Copper Age, Varna, Hamangia

The spiritual life of Neolithic Bulgaria has been extremely rich and various. The cult for fertility and the female role in it is reflected in the anropomorphic figurines represented in this publication by a number of unique examples published here for the first time. Less representative are the zoomorphic figurines which are impossible to interprete as pieces of art. But the zoomorphic and antropomorphic pottery is true art. There is a large variety of Late Neolithic figurines, among which a number of Early Eneolithic prototypes could be mentioned. Richly decorated, they most probably were altars because on such a find from Hotnitsa legs from a figurine that had originally been attached to the altar can be seen. These altars were called „small cuit tables“ and are an important component of the Neolithic art complex. The development of the burial rites during the Neolithic is of special interest. From the period of the Early Neolithic we know a few burials intra murum laid in a hoker position, while from the Late Neolithic we already have information about some extra mural burials. Among these the burials in Durankulak are entirely studied. Here the dead were buried bi-ritually; the women in a hoker position with the head to the North and the men stretched on their backs with their heads also to the North. Certain differences in social status between the individuals buried can be noticed. During the Early Neolithic there appeared the sign system. It can be found in the incised ornaments of ceramics or is independantly met on pintaderas and lids or bottoms of pots. The latter are especially characteristic of the Late Neolithic.

This paper reviews ancient human DNA from sites around the Black Sea and the Pontic-Caspian steppes in order to clarify the genetic evolution of the Yamnaya population in the steppes, and to connect the genetic evidence from Yamnaya and pre-Yamnaya Eneolithic mating networks with archaeologically defined groups. The overall purpose is to analyze A. Bomhard's hypothesis that Proto-Indo-European was a contact language that developed from interference between a pre-Northwest Caucasian type of language and a pre-Proto-Uralic type of language. I was asked to evaluate this linguistic hypothesis from genetic and archaeological perspectives.

2021 marked the 30th season of the archaeological excavations of the Durankulak Archaeological Complex. The buildings and structures of the 8th and 7th horizon were mainly studied, such as those from the Early Neolithic settlement on the Big Island belonging to the Hamangia Culture III and IV. Building №25 / VIII was completely studied. It was found that in its earliest stage the building was approximately square in shape. Its total built-up area is 39 m2. The floor of the building is covered with 5 clay layers. The interior space is common. The building had four structures located close to the walls. They cover about 17% of the interior space. One of them is a semi-domed thermal structure (structure 1). It was constructed directly on the floor. The oven shows five repairs concerning mainly the strengthening and restoration of the dome. Next to the oven, in the northeastern corner of the room, a square structure 2 was made measuring 1.10 × 1.10 m. It has a flat clay floor on which a large bone battle axe and anatomically arranged bones from the limb of deer (Cervus elaphus) were found in situ. To the west of structure 2 a quern (structure 3), also made of clay, was found. It is of a rectangular shape and contains a shallow basin (2–5 cm deep, measuring 1.50 × 1.20 м). Its floor was reinforced with a base of small stone slabs. The fourth structure is located in the southwestern corner of the room. It was built directly on the floor and measures 2.10 × 1.20 m.
    The building has been damaged by numerous pits from the upper horizons. Of interest is an oval-shaped pit. It has vertical walls and is filled with stone slabs. Next to its northeastern wall, a ceramic bowl with a graphite decoration Varna II Type was found turned upside down.
    In 2021, the study of building №24 /VII continued as well. The stone foundations of the western wall (preserved 13 m long) and part of the northern wall has been completely revealed. The foundations were made of large stone slabs. The lowest three courses of stones were fixed by yellow clay. The entrance to the building was from the south. The studied part of the building represents an elongated common room with several massive clay structures. One of them (structure 6) was attached to the central part of the western wall, and the other one (structure 5) to the southern end of the eastern wall. The structures are massive clay platforms raised in height. Their countertops were made of stacked logs, coated with several clay layers with a total thickness of 6–8 cm. The analysis of the charred wood showed that the timber used was oak (Quercus sp.).
    Under the plasters of the eastern structures were found: fragmented ceramic vessels, a large number of charred seeds of legumes and cereals, mussel shells, bone tools, and others. A separation of seeds by species has been observed. In some of the structures, seeds were stored belonging predominantly to bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia), and in others were found club wheat (Triticum aestivo/durum), einkorn (Triticum monococcum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), and others. The building 24 /VII contained a hoard consisting of the lower part of a thick-walled vessel, a mixture of seeds of legumes and cereals, and a fully preserved ceramic model of bread.

