Cognitive Appraisal

It is now widely accepted that good welfare is not simply the absence of negative experiences, but rather is primarily the presence of positive experiences such as pleasure. However scientific investigation of positive emotions has long been neglected. This paper addresses two main issues: first, it reviews the current state of scientific knowledge that supports the existence of positive affective states in animals and, second, it suggests possible applications of this knowledge that may enhance quality of life under animal management conditions. In the first part of the paper, recent advances in psychology and neuroscience are reviewed to provide pragmatic frameworks based on cognitive processes (such as positive anticipation, contrast and controllability) for further investigations of positive emotions in animals. Thereafter, the neurobiological bases of positive emotions are highlighted in order to identify behavioral and physiological expressions of positive experiences in animals. Monitoring both the autonomic nervous system (via heart rate and its variability) and the immune system could offer relevant tools to better assess emotional states in animals, complementary to classical adrenocortical measures. In the second part of the paper, useful strategies for enhancing positive experiences (such as physical, social and cognitive enrichment or putative genetic selection) are outlined. Then this paper emphasizes practical applications for assessing and promoting positive emotions that may help in providing animals with a better quality of life. Play, affiliative behaviors and some vocalizations appear to be the most promising convenient indicators for assessing positive experiences in laboratory and farm animals under commercial conditions.

It is now widely accepted that good welfare is not simply the absence of negative experiences, but rather is primarily the presence of positive experiences such as pleasure. However scientific investigation of positive emotions has long been neglected. This paper addresses two main issues: first, it reviews the current state of scientific knowledge that supports the existence of positive affective states in animals and, second, it suggests possible applications of this knowledge that may enhance quality of life under animal management conditions. In the first part of the paper, recent advances in psychology and neuroscience are reviewed to provide pragmatic frameworks based on cognitive processes (such as positive anticipation, contrast and controllability) for further investigations of positive emotions in animals. Thereafter, the neurobiological bases of positive emotions are highlighted in order to identify behavioral and physiological expressions of positive experiences in animals. Monitoring both the autonomic nervous system (via heart rate and its variability) and the immune system could offer relevant tools to better assess emotional states in animals, complementary to classical adrenocortical measures. In the second part of the paper, useful strategies for enhancing positive experiences (such as physical, social and cognitive enrichment or putative genetic selection) are outlined. Then this paper emphasizes practical applications for assessing and promoting positive emotions that may help in providing animals with a better quality of life. Play, affiliative behaviors and some vocalizations appear to be the most promising convenient indicators for assessing positive experiences in laboratory and farm animals under commercial conditions.

Resumen: En este trabajo se defiende una concepción cognitiva (valoración y afrontamiento), interactiva (persona por situación) y multidimensional (triple sistema de respuesta) de la ansiedad, el estrés y las emociones, según la cual, la ansiedad se entiende como una emoción negativa o desagradable, caracterizada por malestar subjetivo, alta activación fisiológica, e inquietud motora; a su vez, la ansiedad está ligada a diferencias individuales en ciertas áreas situacionales (rasgos específicos), y surge porque el sujeto percibe que una determinada situación representa una amenaza para él (valoración de la situación), sin que pueda remediarlo por escasez de recursos (afrontamiento). En algunas personas, determinadas conductas consumatorias tales como comer, beber bebidas alcohólicas, fumar, tomar tranquilizantes u otras sustancias, etc., pueden disminuir el malestar y reducir la activación fisiológica, producidos por la ansiedad. Sin embargo, estos consumos pueden hacerse cada vez más necesarios para aliviar los síntomas de ansiedad, o incluso para evitar el síndrome de abstinencia, un cuadro clínico con intensas respuestas de ansiedad. La posibilidad de no poder seguir consumiendo se interpretaría como una amenaza que produce más ansiedad afrontada mediante el consumo. En relación al tratamiento de los problemas de adicción se han encontrado interacciones significativas entre el tipo de tratamiento y de paciente. Una de las variables a evaluar para poder diseñar tratamientos más eficaces concordantes con las características del paciente es la ansiedad. Palabras Clave: emociones, ansiedad, estrés, afrontamiento, alcoholismo, tabaquismo, drogodependencias, tratamiento concordante. Title: Coping of anxiety in addictions. Abstract: In this paper, a cognitive (appraisal and coping), interactive (person x situation interaction) and multidimensional (three response systems) perspective of anxiety, stress and emotions is presented. According to it, anxiety is conceptualized as a negative or unpleasant emotion characterized by subjective distress, high physiological activation, unadapted motor responses; at the same time, anxiety is linked to individual differences in certain situational areas (specific traits). Anxiety reactions appear due to subject perceives that a certain situation seems threating (situation's appraisal), with no apparent solution due to a lack of resources (coping abilities). For somebody, certain consummatory behaviors such as eating, alcohol consumption, smoking, or drug abuse could relieve distress symptoms or reduce physiological activation producing by anxiety. However, such consumption behaviors could become more and more necessary in order to alleviate anxiety symptoms or avoiding the withdrawal, which is a clinical syndrome including intense anxiety manifestations. The possibility to stop the consumption is interpreted as a threatening situation which provokes more anxiety; the only coping response available is to maintain consumption. Regarding addiction treatments, there are significant interactions between type of treatment x type of patient. Anxiety is on of the variables evaluated in order to design more effective treatments matched with the characteristics of the patient.

