Asian elephant

The use of habitat for Sumatran elephants cannot be considered that the habitat is suitable for elephants. From this preference study, it can be seen that of the various identified habitats used, several habitats such as water bodies, shrub and trees, shrub and grass and natural forests (40 - 60%) are the ones chosen by the Sumatran elephant. However, several types of habitats that are relatively wide are considered indifferent or elephants avoid this habitat. The character of elephants that are always looking for food and water, the type of habitat that is not chosen or avoided is the type of habitat that is poor in need of elephants or has conflict value so that the elephants can take a big risk if they access this area.

To optimize the type of habitat preference, of course various habitat modifications are carried out by maintaining the species eaten by elephants locally. It is estimated that the use of artificial salt lick can disrupt natural habitat choices. However, this activity can
encourage an increase in the frequency of arrival of elephants and elephants can have the opportunity for a long time at the location thus allowing the elephants to choose their preferred habitat. In terms of feasibility, elephant habitat in the forest of Talang and its vicinities, shrub and trees, shrub and grasses and natural forests are sufficiently available in the area. However, water bodies are very minimal. With regard to the feasibility of carrying capacity of elephants, especially meeting their needs, improved habitat management in all habitat types is necessary. This increase in carrying capacity is the provision of more abundant plant species eaten by elephants, relatively reproduced water
bodies and continuous provision of artificial salt licks.

The quantity and quality of this habitat development is determined by the amount needed for Balai Raja elephants. Then, the forest of Talang certainly cannot be relied upon to stand alone to support elephant life. So, other areas are also important to do such as the feasibility target of elephant habitat in the forest of Talang. The identified and habitable
locations are Kojo Forest, the forest around the oil pump of PT. Chevron, several community-built areas or in wildlife sanctuaries that are not used by the community (waste land). The idea of managing this waste land, called the time bound holding strategy, has been developed by several stakeholders since 2012.

Placement of suitable locations for elephant habitat will give birth to a stepping stone from the Balai Raja elephant movement path or known as the elephant corridor. At the policy level in the MoEF it is referred to as KEE or MER for the national elephant conservation management level. The government policy for KEE is regulated in the regulations and
procedures for the appointment and determination of KEE. For this reason, the part that is being carried out is the readiness of stakeholders including the community in supporting the elephant corridor, especially in determining a minimum of two zoning, namely a zone for habitat improvement and a neutral zone for various agricultural commodities that are not eaten by elephants so that the community or company is not harmed by the presence of elephants. In addition, residential zones can also be delineated, especially in the application of the use of physical barriers or the placement of conflict mitigation teams at the village or village level.

Balai Raja is a good example in dealing with elephant protection issues and elephant human conflicts. Many lessons have been learned from this initiative, especially in dealing with issues of elephant-human coexistence and lost habitats. The hope of managing elephants in this area is actually very slim, but this requires the willingness of the people
who are said to be noble creatures and consistency of intention in protecting these wild elephants there.

Regional perfusion with Triple sulpha was used to
treat a severe abscess in a 7-year old female Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus) housed at a temple in
Tamil Nadu, India. The cow elephant was presented
with an acute swelling at left shoulder that persisted
despite 4 days of anti-inflammatory therapy. There
was a 3-cm-deep, 5-cm-diameter abscess pocket that
was subsequently debrided. Regional perfusion was
performed by using 7% Tincture iodine for 15 days,
and Triple sulpha in the wound pocket. Besides, the
elephant received Enrofloxacin (dosed at 10 mg/kg
b.wt.) and Meloxicam (dosed at 0.2 mg/kg b.wt.)
intramuscularly. Within 2 days of administering the
first perfusion, the swelling reduced dramatically.
After 7 days of successive treatment, the elephant
showed marked improvement.

The Extinct Syrian Elephant or Assyrian Elephant (Elephas maximus asurus Deraniyagala, 1950).

By : Sharif Prof. Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Mohammad Ahmad Ahmad Mostafa Abdallah Mohammad Khalaf-Prinz Sakerfalke von Jaffa.

Abstract: The Syrian Elephant, Assyrian Elephant or Western Asiatic Elephant (Elephas maximus asurus Deraniyagala, 1950) is the westernmost population of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), which became extinct in ancient times. Skeletal remains of E. m. asurus have been recorded from the Middle East: Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, from periods dating between 3 million years BC and 100 years BC. Syrian elephants were the largest Asian elephant subspecies to have survived into historic times, measuring 3.5 metres or more at the shoulder; on par with the largest reported Indian elephants (Elephas maximus indicus), and about the size of an African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana). Skeletal remains show it did not differ much from the Indian subspecies, except its bigger size. Deforestation to produce charcoal for iron working, and the overhunting of Syrian elephants for royal hunts and ivory production ultimately resulted in their extinction by around 100 BC.

