Architectural Profession

Объектом исследования является система многоуровневого непрерывного образования и профессионального развития архитектора в США. Цель состоит в том, чтобы выявить закономерности организации и функционирования американской системы образования архитекторов в три этапа (довузовский, вузовский и послевузовский). Методологически работа представляет собой структурный и функциональный анализ американской системы архитектурного образования с точки зрения элементов и механизмов, обеспечивающих ее целостность. Применяются методы социологических исследований: контент-анализ документов, связанных с данной областью; академическое изучение биографий, анкетирование и интервьюирование участников образовательного процесса, графическое моделирование системы образования, образовательного процесса и траекторий индивидуального развития в архитектуре. Показано, что американская система формирования архитектора обладает высоким уровнем организации, целостности, гибкости и приспособляемости, способна координировать личные, профессиональные и академические цели с общественными, способствует эффективному развитию и высокому социальному статусу архитектурной профессии.
[The object of study is the system of multilevel continuous education and professional development of an architect in the United States. The goal is to reveal patterns of organization and functioning of the American system of education of architects in three stages (pre-collegiate, collegiate and post-graduate). Methodologically, the work represents a structural and functional analysis of the American system of architectural education from the point of view of the elements and mechanisms that ensure its integrity. Sociological research methods are applied: content analysis of documents, related to the field, academic study of biographies, questionnaires and interviews of participants of the educational process, graphic simulation of the educational system, the educational process and the trajectories of individual development in architecture. It is shown that the American system of architectural education has a high level of organization, integrity, flexibility and adaptability, it is able to coordinate personal, professional and academic goals with those of public, promotes the efficient development and the high social status of the architectural profession].

Recension de Chadoin, O., Être architecte. Les vertus de l'indétermination. De la sociologie d'une profession à la sociologie du travail professionnel. Limoges: Pulim, 2006. L'ouvrage décline l'étude du «travail professionnel», défini comme «activité des [architectes] pour maintenir et faire valoir leur expertise face aux autres professions de la maîtrise d'oeuvre» (p. 30), sur les trois plans du projet, de la maîtrise d'oeuvre, des marchés.

U ovom poglavlju se kritički analiziraju aspekti i domeni arhitektonske profesije u Kraljevini SHS/Jugoslaviji, koja se do Drugog svetskog rata razvija nekoherentno, ne uspevajući da se u potpunosti profiliše prema konceptima profesionalizije proizašlih iz širih modernizacijskih tokova. Osnov za savremenu arhitektonsku profesiju predstavljalo je obrazovanje arhitekata, koje od 1919. godine postoji na tri visokoškolske ustanove u Kraljevini – Beogradu, Zagrebu i Ljubljani. U cilju konsolidovanja arhitektonske i inženjerske delatnosti, za inženjere i arhitekte izvan državne službe, vlada je oktobra 1924. godine donela privremenu uredbu kojom su uvedeni isti uslovi za obavljanje delatnosti, uz integraciju stečenih prava iz Austro-Ugarske monarhije i Kraljevine Srbije. Objektivne prilike na arhitektonskoj sceni tokom tridesetih godina, čak i u slučaju češćih projektantskih aktivnosti, nisu išle u prilog arhitektonskoj profesiji. Savremena regulatorna rešenja iz 1937. i 1938. godine (Zakon o ovlašćenim inženjerima, sa setom podzakonskih akata) dala su adekvatan zakonodavni okvir za zaštitu arhitektonske profesije, ali zbog Drugog svetskog rata primena ovih propisa nije mogla dati željene rezultate, tako da je proces profesionalizacije u Kraljevini Jugoslaviji ostao nezavršen.

This chapter critically analyzes the aspects and domains of the architectural profession in the Kingdom of SHS/Yugoslavia, which until the Second World War developed incoherently, failing to fully profile according to the concepts of professionalism stemming from broader modernization flows. The basics for the modern architectural profession was the education of architects, which since 1919 has existed at three higher education institutions in the Kingdom – Belgrade, Zagreb and Ljubljana. In order to consolidate architectural and engineering activities for engineers and architects outside the civil service, in October 1924 the government issued a provisional decree establishing the same conditions for performing the activity, with the integration of acquired rights from the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and the Kingdom of Serbia. Objective opportunities in the architectural scene during the 1930s, even in the case of more frequent design activities, did not support the profession of architecture. Modern regulatory solutions from 1937 and 1938 (Low of Authorized Engineers, with a set of by-laws) provided an adequate legislative framework to protect the architectural profession, but due to World War II, the application of these regulations did not produce the expected results, so the process of professionalization in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia remained unfinished.

