to whole bodies and to corresponding conditions for faces and houses. Results suggest that configural body posture recognition relies on the structural hierarchy of body parts, not the parts themselves or a complete template match. Configural recognition of body postures based on information about the structural hierarchy of parts defines an important point on the configural processing continuum, between recognition based on first-order spatial relations and recognition based on holistic undifferentiated template matching.

The harmonisation of the European Trade Mark laws and the introduction of unconventional marks under this regime have encouraged interested parties to seek registration of chemical senses (scent and taste) as trade marks. This thesis studies the current state of affairs of these types of marks. It discusses in general, the panorama that these types of marks have when registrability is at issue.

What drives forgetting in working memory? Recent evidence suggests that in a complex-span task in which an irrelevant processing task alternates with presentation of the memoranda, recall declines when the time taken to complete the processing task is extended while holding the time for rehearsal in between processing steps constant (Portrat, . This time-based forgetting was interpreted in support for the role of time-based decay in working memory. In this article, we argue the contrary position by (a) showing in an experiment that the processing task in study gave rise to uncontrolled post-error processes that occupied the attentional bottleneck, thus preventing restorative rehearsal, and (b) showing that when those post-error processes are statistically controlled, there is no evidence for temporal decay in Portrat et al.'s study. We conclude that currently there exists no direct evidence for temporal decay in the complex-span paradigm.

The pseudoword effect is the finding that pseudowords (i.e., rare words or pronounceable nonwords) give rise to more hits and false alarms than words. Using the retrieving effectively from memory (REM) model of recognition memory, we tested a familiarity-based account of the pseudoword effect: Specifically, the pseudoword effect arises because pseudowords lack distinctive semantic meanings. Because semantics can differentiate orthographically similar words (e.g., horse vs. house), by lacking distinctive semantics, pseudowords have greater interitem similarity than words, and hence more familiarity, which gives rise to the pseudoword effect. Across two sets of simulations, we demonstrate that this account explains the pseudoword effect in addition to accounting for why the pseudoword effect is absent when irregular nonwords are compared with words. Furthermore, our modeling efforts suggest a novel experiment that leads us to the discovery of a new concordant effect. Namely, extremely high-frequency words behave like pseudowords (giving rise to more hits and false alarms than high-frequency words) and also have less distinctive semantics than high-frequency words. We conclude that our work provides strong evidence in favor of the familiarity-based accounts of the pseudoword effect. We discuss the implications of our research with regard to various issues surrounding the pseudoword effect and REM model.

The motive to attain a distinctive identity is sometimes thought to be stronger in, or even specific to, those socialized into individualistic cultures. Using data from 4,751 participants in 21 cultural groups (18 nations and 3 regions), we tested this prediction against our alternative view that culture would moderate the ways in which people achieve feelings of distinctiveness, rather than influence the strength of their motivation to do so. We measured the distinctiveness motive using an indirect technique to avoid cultural response biases. Analyses showed that the distinctiveness motive was not weaker-and, if anything, was stronger-in more collectivistic nations. However, individualism-collectivism was found to moderate the ways in which feelings of distinctiveness were constructed: Distinctiveness was associated more closely with difference and separateness in more individualistic cultures and was associated more closely with social position in more collectivistic cultures. Mul...

For a word or phrase to be legally recognized and protected as a trademark, it must serve as an indicator of source — that is, it must be distinctive. Factfinders tasked with determining whether a mark possesses inherent or acquired distinctiveness essentially must determine whether consumers perceive the mark as a mark, rather than as simply a literal description of the goods or services. This article explores the formal and informal tests for inherent distinctiveness in close cases and concludes that they fail to provide objective guidelines for gauging whether consumers perceive a mark as indicating the source of the goods or services. Instead, the tests invite factfinders to focus on the perceptions of mark selectors over those of consumers; as a result, factfinders reward producer ingenuity by overprotecting descriptive marks, needlessly handicapping competitor speech. To highlight deficiencies in the classification of descriptive marks, the article relies on speech-act theory,...