مُلخص : يُعتبر الفيل السُوري والذي يُسمى أيضاً بالفيل الآشوري أو فيل غرب آسيا المُنقرض أكثر مجموعات الفيلة الآسيوية بُعداً في غرب القارة الآسيوية . وقد تم العثور على بقايا من الهيكل العظمي للفيل السُوري من مناطق مُختلفة من الشرق الأوسط من : إيران والعراق وتركيا وسُوريا ولبنان وفلسطين ، من فترات تعود إلى ما بين 3 ملايين سنة و 100 سنة قبل الميلاد . لقد كانت الأفيال السُورية أكبر سُلالات الأفيال الآسيوية التي نجت في العصور التاريخية ، حيث بلغ طولها 3.5 مترًا أو أكثر عند الكتف ، وهي على قدم المُساواة مع حجم أكبر الأفيال الهندية المُسجلة ، وقد يصل حجمها تقريباً إلى حجم فيل الأدغال الأفريقي.  وتُظهر بقايا الهياكل العظمية أنها لم تختلف كثيراً عن السُلالة الهندية ، بإستثناء حجمها الأكبر . وقد أدت إزالة الغابات من أجل إنتاج الفحم للصناعات الحديدية ، وكذلك الصيد الملكي الجائر للفيلة السورية ، وإنتاج المشغولات العاجية ، كل ذلك أدى في النهاية إلى إنقراض هذه الفيلة في حوالي العام 100 قبل الميلاد .

Reference: Mohammad Ahmad Ahmad Mostafa Abdallah Mohammad (2022). The Extinct Syrian Elephant or Assyrian Elephant (Elephas maximus asurus Deraniyagala, 1950). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. ISSN 0178 – 6288. Volume 40, Number 210, June 2022. pp. 1-49. Publisher: Prof. Dr. Norman Ali Khalaf Department for Environmental Research and media, National Research Center, University of Palestine, Gaza, State of Palestine. (Abstracts in English and Arabic). https://elephants-1.webs.com/syrian-elephant & https://issuu.com/dr-norman-ali-khalaf/docs/syrian_elephant

Dalam konflik gajah - manusia, masyarakat dan gajah adalah subyek tersendiri, pola konservasi dan mitigasi yang saling mengalahkan, dapat berdampak nilai yang tidak positif bagi konservasi gajah dalam jangka panjang. Mitigasi konflik gajah manusia terpadu dalam konsep MP2CE adalah paradigm shift mendorong konservasi gajah terutama dalam konteks mitigasi konflik dimana gajah dan manusia adalah sebagai subyek yang saling berhubungan satu dengan yang lain sebagai bagian ekosistem. Keduanya memiliki kepentingan masing-masing dalam memenuhi kebutuhan hidup. Keduanya berkeinginan untuk hidup optimal tanpa mengganggu satu dengan yang lain. Pola mitigasi konflik terpadu adalah upaya mitigasi yang tetap memberikan nilai optimal bagi kehidupan diantara keduanya. Pola menang-menang dan mendorong “hidup berdampingan” dengan gajah adalah salah satu pokok tujuan dalam modul ini.

Throughout history, the Seleucid military might demonstrated
many times its importance for the maintenance, expansion and defense of the Empire. Rarely the Seleucid army was defeated in a campaign and it happened in front of the almighty Rome. After the defeat at Thermopylae and Magnesia, and following the imminent withdrawal must conquer the Ptolemaic Empire, the new king Antiochus IV Epiphanes held a military parade as never been done before, its real purpose is unknown, but the Seleucids showed the world the power that still had the Empire. Through the stories of several classic sources, we can come closer to this event and what
it could entail.

Cosmopolitanism has emerged as an important concept in geography and the social sciences. The rise of mobility, circulation and transnational networks has been paralleled by academic scholarship on un-parochial others: diasporas, travellers and itinerant social groups. However, the role of nonhumans as participants in and subjects of cosmopolitanism has received scant attention. This paper seeks to develop a ‘more-than-human’ cosmopolitanism that accounts for the presence of nonhuman animals and entities in stories of circulation and contact. Through a multi-sited ethnography of elephant conservation in India and the UK, the paper illustrates how animals become participants in forging connections across difference. Through their circulation, elephants become cosmopolitan, present in diverse cultures and serving banal global consumption. The paper then illustrates how cosmopolitan elephants may be coercive, giving rise to political frictions and new inequalities when mobilised by powerful, transnational environmental actors. It concludes by discussing the methodological and conceptual implications of a more-than-human cosmopolitanism.

The use of elephants for military purposes was, for centuries, one of the most important military arms of the armies in the Antiquity. Although, these could get to suppose so many advantages as drawbacks and, for this reason, they were since then denominated by the classic authors as “the common enemy”.

You might say the elephant has not been shy. No more than a few lines bring him onto the historical stage but much more ink has been spilled in commentary. It is in 801 AD that he appears first in the Royal Frankish Annals when notice of his impending arrival comes to the newly crowned emperor Charlemagne. While in Pavia in Italy's Lombardy, following his Christmas Day coronation in Rome by the Pope, Charlemagne receives word that two envoys have arrived, one from Baghdad and the other from the North African territory of Ifriqiya. They bring news of the embassy he sent to Abbasid caliphate two years earlier. Two of his ambassadors, Lantfrid and Sigimund, have died but the third, Isaac, is returning bringing with him gifts from Harun al-Rashid, the caliph of Baghdad, among which is an elephant. Isaac has made a long slow journey from