Research, once associated only with academia, now equally connects to learning and practice in architecture, as focus has shifted towards a wider design research community. Research has become inclusive of formerly marginalised areas such as process-oriented and practice-based research in the arts and humanities as well as applied commercial research undertaken by industry. Providing a first study of this shift, this paper explores why design research is of growing importance to architecture. It systematically analyses a selection of current cases at the intersection of architectural practice and education within the UK to survey existing design research approaches, and asks: How can design research transform and create new architectural practices and forms of education? Following this question, the paper discusses some of the design research models used across architectural practice and education.

In the process of the production of space, architects are representatives of institutional knowledge. They have power and control over production of space either directly by taking part in this process via their personal practices or indirectly by affecting it through their professional organizations. The role of professional ethics in architecture should be limiting and leading this power through describing architect’s responsibilities and also should be preventing unethical attitudes in all kinds of spatial practices by using this power and knowledge. However the professional codes prepared by architects’ organizations generally frame personal responsibilities of architects, tend to protect the professional interests and ignore collective responsibilities of architects. This article is an attempt to criticize professional ethics in general and codes of architectural ethics particularly within the framework of responsibilities of architecture towards humanity. For this purpose, the draft document on ethical conduct prepared by Ankara Chamber of Architects, Code of Professional Conduct of Royal Institute of British Architects – RIBA and Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct of American Institute of Architects – AIA will be investigated as case studies.

In the last year of the university studies, the architecture student finds himself in direct contact with the profession of an architect by spending a minimum of eight months in a professional internship. By being a part of a team in an architecture studio or company, this internship allows the student to make a transition from the “Academic Architecture” to the “Professional Architecture”. The student learns about the various missions of the architect, all the steps involved in the development of a realistic and coherent project that can be carried out within admissible deadlines and budget limits. As well as learning the familiarization with all the engineers and mainly with the costumer. This experience is essential for the architecture student to build up a global vision about the professional life and to establish himself in the field of architecture after obtaining his “National Diploma of an Architect”.

Professional practice is the application of an expert body of knowledge to solve certain social and personal needs. In architecture, professional practice is concerned with creating value for the customer; such value has come to mean conceiving designs whose structures last longer, use energy more efficiently and are cost efficient to owners.
Architectural practice involves combining the art, science as well as the management components; applying them to design and building construction under an organized system or business to make profit.
However, as with any human enterprise, several factors set themselves as barriers to an architectural practice achieving its laudable aim. Some of these challenges are a direct fall-out of prevailing economic climate; while many of them are recurrent issues that have plagued architects in practice for years. These issues both the external and internal challenges that architects in practice face will be duly explored in this write-up.

Zadruga Arhitekt unikatna je inicijativa u vremenu nakon Drugoga svjetskog rata u granicama Federativne Narodne Republike Jugoslavije (FNRJ). Iako osnovana kao odgovor na monopolizaciju, centralizaciju i birokratizaciju poslijeratne arhitektonske profesije ona je imala i jasnu misiju stvaranja zajedničke arhitektonske platforme zasnovane na horizontalnoj suradnji i pristupu projektiranju. Ovakva je projektna organizacija, neosporno činila presedan u poslijeratnoj arhitektonskoj profesiji osiguravajući veću samostalnost rada i autonomiju u arhitektonskim realizacijama. Ona je u svojoj osnovi primjer arhitektonske organizacije zasnovane na elementima kapitalističkog poslovanja, preuzimanjem, distribucijom i naplatom projektnih zadataka prema zahtjevima naručitelja na način koji nije bio uobičajen za ostale arhitektonske organizacije socijalističkoga društva. Arhitekti su međusobnim udruživanjem okupljanjem diskutiranjem i lobiranjem kako unutar stručnih tako i vanjskih političkih krugova uspjeli zasnovati zajedničku platformu koja je omogućila veće individulane slobode projektantskoga djelovanja. Imajući u vidu aktualnost teme zadrugarstva u arhitekturi koja se u hrvatskom slučaju ispituje i kroči neutabane staze u dvama primjerima inženjerskih zadruga, potreba za istraživanjem šireg polja arhitektonskog djelovanja od onog koji bi obuhvatio isključivo građenje, danas je i više neko relevantna.

This paper focuses on the ethical theories and practices relating to Critical Regionalism, Tropicality, and Contemporary Vernacular today. Ethical Relativism is selected as a main ethical philosophy to question, challenge, and examine the hybridized fusion that results when the complex structural dislocation of Western modern discourse is applied to different regional grounds far from its origin. Ethical Relativism denies that there is a single moral standard which is equally applicable to all people at all times. The empirically ascertained fact of this ethics is that there are a great many different and even conflicting rules and practices prevailing at different times and in different place. Therefore the same act may be regarded as right in one place and as wrong in another.

