Cosmetics and Perfumes in Antiquity

Throughout this workshop, you will learn about the smells that defined the mummification chambers and tombs, and the scents that the ancient Egyptians themselves wished to be surrounded by in their life after death. In the first hour, Dora will teach you about the olfactory motivation for mummification and the substances employed during the process. In the second hour, she will give you a detailed insight into the materials. You will be able to smell each ingredient and you will learn about their significance for the Egyptians and the reasons behind their use. In the third and last hour, you will recreate the essence of mummification in a bottle by using the very same ingredients the ancient Egyptians employed for embalming their dead. Don’t worry, you will end up with an exceedingly pleasant smell.

Time and Date: September 28, 2019, 11am-2pm
Price: 90€ | Students / Artists / Stadspas: 63€
Location: Mediamatic, Dijksgracht 6, Amsterdam
Tickets available on https://www.mediamatic.net/en/page/374727/recreate-the-essence-of-mummification

Musk is actually the name given to a substance obtained from the gland of the musk deer. This substance known as musk has a very penetrating odour. This is one of the most expensive animal products known. It has been used as a perfume fixative since times immemorial. The word has been derived from a Sanskrit word meaning testicle. At present a number of substances with similar odour are placed in the category of musk but they differ in their chemical structure. These chemicals are either derived from the glandular secretions of animals other than the musk deer or certain plants are also known to emit fragrances similar to this compound or they may be synthesized artificially.

This thesis examines the representation of the scented female body in the literary culture of late Republican and early Imperial Rome. Recent years have seen increasing scholarly interest in odour and olfaction in antiquity, building on anthropological and sociological research on the cultural relativism of olfactory perception and its associations and interpretations. Through its connections to sexuality, bodily fluids, and corporeal corruption, odour provides a fascinating lens through which to scrutinise the ancient female body.

To this end, this thesis draws together the fields of sensory studies, the body in antiquity, and ancient gender and sexuality, in order to facilitate the first holistic examination of the ways in which scent was used as a means to categorise and evaluate the character, behaviour, and morality of women in ancient Rome. After an analysis of ancient medical associations surrounding odour and the female body, the thesis examines the key properties and thematic concerns of perfumes, first across a range of Roman texts and then in the detailed assessment of perfumes by Pliny the Elder. It then demonstrates that female odour and perfume were deeply embedded in mythical traditions that were richly adapted by Roman poets and themselves extended to embrace female figures that populated the urban environment of Imperial Rome.

It argues that the relationship between the female body and odour was frequently employed as a means of reasserting Roman hierarchies of gender and power. However, it also argues that the odour of the female body was powerful. Odour invaded, captivated and polluted the bodies it touched, and it was also the sense that best correlates to the traditional ambiguities, dangers, and wiles with which women were associated. The sensory manipulation enabled by perfume stoked these ambiguities and anxieties, permitting women a level of control over the ancient sensorium, potentially deceiving discerning male noses and thus disrupting the very hierarchies which characterised women as socially and biologically inferior.

The mummy kit contains the following:
(1) Six scent reconstructions representing the olfactory landscape of mummification based on my PhD research on the fragrant materials involved in the process of mummification
(2) Two phials to illustrate the substances used to prepare the dead for their next life
(3) An 8-page-long article about the smell of mummification and ancient Egyptian afterlife
Price: 130€ + shipping

La civilización egipcia fomentó una de las maiores y más importantes industrias cosméticas y perfumistas de la Antigüedad, que alimentó inmensas leyendas de perfumes con propiedades mágicas e seductoras.
El perfume era un elemento básico del cotidiano egipcio, tanto de hombres como de mujeres, especialmente en su cuidado personal.
La calidad de los perfumes egipcios era tan grande que su fama se ha esparcido por todo Mediterráneo. Entre los más famosos estaba un fabricado en Mendes, villa en el Delta, fundamentalmente constituido por mirra, resina y aceite, según Plinio. Se tornó tan célebre que se exportó para el Próximo Oriente y para Roma.
Investigaciones actuales demostraron que, en el IV milenio a.C., los egipcios dominaban las síntesis químicas y realizaban cosméticos a través de procesos artificiales, así como productos aromáticos con fines medicinales y farmacéuticos.