Reviews the literature to provide an overview of the historical significance of the elephant in Sri Lankan society, an association which dates back more than 4,000 years. The present status of this relationship assessed on the basis of the findings of a recent study undertaken on the total economic value of elephants in Sri Lanka. This paper, first briefly outlines the history, evolution, nature and their distribution of the Asian elephant while providing some insights on the status of the elephant (Elephas maxima maxima) in Sri Lanka.  Next, it reviews the literature in order to assess the historical affiliation that the elephant has maintained with the Sri Lankan society, its culture, history, mythology and religion. The empirical evidence on the economic value of conservation of the remaining elephant population in Sri Lanka is reviewed and the Sri Lankan people’s attitudes towards conserving this species of wildlife. Literature reviewed and analysis undertaken indicates that the elephant in Sri Lanka, still, as in the past has a special place in Sri Lankan society, particularly, in its culture, religion and value system. Thus, there is a strong case for ensuring the survival of wild elephant population in Sri Lanka. Furthermore, it also suggests that the community as a whole will experience a net benefit from ensuring the survival of wild elephants in Sri Lanka.

Political ecology has had a long connection with materials, going back to some of its canonical concerns. Yet materials are rendered inert with no capacity to mobilize political action. Further, the influence of matter in wider ecologies of human–animal cohabitation is poorly acknowledged. This paper examines the role of materials in mediating people’s relationships with elephants in rural northeast India. Drawing upon ethnographic research
and ethological studies of elephants, the paper shows that human–elephant conflict is not simply a linear outcome of interactions between elephants and people. Materials, in this case alcohol, play a vital role. Alcohol binds people and elephants in unforeseen ways.
The sociopolitical outcomes alcohol generates have deep impacts on the livelihoods of the rural poor and the well-being of elephants. This examination of social and political life through concerted interactions between humans, animals, and materials ecologizes
politics, making it more attuned to the more-than-human collectivities within which material lives are lived. The paper strives towards a political ecology that is symmetrical and challenges the discipline’s humanist focus. It concludes with a discussion of the future implications and potential of this approach.

With growing human and, possibly, elephant populations and a drastic increase in anthropogenic activities, human–elephant conflict in Asia has been on the rise. The Alur area in Karnataka state, southern India, is one such case in point, which has witnessed increasing levels of human–elephant conflict over the last two decades. The tiny, moderately protected habitat available for elephants in this human-dominated landscape does not appear to be able to support elephants over the long term. Options to deal with the escalating conflict include translocation of elephants, bringing elephants into captivity, and culling. We
carried out a molecular genetic study of elephants in the Alur area to estimate the minimum number of elephants using the area, the sex ratio, genetic relatedness between individuals, and genetic structure with regard to the larger population in the landscape, so that informed management decisions could be made. Fresh dung samples were collected from the field and genotyped using 12 microsatellite loci. We found 29 unique individuals in the population, comprising 17 females and 12 males of different age classes. Relatedness between females suggested independent colonisations by discrete, small groups rather than by one cohesive clan of related females. This obviates the need for a single solution for dealing with all the females in the area in order to maintain social integrity, and has
implications in terms how these elephants can be dealt with. We demonstrate how social organization inferred through molecular data from non-invasive sampling can inform management decisions.

Human-elephant conflict is on the increase even though there are fewer elephants on the planet with every passing year.  Ian Redmond reports from two Born Free projects working to help people and elephants live in harmony.
The story of the formation of the MEEM Team - the Mount Elgon Elephant Monitoring Team - community trackers teamed up with Kenya Wildlife Service rangers to monitor the famous cave-elephants of Mt Elgon on the Kenya side of the mountain, initially to be filmed for Sir David Attenborough's BBC series 'Life of Mammals'.
Elephant orphans helped to return to a life in the wild in Sri Lanka and fences to reduce human-wildlife conflict.

Tourism is a significant aspect of most ex-situ conservation establishments for Asian Elephants. We assessed reasons for visitor discontent in five highly visited establishments in Asia, by analysing on-line visitor comments. The proportion of negative reviews varied significantly between institutions. Ten reasons for visitor discontent were identified. Unethical treatment of elephants was the commonest and lack of conservation relevance the second commonest reason stated for discontent. Other reasons for visitor discontent were related to misbehaviour of mahouts, management deficiencies and inadequacy of facilities.