Mimarlık alanının tarihsel gelişimine baktığımız zaman, mimarlığın bir zanaat olarak ortaya çıkışını ve zanaatkar ustalar olarak mimarların bu alandaki kontrolü ele geçirmelerini, daha sonra mimarlığın bir disiplin haline gelmesini ve böylelikle formel eğitim almış mimarların bu alanda güç sahibi olmalarını, bunların birleşerek ve örgütlenerek, toplumsal yapı ve devlet nezdinde tanımlanarak ve kamu onayı alarak mimarlığı bir meslek alanına dönüştürmelerini ve son olarak da mimarlığın bir iş (business) ve uğraş (occupation) olarak kapitalist düzen içerisinde yerleşmesini çeşitli aşamalar olarak tanımlayabiliriz. Bu yazıda özellikle son yıllarda kapitalist düzen içerisinde yerini daha da pekiştiren mimarlığın durumu, İngilizce uğraş ve ayrıca işgal anlamına gelen occupation kelimesinden esinlenilerek ve mimarlığın ticarileşmesine vurgu yaparak türetilen "iş-gal" terimi bağlamında ve etik bir değerlendirme çerçevesinde eleştirilmektedir.

Why are architects faced with a long-standing crisis of legitimacy in democratic countries, even though going to an architect is required by law in most of these countries? Design work and project management have now turned into a competitive partnership within an egalitarian trend. The crisis of the architectural profes- sion results from the undermining of architects' powers relative to other actors. This fact clearly evokes a Tocquevillian paradigm: in democratic societies, the passion for equality tends to abolish all status differences. This article analyzes the relevance of this paradigm, comparing the unexpected consequences professionals complain about to the features of egalitarism described by Tocqueville. Finally, the author raises the question as to why this egalitarian phenomenon affected architects only from the second half of the XXth century on.

Temom izlaganja na naučnom simpozijumu posvećenom ulozi umetničkih, visokoškolskih i stručnih ustanova i udruženja u Kraljevini SHS/Jugoslaviji problematizuju se i kritički analiziraju aspekti i domeni arhitektonske profesije, koja se u Kraljevini SHS/Jugoslaviji do Drugog svetskog rata razvija nekoherentno, neuspevajući da se u potpunosti profiliše prema konceptima profesionalizija proizašlih iz širih modernizacijskih tokova. Osnov za savremenu arhitektonsku profesiju predstavljalo je obrazovanje arhitekata, koje od 1919. godine postoji na tri visokoškolske ustanove u Kraljevini – Beogradu, Zagrebu i Ljubljani. Nastavni programi arhitekture na Arhitektonskom odseku Tehničkog fakulteta u Beogradu, Tehničkoj visokoj školi u Zagrebu i Tehničkom fakultetu u Ljubljani imali su tehničku osnovu, čime se težilo austrijskom modelu obrazovanja civilnog tehničara – Ziviltechniker, odnosno kvalifikovane osobe koja je pod tim profesionalnim nazivom obavlja stručne poslove u oblastima arhitekture i inženjerstva. Ovakav pristup se potom odrazio i u stručnom osposobljavanju arhitekata radi sticanja ovlašćenja – profesionalnog naziva ili titule, koja je za arhitekte, sve do donošenja Zakona o ovlašćenim inženjerima iz 1937. godine, bila pod okriljem titule inženjera (ovlašćeni inženjer za arhitekturu).
Osim navedenih tehničkih škola, u Zagrebu se pri Akademiji likovnih umjetnosti 1926. godine osniva Arhitektonski odjel, na čijem čelu je bio arhitekta Drago Ibler. U tadašnjem miljeu školovanje arhitekata na umetničkoj akademiji nije nailazilo na šire razumevanje, naročito od strane arhitekata iz tradicionalnije provenijencije, pa tako arhitekta Vladimir Šterk smatra da „savremenog arhitektu može da odgoji samo ono tlo na kojem je savremena arhitektura nikla, a to je – tehnika” i da arhitekturi „nema mjesta na Umjetničkoj akademiji” jer „arhitektura nije likovna umejtnost”. Pravilnikom o delokrugu apsolvenata umetničke akademije arhitektonske struke, koji je doneo ministar građevina oktobra 1938. godine, onemogućava se osobama koje su stekle obrazovanje iz delokruga arhitekture na umetničkoj akademiji da koriste titulu arhitekta i državni grb na ličnom pečatu ovlašćenja.
U cilju konsolidovanja arhitektonske i inženjerske delatnosti, za inženjere i arhitekte izvan državne službe, kraljevska vlada je oktobra 1924. godine, na predlog Ministarstva građevina, donela Privremenu uredbu o ovlašćenim inženjerima i arhitektima u Kraljevini Srba, Hrvata i Slovenaca, kojom se uvode isti uslovi za obavljanje delatnosti i integrišu stečena prava iz Austro-Ugarske monarhije i Kraljevine Srbije; a na zahtev Udruženja jugoslovenskih inženjera i arhitekata, i Privremenu uredbu o osnivanju Inženjerskih Komora u Kraljevini Srba, Hrvata i Slovenaca, kako bi se prevazišle različite tradicije strukovnog udruživanja u svim delovima Kraljevine. Privremenom uredbom o ovlašćenim inženjerima i arhitektima započet je proces profesionalizacije, posebno značajan za nove generacije arhitekata obrazovanih na tehničkim školama nakon 1919. godine, premda je pojam arhitekta između dva svetska rata, kako ističe Branislav Kojić, bio neodređen, maglovit i promenljiv, zbog čega su poslove arhitekte često obavljali građevinski inženjeri. U pogledu zaštite arhitektonske profesije, naročito u pogledu obavljanja stručnih poslova, Udruženje jugoslovenskih inženjera i arhitekata nije imalo razvijene odgovarajuće mehanizme. Objektivne prilike na arhitektonskoj sceni, čak i u slučaju češćih projektantskih aktivnosti, nisu išle u prilog arhitektonskoj profesiji, dok je sam arhitekta, kako će to kasnije okarakterisati arhitekta Milorad Macura, ostao „naviknut da se sa poslodavcem bori i sporazumeva, očekujući da bude izigran ali i želeći da se za to naplati, čineći kompromise i ustupke”.
Savremena regulatorna rešenja obuhvaćena Zakonom o ovlašćenim inženjerima iz 1937. godine, kao i setom podzakonskih akata donetih na osnovu njega (pravilnik o poslovanju disciplinskih sudova inženjerskih komora, pravilnik o polaganju stručnog ispita za arhitekte i inženjere, pravilnik o konkursima), dala su adekvatan zakonodavni okvir za zaštitu arhitektonske profesije, ali zbog Drugog svetskog rata primena ovih propisa nije dala očekivane rezultate, tako da proces profesionalizacije u Kraljevini Jugoslaviji ostaje nezavršen.