EXCAVATIONS AT GOLEMIYA OSTROV NEAR DURANKULAK
Ivan Vajsov, Vladimir Slavcev

Burned clay platform, building VII/8. The burnt clay platform was built over the debris of the W wall of building VII/8. Part of the W half of the platform was made on top of a structure made of tightly arranged wooden beams, raising it above the rest of the area and serving as a platform. Building VIII/8. The SW room of building VIII/8 was also excavated. The building has been interpreted as a storehouse. A platform made from stone slabs plastered with a layer of yellow clay (0.15-0.20 m thick) was built close to the W wall of the building. A room measuring 2.20 x 3.90 m was divided by a wall consisting of 4 rows of stone slabs bound by yellow clay. It was used for storing grain. Building VI/21.The excavation of the area to the north of building VII/8 started. The stone remains of one building (VI/21) and the W wall of another building (VI/20) were uncovered. Here, in the NW corner of sector G 4/3, two flint caches were found. They yielded 9 and 14 blades respectively. The stratigraphic position of the caches allows to date them to the Late Chalcolithic. The building functioned during building level V of the Late Chalcolithic, Varna culture III–IV.

The results of the study of building № 25 / VII-VIII showed that it has a slightly trapezoidal shape. The total built-up area is 69 m2. The building has undergone two stages of development: the first stage refers to the Hamangia III Culture, and the second one - to Hamangia IV Culture.

The building from sub-stage 1A was small, of a shape close to the square measuring 6.5 × 6.0 m. Internal dimensions are 5.5 × 4.0 m (22 m²). Its massive walls have double-sided stone foundations 0.50 – 0.60 m wide. A thermal structure was attached to the eastern wall – a hearth with a half-dome; and to the western one – a clay podium with a square shape measuring 1.50 × 1.50 m and a height of 10 cm. There were several small and large clay structures of unclear shapes and purposes next to the northern wall. The structures in the room occupied about 15% of the living space.

In stage 1B, an annex was added to the building from the south, probably a covered terrace. For this purpose, the eastern and western walls were elongated by 5 m each. The dimensions of this extension are 4.5 × 5.5 m (20 m²). It rose 15–20 cm above the room from stage 1A, and the approach to the inner room was stepped. Several additional economic segments were situated there: a domed oven located in its south-eastern corner and an elongated clay trough (?) – in the south-western one.

During stage 2 the interior of the building was completely changed. A large room with dimensions of 10.0 × 4.5 m (45 m²) was formed. The building from this stage was open from the south where a wooden colonnade was arranged. This porch was covered with a stone pavement.

The life of building № 25 / VII ended with a fire, followed by a strong destructive earthquake, around the IX degree after MSK-64. It also marks the end of the settlement from the period of Hamangia IV Culture.

In 2020, the research of building № 24/VII continued as well. There we came across the northwestern part of an unexplored earlier building – № 23/V. The remains are framed by a low clay plinth 5 – 6 cm high. On the floor of the structure we found a charred grain of Triticum monococcum and Triticum dicoccum¬¬ with an approximate ratio of 50:50%.

In 2019, excavations on The Big Island (tell Golemija ostrov), Durankulak village, were carried for the 28th consecutive season. In 2019, work focused on buildings 8/VII, 24/VII and 25/VII–VIII. At Building 8/VII was reached the bedrock and registered the measures for the preparation of the terrain for the construction of the buildings of the earliest horizon VIII:

1. At the time of the initial settling of the island, the entire rocky terrain had been levelled by depositing layers of reddish substance of finely crushed (grain size 0.3–0.5 cm) locally sourced rust-red coloured rock – limestone rock fragments, which likely owe their red hew to naturally occurring inclusions of iron and/or other metal with high content of natural ferromagnetic particles. The thickness of this initial backfill ranges 15–50 cm.