In the present work, we examine the personal adornment in proboscidean ivory from the Bell Beaker period at the hypogeum of Padru Jossu, Sanluri (Sardinia, Italy) currently preserved in the Museo Civico Archeologico Villa Abbas of Sardara. For the first time, a complete study-morphological, use wear and archaeometric-of this material has been conducted. The typological study established two categories: buttons and pins. Those categories were also subdivided into three groups respectively. Technological and functional analyses were made difficult by the strong degradation of the items and the presence of glue and varnish. The archaeometric study highlighted the diverse provenances of the proboscidean ivories, suggesting a chronological difference in the geographical sources, as well as in the mobility patterns implicit in the movements of the raw material. The ivory from the older Stratum iii is predominantly from the Asian elephant, and in the later Stratum ii the exclusive supplier species is the African Savannah elephant. It is also important to mention that in the ensemble from Stratum iii, one of the items seems related to the Eastern types of ossi a globuli, linking this Asian ivory with an Aegean and Oriental axis of mobility. Resumen: En el presente trabajo se han analizado los elementos de adorno personal de época campa-niforme en marfil de proboscídeos del hipogeo de Padru Jossu, Sanluri (Cerdeña, Italia) que actualmente se conservan en el Museo Cívico Arqueológico Villa Abbas de Sardara (Cerdeña, Italia). Por primera vez se ha realizado un estudio completo de este material-estudio morfológico, traceológico y arqueométrico-. El estudio tipológico ha permitido establecer dos categorías: la de los botones y la de los alfileres. Las dos cate-gorías se han subdividido en tres grupos cada una. Los análisis tecnológicos y funcionales han sido obstacu-lizados por la fuerte degradación de los artefactos y la presencia de pegamentos y barnices en la superficie. El estudio arqueométrico ha demostrado la diversidad de fuentes de aprovisionamiento de marfil de pro-boscídeos, mostrando una diferencia cronológica en el abastecimiento de esta materia prima. Mientras que en el más antiguo Estrato iii el marfil es predominantemente de elefante asiático, en el más tardío Estrato ii el marfil es exclusivamente de elefante africano de estepa. Así mismo, resulta interesante la aparición en 36 J. M. Morillo, C. Pau and J. Guilaine / The proboscidean ivory adornments from the hypogeum of Padru Jossu... © Universidad de Salamanca Zephyrus, LXXXII, julio-diciembre 2018, 35-64

The material in this book is organized in four parts. Part I (this part) provides a general overview of the topics and issues covered in this book. Part II deals with general issues involved in biological conservation, especially biodiversity loss. Part III concentrates on policies for the conservation, use and management of wildlife species, particularly animals. In this part, general issues involving open-access or common-property are given attention and the management of particular species such as kangaroos, whales, dugong and Asian elephants are given specific consideration. Part IV covers economic aspects of protected areas, the economics of wilderness preservation, the utilisation and management of marine reserves, economic processes involved in deforestation in a national park in Indonesia, and aspects of forest management in China and India.

Relation between grasses and large herbivores at the Ulu Muda salt licks, Peninsular Malaysia. Ulu Muda Forest Reserve is known for its salt licks and grassy floodplains. Previous studies largely overlooked the floristic component of Gramineae in this herbivore-rich forest. This paper reports on the dominant grass species present at Sira Bongor, Sira Keladi and Sira Air Hangat salt licks, namely, Hymenachne amplexicaulis, Centotheca lappacea and Oryza ridleyi and describes the niches occupied by grasses at the three sites in relation to signs of large herbivore activities. Preliminary evidence indicated that the salt licks and adjacent H. amplexicaulis swamps were dynamic habitats, plausibly created and maintained by large-bodied herbivores including elephants. The presence of grasses that extended the role of salt licks as places for both minerals and nutritive food intake for large herbivores was discussed.

The contingent valuation method is often used for valuing environmental goods possessing use as well as non-use values. This paper investigates the relative importance of these values in relation to the existence of the wild Asian elephant.  It does so by analysing results from a contingent valuation survey of a sample of urban residents living in three selected housing schemes in Colombo. We find that the major proportion of the respondents’ willingness to pay (WTP) for conservation of wild elephants is attributable to the non-use values of the elephant. However, differences in the relative importance of these values exist between those who visit national parks and those who do not.  Differences in respondents’ WTP for conservation of elephants are found to be  largely influenced by attitudinal and behavioural factors rather than socio-economic ones. We conclude that policymakers must recognise and take account of the importance of non-use values of the Asian elephant, if this endangered species is to survive in the long run. Nevertheless, the non-consumptive use value of elephants in Sri Lanka is also found to be substantial

Human-wildlife conflicts impact upon the wellbeing of marginalised people, worldwide. Although tangible losses from such conflicts are well documented, hidden health consequences remain underresearched. Based on preliminary clinical ethnographic inquiries and sustained fieldwork in Assam, India, this paper documents mental health antecedents and consequences including severe untreated psychiatric morbidity and substance abuse. The case studies presented make visible the hidden mental health dimensions of human-elephant conflict. The paper illustrates how health impacts of conflicts penetrate far deeper than immediate physical threat from elephants, worsens pre-existing mental illness of marginalised people, and leads to newer psychiatric and social pathologies. These conflicts are enacted and perpetuated in institutional spaces of inequality. The authors argue that both wildlife conservation and community mental health disciplines would be enhanced by coordinated intervention. The paper concludes by generating questions that are fundamental for a new interdisciplinary paradigm that bridges ecology and the clinic.

Species communicate with each other without the language of words, but through emotions and intelligence. Sundermala, the female elephant whose story this is, witnessed the transformation of forests of India and that of her life as British colonial rulers, German forest scientists and Indian people tried to make sense of each other.