As a result of a recent adoption of the so called «third
generation» of the Federal Higher Educational Standards Russian architectural education is getting ready for a period of radical reforms. There appears a chance to reach an accord of the education with the needs of professional practice and to pave the way for
renewal of the practice itself in socially favorable directions. To what extent contemporary structural arrangement of the field of design, as it has been fixed in the State Classifier, can be a foundation for reshaping the architectural education? What does Russian design field look like at the international background and what are its recent developments? The paper reveals the author’s major findings, incl.:
analysis of Training Fields’ Roster, currently in force, and design professions within it; a brief outlook of methodology of design field demarcation used abroad; a comparative analysis of a part of design vocabulary of Russian and English speaking segments of the
Internet. Conclusion has been made that design and design education in Russia should be reformed simultaneously and in close agreement with one another as far as the structure of design training areas and the structure of practical design fields are
concerned.

Après une introduction sur le rôle de l’histoire de l’architecture dans les écoles d’architecture en Italie, la première partie de la conférence sera dédiée à illustrer mon parcours et mes itinéraires de recherche, en posant l’accent sur des éléments de méthodologie de recherche en historie de l’architecture. La deuxième partie sera dédiée à l’exposition à ma recherche en cours, consacrée à l’investigation sur le métier de l’architecte, en Italie, à l’époque moderne, ciblée particulièrement sur certains aspects techniques et opérationnels de la pratique professionnelle quotidienne, tels que l'arithmétique pratique, les techniques du relevé avec la boussole, la transposition graphique de ce relevé, la méthode de dessin, y compris certaines conventions graphiques encore en usage aujourd'hui, le système d'échelle « métrique », les maquettes en papier. Baldassarre Peruzzi (1481-1536) sera pris comme cas d’étude, en concentrant notre attention sur le processus d'élaboration du projet et sur l’analyse du dessin.

This paper traces the implications of Semper's Bekleidung theory on working processes in the field of architecture in Zagreb. The idiosyncrasies of the work of freshly graduated architects in a peripheral Austro-Hungarian city are analysed, both in the context of developing and spreading the city block system and the appearance of the new Art Nouveau style. Buildings in this new modern style, which appeared in 1897, were built sporadically throughout the city's urban fabric, which generally consisted of historicist residential buildings at the time. Parallel to historicism, the demand for Art Nouveau from clients grew, especially around the turn of the 20th century. At the time, typical migration processes resulted in the arrival of a well-educated populace that would commission Art Nouveau buildings in the coming years. The unique characteristics of Art Nouveau style, especially its ability to directly engage citizens and transmit messages of modern times, proved to be an important determinant in its increasing popularity in the city. Many professions and products were advertised on the façades and ornamentation of buildings, the main bearers of Art Nouveau style.