This longitudinal study was designed to test three hypotheses that medical students who can cope better with adversity would: (1) have a more positive personality profile, (2) report less physical illnesses, (3) perform better academically. Total participants were 2114 medical students at Jefferson Medical College who completed a set of psychosocial questionnaires, and were prospectively followed up during medical school education and beyond. Participants reported on a five-point scale their appraisal of five stressors (death or health deterioration of a family member, personal illness, financial, and academic problems). Students who experienced the stressors (n=1446, 68% of total participants) were divided into three groups (Resilient, Intermediate, Frail) based on their appraisal of the stressors. The three groups were compared on a set of personality scales (e.g. general anxiety, depression, test anxiety, neuroticism, loneliness, selfesteem and extraversion), physical well-being factors (e.g. chronic health, eating/drinking/smoking, agitation symptoms, somatic symptoms, and global sickness), and academic performance indicators in medical school (e.g. grade point averages, class rank, and medical licensing examinations), and ratings of clinical competence in postgraduate medical training. Hypotheses 1 and 2 were confirmed, and hypothesis 3 was 0191-8869/03/$ -see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. P I I : S 0 1 9 1 -8 8 6 9 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 8 6 -1 (M. Hojat). partially confirmed. Implications for developing coping skills, stress management strategies, and student counseling are discussed. #

This study evaluated an inference-based approach (IBA) to the treatment of obsessivecompulsive disorder (OCD) by comparing its efficacy with a treatment based on the cognitive appraisal model (CAM) and exposure and response prevention (ERP). IBA considers initial intrusions in OCD (e.g. ''Maybe the door is open'', ''My hands could be dirty'') as idiosyncratic inferences about possible states of affairs arrived at through inductive reasoning. In IBA such primary inferences represent the starting point of obsessional doubt, and the reasoning maintaining the doubt forms the focus for therapy. This is unlike CAM, which regards appraisals of intrusions as the maintaining factors in OCD. Fifty-four OCD participants, of whom 44 completed, were randomly allocated to CAM, ERP or IBA. After 20 weeks of treatment all groups showed a significant reduction in scores on the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) and the Padua Inventory. Participants with high levels of obsessional conviction showed greater benefit from IBA than CAM. Appraisals of intrusions changed in all treatment conditions. Strength of primary inference was not correlated with symptom measures except in the case of strong obsessional conviction. Strength of primary inference correlated significantly with the Y-BOCS insight item. Treatment matching for high and low conviction levels to IBA and CAM, respectively, may optimize therapy outcome. Key words: obsessive compulsive disorder; cognitive behavior therapy.

Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to provide a deeper insight on the psychological mechanism of customer forgiveness viewed from a cross cultural perspective. Design/methodology/approach -Drawing on the cognitive appraisal theory, this paper relates forgiveness cognitive, emotional and motivational patterns with differences in cultural values' orientations.