Flagship species are used to leverage public support for conservation. The success of a flagship is potentially determined by its popularity and ability to foster conservation intentions among a target audience. When flagships come into conflict with people, however, it is likely that conservation intentions get negatively affected. By examining peoples’ exposures to the Asian elephant—a global conservation flagship—this study
sought to (a) identify exposures that enable conservation intentions and (b) test whether human–elephant conflict undermines them. Survey results showed that exposure
to wild elephants negatively affected intentions to conserve elephants, while specific concern for the elephant and direct involvement in conservation activities led to positive intentions. These results suggest that the effective use of the Asian elephant as a flagship may be contingent on mitigating human–elephant conflict, for which engagement with concerned local actors and initiation of participatory conservation frameworks need to be considered.

The media play a key role in communicating conservation issues such as human-wildlife conflict, but corresponding literature on how issues are represented is limited. This article traces the depiction of human-elephant conflict in the media by examining (a) how conflicts are framed and (b) how ultimate and proximate causes are communicated in Indian and international newspapers. Issues were often polarized or framed in dramatic terms, and consonance in reporting causes was lacking. Active engagement with the media is needed to produce a nuanced debate on conflict, for which recognizing the role of different actors and working closely with individual journalists are vital.

Simple Summary: The welfare of elephants in captivity is of significant public interest and the cause of considerable debate amongst the scientific, legislative, zoo and animal welfare advocacy communities. A tool capable of identifying what elephants need to experience to have good welfare would not only help bring clarity to this debate, it could also direct elephant welfare policy and management to more effectively optimise welfare and provide a valuable reference tool by which elephant welfare could be assessed. To that end, a systematic process is trialed to identify the welfare priorities for Asian elephants. These pilot assessments demonstrate the importance of providing species-appropriate feeding, social and mental opportunities to protect elephant welfare and suggest that the current priorities established in husbandry guidelines do not accurately reflect the psychological needs of elephants; in particular, they appear to underestimate the importance of behaviours and mental processes associated with acquiring food. Abstract: The welfare status of elephants under human care has been a contentious issue for two decades or more in numerous western countries. Much effort has gone into assessing the welfare of captive elephants at individual and population levels with little consensus having been achieved in relation to both the welfare requirements of captive elephants, or their absolute welfare status. A methodology capable of identifying the psychological priorities of elephants would greatly assist in both managing and assessing captive elephant welfare. Here, a Delphi-based Animal Welfare Priority Identification System © (APWIS ©) is trialled to evaluate the reliability of the methodology and to determine the welfare significance of individual behaviours and cognitive processes for Asian elephants (Elaphus maximus). APWIS © examines the motivational characteristics, evolutionary significance and established welfare impacts of individual behaviours and cognitive processes of each species being assessed. The assessment carried out here indicates appetitive behaviours essential for survival in the wild, together species-specific social and cognitive opportunities are likely to be important to the welfare of Asian elephant in captivity. The output of this assessment, for the first time, provides comprehensive species-specific psychological/welfare priorities for Asian elephants that should be used to inform husbandry guidelines, habitat design and management strategies and can also provide a valuable reference tool for Asian elephant welfare assessment. The effective application of these insights could lead to substantive improvements in captive Asian elephant welfare.

Asian elephants are isolated in fragmented habitat patches in and around Bardia National Park (BNP), Nepal. To describe habitat use patterns and ecogeographical variables (EGVs) that determine an elephant's niche in BNP, we used a General Niche-Environment System Factor Analysis (GNESFA) modeling framework. Novel to our study was the comparison of niche requirements between core (residential) and corridor (travel corridor) areas to elucidate site-specific preferences of Asian elephants in BNP. A total of 13 EGVs (four topographic variables, six land covers, heterogeneity index and two anthropogenic variables)
were examined. We implemented a ‘bias file’ approach to address potential sampling bias in the transect survey methods for presence records. Our study illustrated that, regardless of study area, elephants' habitat use was positively influenced by presence of grasslands, mixed forest, and landscape heterogeneity, whereas use was restricted by the
topographic variables of slope and elevation. Results also demonstrated different habitat preferences between elephants in the core and corridor, which may be attributed to differences in potential dangers posed in these areas; in the core, elephant habitat preference was mainly associated with food resources such as grassland or mixed forest, whereas in the corridor, where elephants are more likely to encounter human conflict, the anthropogenic factor of distance to human settlements contributed the most in predicting elephant presence. Correlations among significant factors from the three methods (FANTER,
ENFA, and MADIFA) demonstrated the consistent and reliable results of these approaches. While these methods complemented each other by providing different points of view, FANTER was especially useful when bimodal niches were analyzed. We suggest a detailed conservation plan for the small populations of elephants in BNP and surrounding areas, while considering the protection of travel routes from human activities in the corridor habitats, and lastly, maintaining grasslands and waterholes in core habitats.

The subject of translocating wild elephants has been a much debated topic recently, after the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWLC), acting on the orders of the Minster for Wild Life, wanted to move the only 2 wild elephants habituating the Singharaja Forest Reserve. There were many protests from different organizations, and it was much publicized in the social media as well. Eventually saner council did prevail, and the translocation was suspended. Many do not really understand the gravity and pitfalls of wild elephant translocations, although there was a popular uprising against it. Hence this treatise attempts to analyze and explain Wild elephant translocations.