The Perfume of Cyprus is an interesting and through-provoking read. Maria Rosaria Belgiorno demonstrates the significance of the production and use of perfumes from the Bronze Age to the present day with the case study of the wonderful archaeological site of Pyrgos; a site which has in situ examples of the differing implements and ceramics involved in perfume production.
Notably she places Cyprus into the broader context which is an important aspect when considering the production and use of perfumes that clearly held significance. This is clear from the extensive trade of Cyprian perfumes which gives the island of Cyprus a central role in the trade of perfume and cosmetics. Indeed, the similarities and connections with Egyptian perfumes, in both their production and traditions, demonstrate the areas of contact and influences as well as allowing for a wonderful comparison. Whilst the production and trade perfumes has seen a continuation even to this day with a specific olfactory family.
Additionally a significance of the specific ingredients has been made clear, although it is a shame the exact quantities and process of the production of the most ancient Cyprian perfumes is still unknown. (Perhaps this is scope for further research?) Certainly the importance held by certain key ingredients, such as wine, imbues further significance onto the perfumes themselves, not to mention the clear skill and knowledge needed in the choice of ingredients and the production. As such the ingredients are of interest when considering the modern day; even though presently chemicals are often used in the production of perfume, the significance and persistent use of wine, for example, in differing recipes and as a popular drink has been maintained throughout the centuries until the present day.
Moreover the connection Maria Rosaria Belgiorno draws upon between scent, perfumes and cosmetics with divine powers, gods and goddesses, such as Aphrodite, brings the focus towards the beliefs and aspects important to contemporary prehistoric society. As well as the powerful connection of the human mind and scent which overall demonstrate the significance perfume held and therefore the importance of research into its production at Pyrgos and across Cyprus.
The Perfume of Cyprus: from Pyrgos to François Coty the Route of a Millenary Charm is a fascinating read which will allow the reader to really understand the world of scent both today and in the past.
by Amber Roy

Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies Vol. 1, No. 1, 2013 Excavations conducted along the Nabataean Incense Road, which extends from Petra to Gaza, highlight the changes and development of this historic trade route over time. Long-distance trade reached its apex following the Roman annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE, followed by a marked decline during the third century CE. Seven of these key sites were conserved between 1993 and 2000, culminating in the inscription of the Nabataean Incense Road on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list in 2005.

The Linear B records at Pylos point to large, multifaceted industries in both textile and perfumed oil production, with a large degree of specialization and a complex administrative system. It seems as though both value-added goods - textiles and perfumed oils - would be traded by the Mycenaean palace centers within the Greek mainland and abroad to consumers in the Aegean, Italy, Cyprus, Egypt, Syria and Levant. Perfumed oils and textiles were likely traded for foreign goods such as metal ores and luxury goods such as ostrich eggs and faience materials preferred for conspicuous consumption by the elite at the palace centers. This paper explores the processes, industries, distribution and possible trade of Mycenaean textiles and perfumed oils at the palatial center at Pylos.

The ancient Egyptians noticed very early in their dynastic history that the body, both of humans and animals, rots and stinks after death. The written documents teach us that it was the unbearable stench of the putrefying corpse that motivated the Egyptians to mummify their dead. Embalming stopped the internal organs from rotting and prevented undesired body fluids from leaving the body, and as a result, the corpse no longer emitted an evil smell. No ancient Egyptian handbook has survived that details the process of mummification step-by-step with all the fragrant substances involved in it. Embalming was regarded as a craft, inherited from father to son, which was mastered through the method of ‘learning by doing’. Our overall knowledge of the fragrant matter employed in embalming arrives from a combination of the written and archaeological evidence. The process of mummification executed with the highest care can be divided into four main stages – operative, desiccation, waterproofing and wrapping stage – in each of which scents played an essential role. After the body was successfully mummified, the stench of the decaying cadaver turned into a pleasant scent. One of the aspirations of commoners in life after death was to have a divine fragrance, in which only the king could partake in the world of the living. It was possible only in the ideal world of the hereafter for an ordinary Egyptian to reach the highest level of olfactory hierarchy. After the deceased has passed the Weighing of the Heart, gained admittance to the netherworld and reached the imAx-state, their smell was designated as sTi nTr ‘divine scent’.