2. On top of the reddish backfill had been laid a “levelling” layer, of fine grey marsh clay, 10–15 cm thick. Actual construction work towards the urbanization and the erection of the earliest buildings of horizon VIII, dated to the time of the Hamangia III culture, began only after the setting of the second backfill.

During the resumed excavation of Building 25/VII–VIII we reached the floor of the first phase in the building’s life – the one associated with Hamangia III. During this time, the building featured an entrance at the east side, while to the south wall had been attached several storage cubicles for unsorted wheat – such was found on the floors of the cubicles. In one cubicle was excavated a package of fragmented pottery, consisting of components from large pithoi (2), semi-spherical lids (2), half-preserved (Pl. 3:3) cup with tall neck (1), low bowl on a high hollow foot (1), etc. The stratigraphic situation observed at Building 25/VII–VIII indicates the absence of a hiatus between phase III and phase IV of the Hamangia culture.

Bulgarian literature on prehistory assumes that the
Varna and Kodjadermen–Gumelnita–Karanovo VI cultures
of the Late Eneolithic came into existence and developed
simultaneously with the Krivodol–Salcuta culture, but
abruptly stopped their development before the latter ended.
According to this logic, the accidental finds of stone zoo-
morphic sceptres from Thrace (Razhevo and Drama) and
north-east Bulgaria (Kyulevcha) were related to a period
immediately following the Eneolithic and were interpreted
as one of the proofs of invasion by stock-breeding tribes
from the steppes.
Finds from two of the recently explored Late
Eneolithic settlements from the region of the Varna culture
give grounds to revise this thesis. Two consecutive stages
of the end of the development of the culture are represented
in those settlements: the earlier one, at tel Kozareva Mogila,
and the later one (according to research so far, the final one),
at Sozopol. Comparative analysis of a number of characte-
ristic features of the pottery from those settlements (vessels
with S-shaped profiles; vertical handles protruding above
the edge of the rim; decoration painted with coloured pas-
tose pigments; stamped decoration; a small number of ves-
sels made of clay mixed with clam shells) and the pottery
from the late stages of the Krivodol-Salcuta culture (phase
IV according to H. Todorova) proves their contemporaneity.
Similar elements are found among the pottery of some of
the settlements of the end of the Kodjadermen–Gumelnita–
Karanovo VI culture, which indicates that it also survived
up to that stage.
A miniature copy of a stone zoomorphic sceptre of the
so-called realistic type, made with precision on the handle
of a bone spoon, was found in the Eneolithic settlement at
Sozopol. Data about the relative chronology of this find and
data about the relative chronology of all known zoomorphic
sceptres from their rather wide area of distribution delineate
a relatively narrow chronological horizon: the final stages
of the Varna, Kodjadermen–Gumelnita–Karanovo VI, and
Krivodol–Salcuta cultures, the stages Kukuteni A2/3, A3–
Tripolie B1, the Hvalinska culture, and the earliest stage of
the mound ochre tombs. The tombs with red ochre from
Devnya and Kyulevcha are also related to the same chrono-
logical horizon. This means that the penetration of "steppe
elements" into the Balkans does not differ significantly from
their penetration within the bounds of the Kukuteni–Tripolie
culture. It was gradual and did not have a destructive or in-
vasive nature.