The interference with agriculture has been recognised as the main cause for the current conflict between farmers and wild elephants in Sri Lanka, as elsewhere in the Asian elephant range. Thus compensating farmers for the damages caused by elephants is essential, if this endangered species is to survive in the long run. This paper explores the practicality of establishing an improved publicly funded insurance/compensation scheme to recompense farmers for the elephant damages. It does so by analysing results from two contingent valuation surveys undertaken in Sri Lanka. We find that possible public support of farmers plus urban dwellers significantly exceeds the financial requirement of the insurance scheme proposed in this study for perpetuity. The article also shows that it is often inappropriate from an economic viewpoint to analyse crop insurance as if it only involves the insurance of a private good because important positive externalities can arise from ‘crop’ damages by wildlife, e.g. elephants. The use of agricultural land by some species is essential for their long-term survival and this is often positively valued by the community as a whole.

There has been little study of economic and general attitudes towards the conservation of the Asian elephant. This paper reports and analyses results from surveys conducted in Sri Lanka of attitudes of urban dwellers and farmers towards nature conservation in general and the elephant conservation in particular. The analyses are based on urban and a rural sample. Contingent valuation techniques are used as survey instruments. Multivariate logit regression analysis is used to analyze the respondents’ attitudes towards conservation of elephants. It is found that, although some variations occurred between the samples, the majority of the respondents (both rural and urban) have positive attitudes towards nature conservation in general. However, marked differences in attitudes toward elephant conservation are evident between these two samples: the majority of urban respondents were in favour of elephant conservation; rural respondents expressed a mixture of positive and negative attitudes. Overall, considerable unrecorded and as yet unutilised economic support for conservation of wild elephants exists in Sri Lanka.

This paper explores the way in which the stated willingness to pay for the conservation of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka varies with hypothetical variations in their abundance.  To do that, it relies on results from a sample of residents of Colombo.  The willingness to pay function is found to be unusual.  It increases at an increasing rate for hypothetical reductions in the elephant population compared to its current level (a level that makes the Asian elephant endangered) and also increases at a decreasing rate for increases in this population from its current level.  Rational explanations are given for this relationship.  The relationship is, however, at odds with relationships suggested in some of the literature for total economic value as a function of the abundance of a wildlife species.  It is suggested that willingness to pay for conservation of a species rationally includes a strategic element and may not always measure the total economic value of a species.  Nevertheless, willingness to pay is still policy relevant in such cases.

During musth in bull elephants, the androgens testosterone (T), dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and androstenedione all increase significantly. Given the unusual endocrine physiology that has been discovered in female elephants, it is also possible that bull elephants produce some unusual androgens. A cell-based androgen receptor assay was used to explore this possibility using two different methods. The first method compared the level of T measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) with the level of androgen receptor (AR) activity measured in the serum of eight bull elephants during musth and non-musth periods. A ratio was calculated for T/AR activity for non-musth and musth, to determine if there was a change in the ratio between these two states. The second method used HPLC to separate two pooled serum samples (one non-musth and one musth) into fractions using a protocol which separates known androgens into specific, previously identified fractions. Each fraction was then tested with the AR assay to determine the androgenicity of any compounds present. This was done to determine if there were any fractions which had androgenic activity but did not contain any previously identified androgens. Results from the first analysis indicated no change in the T/AR ratio between non-musth and musth states. Clearly whatever active androgens are present during musth, they increase proportionately with T. Findings from the second analysis suggested that the only bioactive androgen present in the serum of non-musth Asian bulls is a low level of T. During musth, the only bioactive androgens detected were T and DHT; of these, T was by far the predominant active androgen present. Taken together, these two analyses suggest that T is by far the predominant active androgen present during musth in Asian bull elephants, and that no previously unidentified bioactive androgen is present.

Background and Aim: As the number of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) continues to decline, maintaining healthy populations under human care is vital. Male fertility assessment is essential for understanding the reproductive status, which can help to uncover underlying problems and improve the rate of pregnancy success. The objectives of this study in Asian elephants were as follows: (1) To investigate the semen characteristics; (2) to compare the relative seminal vesicle size and semen characteristics; (3) to compare the semen characteristics between good-motile (>60% progressive motility) and poor-motile (<60% progressive motility) ejaculates; and (4) to investigate the pregnancy success rate after artificial insemination (AI) with combined chilled and frozen semen.

Materials and Methods: In total, 153 ejaculates were collected by manual rectal stimulation from 25 bulls. The volume, pH, sperm concentration, progressive motility, viability, morphology, and membrane integrity were investigated in each ejaculate. Assessment of accessory sex glands was conducted using transrectal ultrasonography to compare the relative seminal vesicle size and semen characteristics, and the bulls were divided into two groups according to the size of the ampulla (<7 or ≥7 cm2). For the comparison of good and poor-motile ejaculates and semen characteristics, the samples were divided into two groups: Good-motile (>60% progressive motility) and poor-motile (<60% progressive motility) ejaculates. Semen ejaculates for AI were collected from three bulls. The estrous cycles of four females were monitored using an enzyme immunoassay. Seven AI attempts were conducted using frozen and/or chilled semen by endoscopic visualization. AI was repeated 1 day before the luteinizing hormone surge, on the day of the surge, and 1 day after the surge. Pregnancy was confirmed by monitoring the serum progesterone profile and the abdomen and mammary glands changes.