The motive to attain a distinctive identity is sometimes thought to be stronger in, or even specific to, those socialized into individualistic cultures. Using data from 4,751 participants in 21 cultural groups (18 nations and 3 regions), we tested this prediction against our alternative view that culture would moderate the ways in which people achieve feelings of distinctiveness, rather than influence the strength of their motivation to do so. We measured the distinctiveness motive using an indirect technique to avoid cultural response biases. Analyses showed that the distinctiveness motive was not weaker-and, if anything, was stronger-in more collectivistic nations. However, individualism-collectivism was found to moderate the ways in which feelings of distinctiveness were constructed: Distinctiveness was associated more closely with difference and separateness in more individualistic cultures and was associated more closely with social position in more collectivistic cultures. Mul...

ABSTRACT Arts festivals in general, and music festivals in particular, struggle to formulate strategy in the face of the often-conflicting demands of the commercial marketplace and the sponsors, who are typically state organizations. Commercialization and profit motivations demand differentiation, but recognition and acceptance by society often requires conformity to a set of rules that often conflict with these aims. This struggle is said to be between distinctiveness (in the marketplace) and legitimacy (in the eyes of the society as represented by sponsoring institutions). This research uses cognitive mapping techniques to uncover the role that consumers have within the representations of strategists within two music festival organizations. One festival operates in an open, commercial market while the other in an institutionalized environment. Centrality of consumers within the thought-maps of strategists and the mental associations they have to their consumers, reveal how managers struggle with this strategic dichotomy.

The motive to attain a distinctive identity is sometimes thought to be stronger in, or even specific to, those socialized into individualistic cultures. Using data from 4,751 participants in 21 cultural groups (18 nations and 3 regions), we tested this prediction against our alternative view that culture would moderate the ways in which people achieve feelings of distinctiveness, rather than

Sensitivity to adult ratings of facial distinctiveness (how much an individual stands out in a crowd) has been demonstrated previously in children age 5 years or older. Experiment 1 extended this result to 4-year-olds using a "choose the more distinctive face" task. Children's patterns of choice across item pairs also correlated well with those of adults. In Experiment 2, original faces were made more distinctive via local feature changes (e.g., bushier eyebrows) or via relational changes (spacing changes, e.g., eyes closer together). Some previous Wndings suggest that children's sensitivity develops more slowly to relational changes than to featural changes. However, when we matched featural and relational changes for eVects on distinctiveness in adult participants, 4-year-olds were equally sensitive to both. Our results suggest that (a) 4-year-olds' face space has important aspects of structure in common with that of adults and that (b) there is no speciWc developmental delay for a second-order relational component of conWgural/holistic processing.

The motive to attain a distinctive identity is sometimes thought to be stronger in, or even specific to, those socialized into individualistic cultures. Using data from 4,751 participants in 21 cultural groups (18 nations and 3 regions), we tested this prediction against our alternative view that culture would moderate the ways in which people achieve feelings of distinctiveness, rather than influence the strength of their motivation to do so. We measured the distinctiveness motive using an indirect technique to avoid cultural response biases. Analyses showed that the distinctiveness motive was not weaker-and, if anything, was stronger-in more collectivistic nations. However, individualism-collectivism was found to moderate the ways in which feelings of distinctiveness were constructed: Distinctiveness was associated more closely with difference and separateness in more individualistic cultures and was associated more closely with social position in more collectivistic cultures. Mul...

Phylogenetic information is becoming a recognized basis for evaluating conservation priorities, but associations between extinction risk and properties of a phylogeny such as diversification rates and phylogenetic lineage ages remain unclear. Limited taxon-specific analyses suggest that species in older lineages are at greater risk. We calculate quantitative properties of the mammalian phylogeny and model extinction risk as an ordinal index based on International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List categories. We test for associations between lineage age, clade size, evolutionary distinctiveness and extinction risk for 3308 species of terrestrial mammals. We show no significant global or regional associations, and three significant relationships within taxonomic groups. Extinction risk increases for evolutionarily distinctive primates and decreases with lineage age when lemurs are excluded. Lagomorph species (rabbits, hares and pikas) that have more close relatives are less th...