Preface ix Acknowledgements x List of contributors xi List of sites xii Introduction xiv PART I. INTRODUCTORY AND OVERARCHING STUDIES 1. Inventing the Final Neolithic 3 Colin Renfrew 2. Transformation and changes at the end of the Neolithic Kostas Kotsakis 3. Village nucleation and centralisation in the Later Neolithic of SouthEastern Europe: A long-term, comparative approach William A. Parkinson, William P. Ridge and Attila Gyucha 4. Greece in the 5th and 4th millennia B.C.: Researching the "missing" 4th millennium Ioannis Aslanis 5. The shadowy "proto-Early Bronze Age" in the Aegean John E. Coleman and Yorgos Facorellis 6. Casting doubts on metallurgy and the transition to social complexity: The evidence from the Aegean Maria Mina PART II. THE BALKANS 7. Settlement pattern changes during the Central Balkans Copper Age Aleksandar Kapuran, Aleksandar Bulatović and Dragan Milanović 8. Modelling the black box: Bulgaria in the 4th millennium BC Inga Merkyte 9. Possible approaches to tracing the fate of the population of the Varna, Kodjadermen-Gumelniţa-Karanovo VI and Krivodol-Sălcuţa cultures Petya Georgieva 10. Kozareva Mogila: A settlement and necropolis in the West Black Sea region 107 Petya Georgieva, Margarita Popova and Veselin Danov 11. The Chalcolithic settlement at Varhari: A production and trade centre in the Eastern Rhodope Mountains 120 Kamen Boyadzhiev and Yavor Boyadzhiev 12. The latest Late Chalcolithic settlement at Tell Yunatsite: Plan and architectural remains 128 Velichka Matsanova and Tatyana Mishina Contents vi 13. Late Chalcolithic cult tables from Tell Yunatsite, Bulgaria Stoilka Terzijska-Ignatova 14. Rethinking the absolute chronology of the SouthEastern Balkans in the latter half of the 5th and in the 4th millennium BC Mariusz Kufel and Łukasz Pospieszny 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea in the 5th millennium BC Agathe Reingruber 16. Lithic technology in the region between the Lower Danube and Marmara in the 6th and 5th millennia BC

Paper published in
PRÄHISTORISCHE ARCHÄOLOGIE IN SÜDOSTEUROPA
BAND 28
THE NEOLITHIC AND ENEOLITHIC
IN SOUTHEAST EUROPE
NEW APPROACHES TO DATING AND CULTURAL
DYNAMICS IN THE 6TH TO 4TH MILLENNIUM BC
Edited by
WOLFRAM SCHIER
and
FLORIN DRAŞOVEAN

This article was first published about 626 grave of prehistoric cemetery in the village Durankulak (Western Black See). This is the grave of a woman buried with 4 clay idol. The grave is the time of culture Hamangia IIIa. The article makes the reconstruction of the burial ritual and other related features that tomb.

The paper presents fragmentation processes that can be noticed when regarding anthropomorphic figurines from southeast Europe. At the tell settlement of Drama - Merdzhumekya, different manufacturing techniques could be observed that might be linked directly to the tradition of breaking figurines. This destruction is a strange feature, in opposition to an interpretation of these pieces as ancestors or even fertility godesses. Instead, it might also be possible tp think that some figurines are representations of death rsp. deceased people.

In the Lower Danube Later Neolithic-Early Eneolithic complex will be East territorium, namely Dobrudja, occupied by the owners of Hamangia culture an important place. The anthropomorphic sculpture of this culture is unusually interesting. Their specific, conservative style has on the attention of many investigators, such as D. Berciu, O. Höckmann, P. Haşoti e.g. drawn. In the present study new typological classification available, were considered wherein the full-length figures (11) separately from the fragmented (12). The two typological lines are joined together, as a result creates a hierarchical structure. The different types of plastic are comparable with each other territorially and chronologically, which favors the sign-off of broader, cross-regional characteristics. In the article we first tried the typological enough information to fully documented and metric data to present, which allows the determination of start and stop of severe proportions. This is a basis for comparison with other ancient cultures, the proportions of plastic in Southeast Europe. It was an attempt to segregate different types of anthropomorphic sculpture, characteristically made for the cemeteries and the settlements of the culture Hamangia. The described grouping by presence or absence of individual typological features in these objects corresponds to the observed differences in the excavations between the sacred and the utilitarian archaeological material. We use it here to group objects of the simple matching coefficient, ie, without removal of the negative association. Unfortunately for the greater part of the old materials from the region Northern Dobrudja the exact dates for the local situation of the characters are so well the whole environment in which they are discovered, not known. It should be emphasized that originate most of the in the article under consideration anthropomorphic figures vary len from other cultures from the same period of the Lower Danube region from the necropolis ¬ what the sphere of cultural life of ancient people and the possibilities of its interpretation in a new light sets. Compared with the other objects show the explorations of the necropolis from the time of culture in Hamangia Durankulak unique a funeral ritual, which testifies to the fact that the anthropomorphic clay sculpture was placed in the burial pits in front of the body position (626 and 1036 grave, etc.) and that the figures were created specially for the funerals and the fulfillment of the funeral ritual also buried.

JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEОLOGICAL RESEARCH, 2018, 1, 7-16.
ABSTRACT: 
During the Copper age present day Bulgarian lands are part of two wide metallogenic zones – Eastern and Western. The Eastern zone includes present day Eastern Bulgaria. The Western zone includes present day Western Bulgaria, Eastern and Southern Serbia. The Eastern zone is characterized by it’s polymetallic, „dirty”, ores, while for the Western typical are the “pure” copper minerals. The “dirty” ores can be extracted in controlled reductive environment and prolonged maintenance of constant temperature. Such conditions are not needed for the smelting of the “pure” copper ores.
In ancient times there were used two main technologies to extract the copper from the ores: 1. smelting in crucibles; 2. smelting in furnaces. However, only the “pure” copper ores can be smelted in crucibles, because they don’t release slag. Crucibles are found mostly in present day Western Bulgaria. On the other hand, furnaces suitable for “dirty”ore smelting, are known only from the eastern part of present day Bulgaria. So, it is obvious that the metallurgical technology used in modern day Western Bulgaria differs from the used in Eastern Bulgaria. Those differences probably are due to the characteristic features of the ores in which of the two metallogenic zones. In Eastern Bulgaria the “dirty” ores were preferred, while in the western part of modern Bulgarian lands the main aim of the miners were the monometallic copper minerals. On the other hand, during the early Chalcolithic in present day Eastern Serbia “dirty” ores were purposefully smelted, while during the late Chalcolithic dominates the usage of “pure” cooper minerals. This could be caused by the fact that in the late Chalcolithic the territory of modern Eastern Serbia becomes part of the Krivodol-Salcuţa-Bubani cultural phenomenon, whose roots derive from present day Western Bulgaria. So, it could be considered that the preferring of specific kinds of ores during the Chalcolithic is not subordinate only to the existing natural resources, but also to culturally distinct technological traditions.

Despite the fundamental work by C. Lichter, any regional synthesis on Balkan prehistory provides a base for interpretations and comparative analysis. The work by R. Kogălniceanu attempts a critical analysis of the evidence which is organized in a structured catalog. It can be expected that the rehumanization of archaeology will limit the excavation of prehistoric burials, so the records' value seems to be considerable.

Обект 005 -могилен некропол от две могили на 2 км, 80° от с. Просеник, м. Герен чешма. Обект 006 -селище на 2,6 км, 200° от с. Просеник, източната част попада в землището на с. Страцин. Намира се на склон със северно изложение, в обработваема площ. Средна концентрация на строителна и битова керамика от античността и късната античност, керамична шлака, хромел. Площ -30 дка.