Results: From 153 ejaculates, the mean±standard error values of progressive motility, semen volume, sperm concentration, pH, and viability were 40.18%±2.28%, 40.94±3.86 mL, 1,205.58±62.26×106 sperm/mL, 7.50±0.10, and 56.17%±1.96%, respectively. Comparing ampulla size and semen characteristics revealed that the bulls with ampullae of ≥7 cm2 yielded significantly larger volume ejaculates. However, there were no significant differences in sperm motility and concentration. The comparison of semen characteristics between good- and poor-motile ejaculates revealed that the former had significantly higher pH, viability, normal acrosomes, intact membranes, and normal head and tail morphology but often had a significantly lower volume and sperm concentration. From seven AI attempts in four females, one female had a confirmed pregnancy (14.3% pregnancy rate), and delivered a healthy live female baby weighing 128 kg at 21 months and 12 days of gestation. The baby is now 3 years old and in a healthy condition, with normally developing growth and behavior.

Conclusion: The semen characteristics of Asian elephants can be used as the baseline reference for further applications. The ampullae size indicates semen quantity but not quality. Our success in producing an elephant calf from AI using frozen and chilled semen demonstrated that AI can be used as an alternative approach for the breeding management of Asian elephants. However, the semen of Asian elephants is of poor quality, especially in terms of membrane integrity; thus, the improvement in semen quality through intensive and careful management of elephant health and fertility remains a challenge for the future. Furthermore, a sperm bank should be established to develop sperm cryopreservation, which will be invaluable for improving the genetic diversity of the Asian elephant.

The use of habitat for Sumatran elephants cannot be considered that the habitat is suitable for elephants. From this preference study, it can be seen that of the various identified habitats used, several habitats such as water bodies, shrub and trees, shrub and grass and natural forests (40 - 60%) are the ones chosen by the Sumatran elephant.

However, several types of habitats that are relatively wide are considered indifferent or elephants avoid this habitat. The character of elephants that are always looking for food and water, the type of habitat that is not chosen or avoided is the type of habitat that is poor in need of elephants or has conflict value so that the elephants can take a big risk if they access this area.

To optimize the type of habitat preference, of course various habitat modifications are carried out by maintaining the species eaten by elephants locally. It is estimated that the use of artificial salt lick can disrupt natural habitat choices. However, this activity can encourage an increase in the frequency of arrival of elephants and elephants can have the opportunity for a long time at the location thus allowing the elephants to choose their preferred habitat.

In terms of feasibility, elephant habitat in the forest of Talang and its vicinities, shrub and trees, shrub and grasses and natural forests are sufficiently available in the area. However, water bodies are very minimal. With regard to the feasibility of carrying capacity of elephants, especially meeting their needs, improved habitat management in all habitat types is necessary. This increase in carrying capacity is the provision of more abundant plant species eaten by elephants, relatively reproduced water bodies and continuous provision of artificial salt licks. The quantity and quality of this habitat development is determined by the amount needed for Balai Raja elephants. Then, the forest of Talang certainly cannot be relied upon to stand alone to support elephant life. So, other areas are also important to do such as the feasibility target of elephant habitat in the forest of Talang.

The identified and habitable locations are Kojo Forest, the forest around the oil pump of PT. Chevron, several community-built areas or in wildlife sanctuaries that are not used by the community (waste land). The idea of managing this waste land, called the time bound holding strategy, has been developed by several stakeholders since 2012. Placement of suitable locations for elephant habitat will give birth to a stepping stone from the Balai Raja elephant movement path or known as the elephant corridor. At the policy level in the MoEF it is referred to as KEE or MER for the national elephant conservation management level.

The government policy for KEE is regulated in the regulations and procedures for the appointment and determination of KEE. For this reason, the part that is being carried out is the readiness of stakeholders including the community in supporting the elephant corridor, especially in determining a minimum of two zoning, namely a zone for habitat improvement and a neutral zone for various agricultural commodities that are not eaten by elephants so that the community or company is not harmed by the presence of elephants. In addition, residential zones can also be delineated, especially in the application of the use of physical barriers or the placement of conflict mitigation teams at the village or village level.

Balai Raja is a good example in dealing with elephant protection issues and elephant- human conflicts. Many lessons have been learned from this initiative, especially in dealing with issues of elephant-human coexistence and lost habitats. The hope of managing elephants in this area is actually very slim, but this requires the willingness of the people who are said to be noble creatures and consistency of intention in protecting these wild elephants there.

Despite growing attention to crop and property damage caused by the Asian elephant, uncertainty exists about the magnitude of this problem. This paper explores the nature and magnitude of this problem of Sri Lanka. An economic analysis of individual farmers’ decisions to control elephants is provided. Government policies to assist farmers to cope with the elephant pest problem are assessed. Appropriate compensation schemes for farmers are seen as potentially more effective for conserving elephants in Sri Lanka than legal prohibitions on killing of elephants. Issues raised have wider relevance than merely to Sri Lanka or Asian elephants.