Liste des articles sur les sujets d'hagiographie, culte des saints, monachisme, histoire de l'enfance et de la famille
1) « Syméon Stylite l'Ancien entre puanteur et parfum », Revue de études
byzantines, 63, 2005, p. 71-96.
2) « Syméon Stylite le jeune (521-592); un cas de sainte anorexie? », Kentron, 19, 2003, p. 179-203.
3) « L’hagiographie des stylites syriens au Moyen âge », éd. Rigo, Turnhout :
Brepols (à paraître)
4) « L’image du mauvais moine dans le monde proto-byzantin : remnuoths et sarabaïtes », Zvornik RadovaVizantološkog instituta, 46, 2009, p. 11-25.
5) « Entre admiration et rejet: les prouesses ascétiques orientales dans la
littérature latine du 4e siècle »,  dans Interactions, emprunts, confrontations chez les religieux (Antiquité tardive - fin du XIXe siècle), éd. S. Excoffon, D.-O. Hurel, A. Peters-Custot, Saint-Etienne, p. 49-60.
6) « Methods for the analysis of Incomplete Data and Its Application to
Monastic Settlements in Italy (IVth-VIth century), avec Y. Caseau, CAA
(Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology), 1994, p. 113-121.
7) « La lettre de Jésus à Abgar d'Edesse », Les apocryphes chrétiens des
premiers siècles: mémoire et traditions, éds. P. M. Humann et J. N. Pérès, Paris, 2009, p. 15-45.
8) « La lettre de Jésus à Abgar d'Edesse: appropriations et transformations », Remanier, Métaphraser: fonctions et techniques de la réécriture dans le monde byzantin, éds. S. Dusanic, B. Flusin, Belgrade, 2011, p. 13-43.
9) « La trasmissione nel rituale costantinopolitano », dans Costantino I.
Encyclopedia costantinana sulla figura e l'immagine dell'imperatore del
cosidetto edito di Milano (313-2013), t. II, Rome, 2013, p. 333-345.
10) « Les Moines », Histoire générale du christianisme des origines au XVe
siècle, éds. J.-R. Armogathe, P. Montaubin, M.-Y. Perrin, Paris, 2010, p. 438-
457.
11) “L'Eglise byzantine et l'usure: commentaire de Zônaras au canon 17 de
Nicée I”, dans B. Caseau, V. Déroche, B. Moulet, "Evêques, clergé, Etat et
société locale", Economie et société à Byzance (VIIIe - XIIe siècle). Textes et documents, éd. S. Métivier, Paris, 2007, p. 234-235.
12) « La vie religieuse » (avec M.H. Congourdeau), Le monde byzantin. II.
L'Empire byzantin (641-1204), éd. J.C. Cheynet, Paris, 2006, p. 383-410.
13) « Conclusions », Les Pères de l’Eglise et la chair : entre incarnation et
diabolisation, les premiers chrétiens au risque du corps, Actes du Ve colloque de La Rochelle, Royan, 2012, p. 447-454.
14) « La Mystique à Byzance », Histoire du Christianisme, éd. A. Corbin, Paris, 2007, p. 259-264. 279-285
15) « Hélène, entre christianisme et paganisme », Le Monde de la Bible, Hors série: Constantin et l'édit de Milan, 2013, p. 30-33.
16) « Ordinary Objects in Christian Healing Sanctuaries », Objects in Context, Objects in Use. Material Spatiality in Late Antiquity, éds. L. Lavan, E. Swift, T. Putzeys, Leyde, 2008, p. 625-654 (Late Antique Archaeology 5)
17) « Les hôpitaux byzantins: modernité et flexibilité », Les établissements
hospitaliers en France du Moyen âge au XIXe siècle. Espaces, objets et
populations, éd. S. Le Clech-Charton, Dijon, 2010, p. 221-234.
18) « Childhood in Byzantine Saints Lives », dans Becoming Byzantine.
Children and Childhood in Byzantium, éds. A. Papaconstantinou et A. M.
Talbot, Washington, 2009, p. 127-166.
19) « Stratégies parentales concernant les enfants au sein de la famille: le choix de la virginité consacrée », dans Parenté et stratégies familiales dans l'Antiquitétardive (IIIe-VIe siècle), éds. Ch. Badel, Ch. Settipani, Paris, 2012, p. 247-264. (378-396)
20) « La place des enfants dans les églises d’Orient (3e-10e siècles) », Famille, violence et christianisation au Moyen Age, Mélanges offerts à Michel Rouche, Études réunies par M. Aurell et Th. Deswarte, Paris : Presses universitaires de la Sorbonne, 2005, p. 15-27.
21) « Too Young to be Accountable: is 15 years old a Threshold in
Byzantium? » à paraître dans Coming of age. Adolescence and Society in
Medieval Byzantium, éd. D. Ariantzi, Vienne 415-423
22) « An aspect of the Actuality of Basil: the Proper Age to Enter Monastic
Life », Studia Universitatis Babesh-Bolyai. Theologia catholica, 3, 2009, p. 21-33.
« Un aspect de actualitate la Sf. Vasile: vârsta adecvată pentru intrarea în viața monahală », dans Sfântul Vasile cel mare teologie şi monahism, éds. S. Zetea, Sr V. Bolfă et A. Tat, Târgu-Lăpuş, 2009, p. 59-74. (traduction en roumain du précédent)
23) « Christianisation de la famille», Histoire générale du christianisme des
origines au XVe siècle, éds. J.-R. Armogathe, P. Montaubin, M.-Y. Perrin, Paris, 2010, p. 415-438.
24) Introduction au livre Les réseaux familiaux. Antiquité tardive et Moyen Âge, Paris, ACHCByz, 2012. (Monographies 37)
25) « Familie und Haushalt: soziale und wirtschaftliche Aspekte », A paraître dans "Byzanz“, Der Neue Pauly, Supplemente 11, hrsg. von Falko Daim