Article about the production of design knowledge in the architectural profession in HORIZONTE Journal For Architectural Discourse #11 "Wissen/Knowledge".

What does architecture know? Its knowledge is often taken for granted, as a common basis of our profession. Something completed in its entirety that merely relies on memory and interpretation. It is diffcult to discern what makes its production and consumption and how they correlate. Do we know when we are moving inside the limits of knowledge and when we are leaving them?

Bauhaus-Universität Weimar, Germany

Comparative analysis of architectural educational standards is provided in the United States and Russia with an emphasis on the importance of balancing profit-making and public interest in this professional field. The conclusion is made that it is important to incorporate the ethical end-goals of the architectural profession directly into the training of students in architecture.
programs and related associations/agencies in order to better train future architectural
professionals.

Globalization and Neo-liberalization of the political economy in different nations has transformed the organization of labour power, instruments of production and their relations in recent decades. The industrial period’s institutionalization of the state as modern, centralised, socialized and with a national identity is being replaced by the post-modern, glocal (global+local), multi-national and privatized state.
The professions of architecture and urban planning have been faced with big transformations parallel to these changes and have passed from the era of professionalism and entered to the ‘post professional’ era. Post Professional Architecture and Planning is losing its public, national and social role through being restructured via business-led motivations. The main motivation of architectural and urban practices in the post professional era have shifted from designers’ personal attempts at creating spaces with high ‘use value’, in the public
interest, towards the image-oriented, high ‘exchange value’ productions of specialists for private interests.
Both in architecture and urban planning, their practice and education has been re-organized in the era of “post-professionalism”. The intended technical and professional mono-type curricula of architecture and planning education changed to more diverse, theoretical and experimental educational programmes worldwide. The professional organizations changed their shells and became more independent institutes with more activities and visions beyond their traditional professional parameters. While mainstream architecture and urban planning has transformed to the business model, alternative movements in architecture and
planning have created architectural and urban activism and re-made the political agenda for architecture and urbanism by establishing diverse initiatives against war, natural disasters, environmental degradation, inequalities, and violations of human rights. Post-Professional Architecture and Urban Planning appears in these two forms of architectural-urban business and activism. While the first one derives from neoliberalization of professionalism in architecture and urbanism, the second one is the reaction against neoliberalization from architectural and urban point of view. The aim is to create a book to discuss various
transformations of architectural and urban practice and education in the changeover from the era of
“professionalism” to that of “post-professionalism”.

La présentation est dédiée à l’exposition à ma recherche en cours, consacrée à l’investigation sur le métier de l’architecte, en Italie, à l’époque moderne, ciblée particulièrement sur certains aspects techniques et opérationnels de la pratique professionnelle quotidienne, tels que l'arithmétique pratique, les techniques du relevé avec la boussole, la transposition graphique de ce relevé, la méthode de dessin, y compris certaines conventions graphiques encore en usage aujourd'hui, le système d'échelle « métrique », les maquettes en papier. Baldassarre Peruzzi (1481-1536) sera pris comme cas d’étude, en concentrant notre attention sur le processus d'élaboration du projet et sur l’analyse du dessin.

La formation des architectes dans les ateliers de l’École des beaux-arts au XIXe siècle est peut-être l’une des plus propices aux manifestations de convivialité : si celles-ci font écho au mode individuel et collectif de l’apprentissage, elles se poursuivent aussi entre confrères après la fin de leur scolarité. Prenant en premier lieu la forme de rendez-vous festifs annuels – « banquet », « dîner » ou « réunion amicale » –, cette sociabilité évolue dans les dernières décennies du siècle vers la création plus formalisée d’« associations » ou « amicales ».
Qu’elles visent à réunir les élèves d’un atelier, d’un professeur ou ceux de l’École toute entière, manifestations et associations partagent globalement des finalités comparables : entretenir les liens de camaraderie et de confraternité mais assurer également la prospérité et la renommée de l’École. Sans doute ce dernier point devient-il plus crucial dans les dernières décennies du siècle, dans un contexte où précisément l’hégémonie de l’École des beaux-arts est davantage contestée. Dans quelle mesure le foisonnement de ces associations reflète-t-il plus largement les objectifs défensifs et les débats qui marquent la corporation des architectes, dont ni le titre, ni l’exercice ne sont réglementés ?