Large-scale forest encroachment in Assam, India, has led to increasing levels of human-elephant conflict. Conflict mitigation is a priority for the survival of Asian elephants Elephas maximus throughout Asia. We analysed a 3-year dataset of elephant occurrence and related instances of human-elephant conflict, from two sites in Assam, and explored the relationships between the various effects of elephants on human communities and factors influencing the spatial and temporal occurrence of these effects (proximity to water, refuge areas and villages, and human and crop density). The landscapes at both study sites have been transformed by forest loss, with large areas converted to agriculture. Remaining forest patches, which are mostly small, disconnected and degraded, as well as tea plantations, provide refuge areas for elephants as they move through the region. We found that crop depredation and property damage caused by elephants showed well-defined seasonal trends. They also showed a clear diurnal pattern, mostly occurring between 18.00 and 22.00. Small communities within 700 m of a refuge were most affected. In the management of human-elephant conflict in Assam we need to consider the refuge patches used by elephants as they move through the region, the peripheries of which are likely to be conflict hotspots. Small villages on the edges of refuges should be a priority for conflict mitigation assistance, with strategies taking into account seasonal and diurnal variation in elephant behaviour, as well as the socio-economic and cultural composition of communities.

Newly discovered, lethal elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) have been identi®ed in both Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Carried by otherwise healthy African elephants they can be fatal mainly for young Asian elephants. Since zoos often harbour both elephant species, we conducted a survey on the presence of EEHV in Asian elephants from 12 European zoos, 3 circuses and 1 Israeli zoo. Here, we demonstrate that all EEHV that have affected Asian elephants so far belong to the EEHV1 group. We also describe the detection and the partial sequencing of an endotheliotropic herpesvirus variant (named EEHV1b) in Asian elephants, being either an EEHV endogenous to Asian elephants or indicating different sources (African elephants) of infection. #

Background and Aim: Brucellosis is considered as an important zoonotic disease caused by various strains of Brucella in numerous host species. Although brucellosis has been reported in almost animal species, the relevance of brucellosis infection and diagnostic technique in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) has been limited. The present serological investigation aimed to investigate the antibody response to Brucella abortus in captive Asian elephants in North Thailand. Moreover, further serological survey was also conducted to detect the antibody response to Brucella canis in stray dogs cohabiting the same area as the elephant herd.

Materials and Methods: Serum samples were collected from 40 captive Asian elephants and submitted for serological analysis based on B. abortus antigen using Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) in combination with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid-tube agglutination test (EDTA-TAT) as a supplementary test and by commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA). In addition, serum samples were also obtained from 16 stray dogs that live nearby the elephant-raising area and were tested using commercial Dot-ELISA based on B. canis antigen.

Results: Serological analysis in captive Asian elephants showed 100% seronegative (40/40) from all serological tests response to B. abortus. For stray dogs, 12.5% (2/16) had a low positive reaction response to B. canis.

Conclusion: The serological survey for brucellosis in Asian elephant was adapted and applied using RBPT, EDTA-TAT, and iELISA in the present study. For future evaluation, we recommended the use of a combination of serological tests with validation together with comparing by direct detection such as bacterial isolation to provide an appropriate brucellosis surveillance program in Asian elephants. In addition, the surveillance of stray dogs or multispecies habitation should be kept into considerations.

This paper presents an application of the contingent valuation method (CVM) to determine how the willingness to pay (WTP) for conservation of Asian elephants varies with hypothetical variations in their population. Results from a CVM survey of a sample of urban residents in Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka are used for this purpose. We find, consistent with the basic principles of consumer demand theory, the marginal change in the respondents’ WTP amounts is positive but appears to diminish in parallel to the increases in the current wild elephant population (CWEP).  In contrast to theoretical expectations, however, we find that the WTP for preserving this species increases at an increasing rate in relation to decreases in the CWEP. This is probably because respondents perceive that extinction becomes more imminent as the abundance of the elephant is reduced and therefore it becomes more urgent to act. However, this adds a new complication to the interpretation of the WTP findings.

The research on elephant distribution and habitat preference was carried out in two locations Balai Raja and Tesso Nilo, Riau Province, Indonesia on 2012-2016 involving the installation of 3 GPS Collar on female elephants: Desma (Balai Raja) Angelina and Butet (Tesso Nilo). The forest cover identification was performed by spectral color analysis on the 8 ETM+ landsat images and resulted in land cover detail on MCP (minimum convex polygon) and 50% and 95% fix kernel density of movement of the elephant including in the morning, the day and the night. In the study, Desma habitat area in MCP was 328.86 km2, Angelina and Butet in MCP were 632.57 km2 and 701.60 km2. Land cover in MCP indicating the oil palm and mixed agricultures were used by Desma and acacia and oil palm plantation were used by Angelina and Butet. In habitat preferences, Desma preferred forests and swamp areas to day to day activity. Angelina and Butet selected Acacia and land opening as the location of movement. Water bodies and shrub are not widely used to the elephant in Balai Raja and Tesso Nilo. The pattern of habitat selection is a strategy for elephants to avoid conflict, although resources are limited but low risk. In addition, even though low scale of preference, mixed agriculture became interesting because there was a neutral area between elephants and farmers.