The motive to attain a distinctive identity is sometimes thought to be stronger in, or even specific to, those socialized into individualistic cultures. Using data from 4,751 participants in 21 cultural groups (18 nations and 3 regions), we tested this prediction against our alternative view that culture would moderate the ways in which people achieve feelings of distinctiveness, rather than influence the strength of their motivation to do so. We measured the distinctiveness motive using an indirect technique to avoid cultural response biases. Analyses showed that the distinctiveness motive was not weaker-and, if anything, was stronger-in more collectivistic nations. However, individualism-collectivism was found to moderate the ways in which feelings of distinctiveness were constructed: Distinctiveness was associated more closely with difference and separateness in more individualistic cultures and was associated more closely with social position in more collectivistic cultures. Mul...

Evidence from neuropsychology and neuroimaging indicate that the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) plays an important role in human memory. Although frontal patients are able to form new memories, these memories appear qualitatively different from those of controls by lacking distinctiveness. Neuroimaging studies of memory indicate activation in the PFC under deep encoding conditions, and under conditions of semantic elaboration. Based on these results, we hypothesize that the PFC enhances memory by extracting differences and commonalities in the studied material. To test this hypothesis, we carried out an experimental investigation to test the relationship between the PFC-dependent factors and semantic factors associated with common and specific features of words. These experiments were performed using Free-Recall of word lists with healthy adults, exploiting the correlation between PFC function and fluid intelligence. As predicted, a correlation was found between fluid intelligence and the...

Older adults' performance on working memory (WM) span tasks is known to be negatively affected by the buildup of proactive interference (PI) across trials. PI has been reduced in verbal tasks and performance increased by presenting distinctive items across trials. In addition, reversing the order of trial presentation (i.e., starting with the longest sets first) has been shown to reduce PI in both verbal and visuospatial WM span tasks. We considered whether making each trial visually distinct would improve older adults' visuospatial WM performance, and whether combining the 2 PI-reducing manipulations, distinct trials and reversed order of presentation, would prove additive, thus providing even greater benefit. Method: Forty-eight healthy older adults (age range ϭ 60-77 years) completed 1 of 3 versions of a computerized Corsi block test. For 2 versions of the task, trials were either all visually similar or all visually distinct, and were presented in the standard ascending format (shortest set size first). In the third version, visually distinct trials were presented in a reverse order of presentation (longest set size first). Results: Span scores were reliably higher in the ascending version for visually distinct compared with visually similar trials, F(1, 30) ϭ 4.96, p ϭ .03, 2 ϭ .14. However, combining distinct trials and a descending format proved no more beneficial than administering the descending format alone. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that a more accurate measurement of the visuospatial WM span scores of older adults (and possibly neuropsychological patients) might be obtained by reducing within-test interference.

The production effect is the substantial benefit to memory of having studied information aloud as opposed to silently. MacLeod, Gopie, Hourihan, Neary, and Ozubko (2010) have explained this enhancement by suggesting that a word studied aloud acquires a distinctive encoding record and that recollecting this record supports identifying a word studied aloud as "old." This account was tested using a list discrimination paradigm, where the task is to identify in which of 2 studied lists a target word was presented. The critical list was a mixed list containing words studied aloud and words studied silently. Under the distinctiveness explanation, studying an additional list all aloud should disrupt the production effect in the critical list because remembering having said a word aloud in the critical list will no longer be diagnostic of list status. In contrast, studying an additional list all silently should leave the production effect in the critical list intact. These predictions were confirmed in 2 experiments.

This research examined the development of the ability to monitor memory strength and memory absence at retrieval. In two experiments, 7-year-olds, 10-year-olds, and adults enacted and imagined enacting a series of bizarre and common actions. Two weeks later, they completed a memory test in which they were asked to determine whether each action had been enacted, had been imagined, or was novel and to provide a confidence judgment for each response. Results showed that participants across age groups successfully monitored differences in strength between memories for enacted actions and memories for imagined actions. However, compared with 10-year-olds and adults, 7year-olds exhibited deficits in monitoring of differences in memory strength among imagined actions as well as deficits in monitoring memory absence. Results underscore metamemory developments that have important implications for memory accuracy.