The four ‘Adelphi’ brothers are today considered the leaders of architectural design in eighteenth-century Britain; John, Robert, James and William Adam have accordingly been studied in great depth.  However, largely omitted from the hundreds of publications about the brothers’ lives and works is the existence and assistance of their six sisters: Mary, Janet, Elizabeth, Helen, Susannah and Margaret Adam.  This paper will explore, for the first time, the lives of the ‘Adelphe’ Sisters and their contribution to the Adam family architectural practice, c.1750 to 1800. 

Though not aiming to suggest that the Adam Sisters were actively involved in the design process, this paper uncovers the crucial role the Adam Sisters played in the business and operations of their brothers’ architectural practice.  Firstly, the four unmarried sisters acted as hostesses and managers for their brothers’ household in London, and later Robert Adam’s ‘satellite’ office in Edinburgh. Secondly, they acted as advisors to their brothers, consulting and commenting on patrons, draftsmen, and other business matters.  Finally, through their letter writing the Adam Sisters acted as conduits for the exchange of information between the Adam offices in London and Edinburgh, as well as between Italy and England whilst Robert and James were on their Grand Tours.  Through revaluating and subverting a popular architectural history, this paper will explore the previously unacknowledged yet essential role of the Adam Sisters in the success of the Adam Brothers’ architectural practice.

« Quelle école fréquenter ? » en matière de formation des futurs constructeurs, est une question fondamentale qui se pose dans un pays au statut périphérique en matière de formation architecturale comme la Suisse, dont les écoles techniques nommées technicums fondées à la fin du XIXe siècle ne dispenseront qu’une préparation à l’accès aux grandes écoles comme Zurich ou Paris. Au-delà du choix souvent crucial entre système Beaux-Arts ou formation polytechnique, que la plupart des étudiants résolvent en s’inscrivant dans deux, voire trois établissements, se profilent la complexité et la diversité des cursus académiques ainsi que la question de la réputation de ces écoles.

This chapter in Lifting the Curtain book looks at diverse types of alternative design practices and collectives that had emerged in Belgrade, Serbia, during the socialist era. I would argue that there were practices developing under political, ideological, economical or social constraints of the socialist period, that demonstrated alternatives in both architectural sense of the design itself and in the sense of professional practice diversity. In the recent two decades, deep research of ideas, networks and processes of the Cold War era’s bipolar world has started to show a great variety in practicing architecture on the other side of the Iron curtain, which were largely overlooked in previous research. I propose in this chapter, that the alternative practices largely anticipated the socialist system’s aftermath, that is, the ways of entrepreneurship, individual initiative and collaborations between public and private sectors.

Architectural profession is stratified, it contains different layers of activities, with diversified 'social fundamentals'. But this fact rarely affects education. In this paper five niches of professional services are isolated, and discussed from the positions of different social status of an architect, his motivation and responsibility, major social considerations to be regarded (if any), methods of social research, 'project team' compositions, client's status, processes of design, and specificities of the design solutions.

Technology advances as 'progress' and efficacy, while danger builds. This danger is conflict in humanity and conflict with nature. This is proposed as similar to architectural value in conflict with the technicist value proxy to question the profession. Network Society as information technology in the space of communication, forming virtual spaces that transform social space is exemplary of this conflict. Architects define the space of Network Society's emerging social order. This emergence is another opportunity to understand the need for and to 'turn' the profession to its original paradigm.

Architecture appears as paradox in Machine Ages and its Network Society. It's original superordinate programme is in conflict with its means. Human consciousness has a role that architecture supports. This paper outlines the parameters for the inevitable transition that reveals this role as the conflict in practice turned to means to reveal and become that original paradigm.

Parmi les moyens qu’emploient au XIXe siècle les sociétés professionnelles d’architectes pour revendiquer l’honorabilité de leur métier, défendre le titre et construire une confraternité corporative, les publications tiennent une place dont l’apparente importance mérite d’être analysée. Dans cette perspective, il s’agit ici d’examiner les liens entre le projet institutionnel de ces sociétés et le lectorat escompté de leurs multiples publications. Dans quelle mesure, la volonté – explicite ou implicite – de toucher un public élargi dépassant leurs membres et même les seuls architectes contribue-t-elle à construire l’identité de la profession non seulement à l’intérieur de la corporation, mais aussi au-delà ?

in Etudes de lettres, "Profils d'architectes", Dave Lüthi (dir.), 2017 / 1, p. 51-68.