The vaulted idols are made from bone or marble. They are known from the areas of the late chalcolithic cultures in the Eastern Balkans – Varna and Kodzhadermen-Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI. In the area of the Kodzhadermen-Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI cultural complex vaulted figures derive only from tell settlements, while in Varna culture and the contact zone between the two phenomena they are also known from necropolises. The only marble figure derives from the area of the Varna culture (Varna I necropolis), too.
According to most of the researchers, the vaulted idols represent an anthropomorphic image. Some scholars associate them with the other types of anthropomorphic bone figures – the prismatic and the flat ones. However, they have a different meaning from the last. Other researchers connect them with the so-called anthropomorphic amulets. However, the anthropomorphic amulets represent a stylized female image, while the vaulted figurines probably were accepted to be male effigies. They have different usage, spatial and chronological distribution, too. What we can say, is that the vaulted idols had different meaning from the other types of bone figurines and from the anthropomorphic amulets, too. They represented a religo-mythological personage that had clear significance only for the bearers of Varna and Kodzhadermen-Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI cultures.
Vaulted idols can’t be associated with a male or female gander group. They were worn mostly by men but in some cases – by women, too.
The social significance of the vaulted idols is different in dependence, if they derive from tells or from necropolises. Those which are found in tells can be accepted as items with cult and apotropaic function. Vaulted figures derive from funerary context only in two occasions: Varna chalcholithic cemetery (mostly from cenotaphs) and Provadia-Solnicata’s necropolis. This isn’t the only common feature between the two necropolises. Near the both were situated centers of specialized productions. In the vicinity of Provadia-Solnitsata was located a salt-making center and in this of Varna I cemetery – a metalworking one. Those were the only highly developed centers of specialized productions in the area of Varna and Kodzhadermen-Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI cultures. So, we can suppose that the funerary context of the vaulted figures is connected with the impact of the specialized productions on the inhabitants of the two centers.
The specialized productions require division of labor and this is why they probably led to acceleration of the social differentiation in the area of the two centers. So, we can argue that in the area of the highly developed specialized production centers new social groups, unknown from elsewhere, arose. Likely, this led to new ways of expressing the status of those groups. Perhaps exactly this was the social meaning of the vaulted idols for the inhabitants of the two centers – a status marker of a social group. In favor of this talks the fact that in the archaic societies grave goods marked the social status of the deceased, not their property one. Also, cenotaphs are accepted as direct burials of social status. So, we can say that in the vicinity of the specialized productions centers the vaulted idols marked a social group, known only from there. Probably the embodied in the idols mythological personage was thought as а patron of this group.

The volume, edited by V. Nikolov and W. Schier, contains 34 contributions to an international conference organised by Vassil Nikolov and funded by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, which took place in Varna, Bulgaria, 16-20 May 2012. It comprises a wide spectrum of research focused on the Western and Northern Pontic Areas, but also in relation to neighbouring regions as the Lower Danube and the Carpathian Basin. Chronologically the scope of the volume covers the time from Early Neolithic to Early Iron Age (6000-600 BC), with a special emphasis on Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic.

In 2019, excavations on The Big Island (Golemija Ostrov) Tell, Durankulak village, were carried for the 28th consecutive season. In 2019, work focused on buildings 8/VII, 24/VII and 25/VII–VIII. At Building 8/VII was reached the bedrock and registered the measures for the preparation of the terrain for the construction of the buildings of the earliest horizon VIII:

1. At the time of the initial settling of the island, the entire rocky terrain had been levelled by depositing layers of reddish substance of finely crushed (grain size 0.3–0.5 cm) locally sourced rust-red coloured rock – limestone rock fragments, which likely owe their red hew to naturally occurring inclusions of iron and/or other metal with high content of natural ferromagnetic particles. The thickness of this initial backfill ranges 15–50 cm.

2. On top of the reddish backfill had been laid a “levelling” layer, of fine grey marsh clay, 10–15 cm thick. Actual construction work towards the urbanization and the erection of the earliest buildings of horizon VIII, dated to the time of the Hamangia III culture, began only after the setting of the second backfill.

During the resumed excavation of Building 25/VII–VIII we reached the floor of the first phase in the building’s life – the one associated with Hamangia III. During this time, the building featured an entrance at the east side, while to the south wall had been attached several storage cubicles for unsorted wheat – such was found on the floors of the cubicles. In one cubicle was excavated a package of fragmented pottery, consisting of components from large pithoi (2), semi-spherical lids (2), half-preserved (Pl. 3:3) cup with tall neck (1), low bowl on a high hollow foot (1), etc. The stratigraphic situation observed at Building 25/VII–VIII indicates the absence of a hiatus between phase III and phase IV of the Hamangia culture.