La collection EURASIE regroupe des études consacrées aux diverses traditions culturelles des peuples du continent euro-asiatique et à leurs mutuelles relations. D'inspiration principalement ethnologique, elle est largement ouverte aux spécialistes d'autres disciplines : historiens, géographes, archéologues, spécialistes des mythes et des littératures La collection EURASIE est publiée, au rythme d'un volume annuel, par la Société des Etudes euro-asiatiques, dont elle reflète les travaux.

Adorning the body: hairstyle, dress, jewellery I. Papageorgiou 11. Aromatic plants, perfumes and perfume vases: their uses in everyday and religious life during Archaic and Classical times D. Aktseli-E. Manakidou 12. Making materials for beauty in Ancient Greece Ph. Walter 13. Beautification and Beauty: the legacy of prehistory to the historical times of Greek Antiquity I. D. Fappas CATALOGUE OF ANTIQUITIES KALLOS Introduction Divine beauty Divine beauty contests Daemonic beauty Abductions of beauty and erotic encounters Archaic and Classical/Hellenistic beauty Kallos of mortals Athletic beauty Heroic beauty ʻKaloi' and ʻKalai' in antiquity Timely beauty, untimely death BEAUTIFICATION The bath Use of perfumes and unguents Face and body care Hairstyles and dress Adornment

Since the most ancient times the distillers have been used for two main
purposes: to produce essences and perfumes, and to obtain liquids with a
high concentration of alcohol. For many reasons it is not yet possible to
determine with certainty the use of the equipment found in archaeological
contexts, whether for intoxicating, magical, medicinal or cosmetic purposes.
We do not know if these ancient stills could produce alcoholic distillates, as
well as essences and perfumes.
On this problem, Belgiorno offers a consideration that at first glance might
seem puzzling or elusive, that is, that we should not look for a differentiation
of use for these stills because there was not, and that this promiscuity of use
would have "facilitated the mixing of material for the production of
pharmaceutical compounds ".

Five previously unpublished fourth-third century BC black figured Pagenstecher lekythoi are the catalyst for this iconological interpretation of the purpose and decoration of these enigmatic little oil vessels. Two are in the Nicholson Museum in Sydney and three in the Ure Museum in Reading (Figures 1-5; for their details see Appendix 1 ) . All five are decorated with birds of various types and sizes. This paper discusses the prevalence of birds on Pagenstecher lekythoi and looks to identify them. In so doing, it looks at the problems associated with traditional iconographic approaches to such identifications. It then argues for a connection between the birds on Pagenstecher lekythoi and Aphrodite. Finally, it proposes a link between the goddess and the iconography of the lekythoi in general, as well as with their suggested contents and purpose.