Current debates about building performance evaluation often emphasise the 'performance gap' between how buildings perform in practice and how performance was envisaged during the design stage. While such debates continue to be dominated by energy considerations, increasing attention is directed towards the subjective experiences of building users in terms of thermal comfort and wellbeing. The latter trends are undoubtedly to be welcomed, but buildings continue to be conceptualised as fixed physical objects rather than entities that are enacted in practice. With the aim of challenging current assumptions, research is described which sought to reclaim the concept of building appraisal as practised by the pioneering architectural practice DEGW. The concept of building appraisal differs from current notions of building performance evaluation in that the point of departure was not the supposedly fixed entity of the building, but the essential fluidity of the occupying organisation and their aspirations in terms of space. Empirical data is derived from archival sources and through extensive interaction with the DEGW diaspora, many of whom remain active at the leading edge of international practice. It is concluded that the continued fixation with the 'performance gap' reinforces long-since discredited assumptions of environmental determinism.

English translation of a presentation by Helen Fessas-Emmanouil to the 11th Panhellenic Architectural Conference on the theme of “The Architectural Profession”, 17-20.3.2011, Athens, Zappeion Hall (See: http://www.sadas-pea.gr/11o-panellhnio-synedrio/ )

The study inquires into the modes of operation, relations of production and forms of institutionalization in the architectural scene of the first half of the 20th century in Turkey, the period that witnessed the professionalization of the discipline in the country in the modern sense of the word. The focus of research is the architectural production in the public offices, especially the design office in the Ministry of Public Works, which is responsible for a major portion of the modern construction program that the country underwent in the early Republican era. The dissertation brings in an approach that has not been widely followed in the present architectural history studies on the modern architecture in Turkey. Instead of focusing on architectural products, architect individuals/groups or discursive and theoretical formations of architectural thought, it inquiries into the institutional forms of architectural production and the occupational practices within the profession, and i...

Mekan üretim sürecinde mimarlar, kurumsal bilginin temsilcileridirler. Mimarlar ya kişisel pratikleriyle doğrudan mekan üretiminde yer almalarıyla, ya da dolaylı olarak kurumsal örgütleri aracılığıyla kolektif bir biçimde bu üretim sürecini etkilemeleriyle, mekan üretimi süreci üzerinde bir güç ve kontrole sahiptirler. Mimarlıkta meslek etiğinin rolü de mimarların sorumluluklarını tanımlayarak mekan üretimi süreci üzerindeki güçlerini sınırlandırmak ve yönlendirmek, buna ek olarak bu bilgi ve güç sayesinde mekanla alakalı etik olmayan tutumları önlemek olmalıdır. Ancak meslek örgütleri tarafından hazırlanan meslek etiği belgeleri çoğu zaman mimarların kişisel sorumluluklarına yer vermekte, meslek çıkarlarını koruma eğiliminde olmakta ve mimarların kolektif sorumluluklarını göz ardı etmektedir. Bu yazı, mimarlığın insanlığa karşı sorumlulukları bağlamında genel olarak mesleki etik alanını ve özel olarak mimarlık etiği belgelerini eleştirmeyi hedeflemektedir. Yazıda, Mimarlar Odası Ankara Şubesi’nin etik davranış konusunda hazırladığı taslak metin, Britanyalı Mimarlar Kraliyet Enstitüsü’nün (Royal Institute of British Architects [RIBA]) Mesleki Davranış Kodu ve Amerikan Mimarlar Enstitüsü (American Institute of Architects [AIA]) Etik ve Mesleki Davranış Kodu örnek çalışmalar olarak incelenmektedir.
ABSTRACT:
In the process of the production of space, architects are representatives of institutional knowledge. They have power and control over production of space either directly by taking part in this process via their personal practices or indirectly by affecting it through their professional organizations. The role of professional ethics in architecture should be limiting and leading this power through describing architect’s responsibilities and also should be preventing unethical attitudes in all kinds of spatial practices by using this power and knowledge. However the professional codes prepared by architects’ organizations generally frame personal responsibilities of architects, tend to protect the professional interests and ignore collective responsibilities of architects. This article is an attempt to criticize professional ethics in general and codes of architectural ethics particularly within the framework of responsibilities of architecture towards humanity. For this purpose, the draft document on ethical conduct prepared by Ankara Chamber of Architects, Code of Professional Conduct of Royal Institute of British Architects – RIBA and Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct of American Institute of Architects – AIA will be investigated as case studies.

Many scholars posit that Adam's success, after settling in London in 1758, was immediate and exponential, skipping from his Grand Tour (1754-1758) straight to major architectural commissions like Croome Court in 1760 and Syon House in 1761.  But to infer that the establishment of his professional reputation was instantaneous overlooks the reality of the first two years of Adam’s London office.  This paper seeks to redress this imbalance and illustrate Adam’s career during this precarious and formative period.  It suggests that Adam’s early practice is indicative of the considerable economic risk and professional challenges Scottish, and English, artists and architects faced upon arriving and establishing a practice in London. 