Ces études, provenant d’expériences de recherche très différentes, parcourent l’histoire des parfums et odeurs en croisant sources et traditions allant de l’Antiquité à la période moderne, dans l’esprit transversal des colloques de Micrologus. On y traite du myron baptismal affirmant le pouvoir du patriarche de Constantinople; des odeurs que privilégient les fabliaux; de l’empoisonnement qui peut venir de l’odorat; de l’air infecté des villes au Moyen Âge; de la civette à la Renaissance et à l’Âge classique; de l’odorat des épices ou de celui qui peut être représenté par un artiste; du parfum comme privilège social lors de la mort; des parfums qui interfèrent dans la supplication de Dieu et la conjuration des démons, ou dans l’imaginaire du sabbat; de l’odeur de sainteté ou de l’interprétation symbolique des parfums du Cantique des Cantiques; de la pensée sensorielle dans les commentaires du De anima d’Aristote ou dans l’exégèse de l’Exode à l’époque moderne; et de la tradition médiévale des bestiaires, où, par exemple, la panthère charme des autres animaux par la saveur douce de sa bouche, image du Christ attirant à soi l’humanité.

Ce volume, issu d’une thèse de doctorat soutenue à l’ULB en 2011, a pour sujet l’origine, le développement et les usages de l’alabastre attique, un vase à parfum produit par les potiers athéniens du milieu du VIe s. au début du IVe s. av. J.-C. L’auteur se livre à un examen minutieux du profil des vases qu’elle combine aux données obtenues par les études ethno-archéologiques, pour apporter un éclairage neuf sur l’organisation des ateliers céramiques et sur les différentes phases de production de la forme. L’étude des sources littéraires, épigraphiques, iconographiques et archéologiques complète cette première partie et restitue une image nuancée des différents contextes d’utilisation de ce vase et de son évolution jusqu’à sa disparition du répertoire céramique attique dans la deuxième partie du IVe siècle, au moment où il est supplanté par le balsamaire.

This paper explores the use of perfume at Pompeii through the evidence of the perfume bottles made in glass, pottery
and alabaster from the excavations in Insula VI.1 at Pompeii. It is possible to use these to show an increase in use early
in the 1st century AD. The reasons for this are explored and it is suggested that this was to do with changes in the ways
perfume was used in dining and worshipping. The data will be useful to those who study the Augustan consumer boom,
site formation processes in Pompeii and the vessels themselves.

For the Mediterranean archaic times, the trade of perfumes is well-known and well documented, thanks to the very large number of perfume vases (aryballos, alabastron, lekythos, amphoriskos...). Based on Greek production (especially Eastern Greece and Corinth), Etruscan workshops of perfume vases flourish in the VIIth and VIth centuries BCE. The main problems concerning trade, use and function of this particular type of micro-containers is the reality of their contents and the regional production of perfumes. Results of chemical analyses allow to distinguish the different types of contents which are in the field of flavours, fragrances, cosmetic ingredients (perfumed oils and creams) but also in thus of medicinal uses (simple or complex mixture of pharmaceutical compounds).

Nel mondo fenicio e punico, legato al mare da antica tradizione, l'uso di conchiglie è ampiamente attestato: la produzione della porpora, ottenuta dal Murex sp., rappresenta senza dubbio l'aspetto più conosciuto, così come altrettanto rinomata è la lavorazione delle grandi Tridacna sp. decorate a rilievo, destinate ai sovrani delle corti assire, ai tesori di importanti santuari e alle aristocrazie mediterranee.

The seminar has been organised for the 90th years of CNR.
The archaeological and Archaeometry investigations, bring out the prominent role of the Cypriot
woman at the beginning of the second millennium BC and her masterful management of the industrial
complex discovered at Pyrgos, giving rise to the hypothesis that the myth of Aphrodite, goddess of beauty and love, is to be referred to the Cyprus' reputation to produce luxury goods since the Bronze
Age: such as perfumes, cosmetics, jewels and precious textiles. Of these industries Pyrgos returned
a repertoire that has no comparison.
The collaboration with “Antiquitates” Centre for Experimental Archaeology of Blera (Vt) helped to
clarify many suggestions born during the excavations regarding the main activities performed in the
workshops of the industrial area. Archaeometry analyses have provided useful elements for
reconstruction, through experimentation, technologies performed at Pyrgos 4000 BP. Replicas of
stone tools, useful, curated pottery and botanical species recognized after the Archaeometry
investigations have been utilized for experimentations. The research on loom weights started after
the discovery in 2006 of a furnace still containing 76 loom weights made of simple pressed earth,
shaped as the weights found at Pyrgos in the workshop for textiles together with the remains of a
loom and many spindle whorls. As has been the case in Mediterranean civilisations, for the use and dissemination of manufactured
metal, Cyprus has been deeply involved in the social development agreement based on common
interests that caused the expansion of settlements and gradual transition from the simple food
production of a more organized domestication of plants and animals.
In later periods coinage was one of the most powerful resources of propaganda for images of the
ancient world, and Rome knew how to use this wisely. This also happened in Cyprus, which became
a Roman province in the 58 BC keeping as a rule its religious institutions, first the ancient worship of
Aphrodite-Wanassa at Palaeo Paphos administered by a great priest, who played a pan-political
function as a recognized symbol of identity of the island. The seminar concludes with nods about the presence of the same ingredients found at Pyrgos in
the composition of modern perfumes and cosmetics. The history of Cyprus is deeply linked to the
most ancient production of items to improve the beauty. And perhaps it is not a case that today the
island is at the third place in the world for the consumption of cosmetics pro capite.

The present work offers an overview of the world of perfumes and unguents in Early Empire period. In order to do this, we first analyzed the methods and techniques used for the production of unguents and, second, the role played by the artisans dedicated to the perfume trade in Rome, the unguentarii. We emphasize these characters first, as individuals, where we talk about their social status, marital status, gender, age, origin, etc., secondly, as belonging members of some familia or some gens, third, by the place where they performed their work and lastly, during that period of time they performed this profession.

El corpus de los pequeños contenedores fenicios para perfumes usualmente designados oil bottles de la península ibérica, ampliado en los últimos años por numerosos hallazgos reseñados en este trabajo, permite hoy establecer una aproximación a la evolución diacrónica de la difusión de estas piezas y de sus contenidos y bien así una primera valoración de las lógicas de aprovisionamiento y de consumo de los mismos. Ese análisis permite además situar estas oil bottles en el marco más amplio del comercio de perfumes mediterráneos en la Edad del Hierro peninsular.

Resumo: Tomando como ponto de partida a análise dos exemplares de oil bottles de tipo fenício exumados em contextos da Idade do Ferro no actual território português examinam-se as evidências disponíveis do comércio e consumo de substâncias aromáticas.

Abstract: Taking as a starting point an analysis of the Phoenician type oil bottles found in southern Portuguese Iron Age contexts the available evidence for the commerce and consumption of aromatic substances is examined.

Review of the article "From Representation to Reality: Ancient Egyptian Wax Head Cones from Amarna" by Anna Stevens, Corina E. Rogge, Jolanda E.M.F. Bos, Gretchen R. Dabbs, in Antiquity 93 372 (2019), pp. 1515–1533.
New York Times, December 11, 2019

https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/11/science/head-cones-ancient-egypt.html?fbclid=IwAR1TR22ThhcOD8QRkAFQlIHs9wvrSDQuX4vtOKaMG2qWB4yE08cN5TZx9f8

For the first time, this thesis presents a detailed study of Roman glass unguentaria from non-funerary contexts in Britain. The purpose of this thesis was to investigate Roman glass unguentaria systematically, to see what we might understand about their role in the construction of identities and the formation of social practices in Roman Britain. I used glass unguentaria as a proxy for the social practices implicit in their use, and it was possible to examine the emergence and extent of these behaviours in Britain. The dataset for this thesis is collated data from published Roman glass assemblages, mainly from the northeast and southeast of England.
The main finding of this study is that the consumption of unguentaria in Roman Britain seems to be a time-limited phenomenon that was restricted mainly to c. 60–125/150 CE. Before this period, unguentaria were limited to the large urban centres of Colchester and St. Albans. Rather than see the decline of unguentaria as an indicator of ‘failed Romanisation’ in Britain, it seems more nuanced and tenable to consider that they ceased to be a prominent part of the material culture ‘package’ which expressed urban and military identities in the second and third centuries CE - which they were in the first century CE in the north-western provinces. Unguentaria were marginally more common at sites in the South than those in the North.
I began an exploratory discussion of the various behaviours and elements of social practice in which unguentaria were likely involved, alongside a consideration of the sensory environments in which they were used. This research has highlighted the potential for unguentaria and Roman glass more broadly to address important research questions and points the way to future lines of research.

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