However, Adam was at a distinct advantage to thrive because of his early training, European travels, family legacy and financial backing; each of these factors allowed him to succeed in expanding the family business from provincial Edinburgh to the commercial mecca of London.  In examining the sources of his patronage and earliest commissions—Harewood, Kedleston, Thistleworth, and Hatchlands—it becomes apparent that what Adam did was at the same time both conventional and atypical.  These examples show the variety of commissions Adam took on, including unpaid consultancy, which would later lead him to larger commissions and further patronage. 

These new insights into Adam’s first two years in London can inform not only the way scholars look at the rest of his career, but can also provide an example with which to explore the making of a professional career in London in the mid-eighteenth century.

Après un numéro inaugural (Varia), ce premier opus des « Publications en ligne du GHAMU. Annales du Centre Ledoux (Nouvelle série) » rassemble une partie des communications des tables-rondes sur le « Métier de l’architecte au XVIIIe siècle », tenues à l’Université de Paris Nanterre les 24 février, 17 mars et 28 avril  2017. Ces rencontres, organisées par Emmanuel Château-Dutier (Université de Montréal), Dominique Massounie (Université de Paris Nanterre, HAR), Marie-Luce Pujalte-Fraysse (Université de Poitiers, CRIHAM) et Yvon Plouzennec (Sorbonne Université & Université de Poitiers), ont donné lieu à de riches échanges et ont permis d’aborder divers sujets liés à la vie et à la profession des architectes au siècle des Lumières. De la Régence à la période révolutionnaire, l’objectif de ces tables-rondes était de mettre en perspective les cas individuels, afin de saisir les spécificités de l’activité des architectes sur le terrain ainsi que les dynamiques auxquelles sont soumises leurs carrières.

This project takes on the unspoken in architectural education, and by extension practice, with an approach to spirituality that brings an evaluation of the role of technology in architecture.
An unspoken issue of increasing priority in architectural education is the under developed differentiation between architecture and technology. Almost all of the qualifications whereby an architect is prepared for and is permitted to practice professionally are technological parameters. But architecture is not technology. Architecture is, however, both protected by and obscured thru technology being in the forefront which means that it is both of benefit and a hindrance.
Architecture being undifferentiated from technology and named in terms of technology thus allows the issue to stay safely within the pragmatic assertion of professionalism which is set up during an education mainly controlled by the profession. Within that is a nascent architectural impulse that resides largely unspoken but which is nonetheless evolved and evolving and shared. The unrevealed architecture generates an aura of the mysterious and the radical which that contributes a greatly to the intensity of mundane and well known work.
This paper examines how architectural technology obviates a space of differentiation within architecture which may be examined phenomenologically in terms of the essence of humanity, whereby architecture has an original ontological correlation with human aspiration. This will be supported with the well known — for brevity — theoretical and practical examples around the work of Heidegger, Louis I. Kahn. Along with phenomenology, we will introduce philosophies of spiritual practice collectively called rajayoga. The latter is a millenia long experiment with well documented research into human aspiration. The paper concludes with examples of architecture presencing this space of differentiation and suggests the implications on the profession of an education that scan develop the super-ordinate programme that is architectural practice.

Η εισήγησή αφορά κατ' αρχήν στην εξέλιξη της δομής των σπουδών στις Αρχιτεκτονικές Σχολές σε σχέση με την Διακήρυξη της Μπολόνια (2000) και τις μετέπειτα προσπάθειες εφαρμογής της, σε συνάρτηση με τις προβλέψεις των Οδηγιών για την αναγνώριση των επαγγελματικών προσόντων του αρχιτέκτονα και την άσκηση της Αρχιτεκτονικής στην Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση. Ειδικότερα σχολιάζονται οι προσεγγίσεις που αφορούν στην διάκριση (ή μη) των αρχιτεκτονικών σπουδών σε κύκλους, το περιεχόμενο των σπουδών σε σχέση με την άσκηση του επαγγέλματος στις χώρες της Ε. Ένωσης και στην συνεχιζόμενη εκπαίδευση. Επίσης, σχολιάζονται επιγραμματικά οι επεξεργασίες στο πλαίσιο του Ευρωπαϊκού Συμβουλίου Αρχιτεκτόνων (ACE-CAE) για την αναθεώρηση της Οδηγίας για την αναγνώριση των επαγγελματικών προσόντων όσον αφορά στην πτυχή του θέματος που αναφέρεται στην εκπαίδευση σε σχέση με τις σχετικές επεξεργασίες στο πλαίσιο της Ομάδας Εργασίας Εκπαίδευσης (Education) του ACE. Κυρίως όμως, επιχειρείται να ενταχθούν όλες αυτές οι εξελίξεις στο πλαίσιο των αλλαγών στις πολιτικές της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης προς τον στόχο της «Ευρώπης 2020» και ειδικότερα των κατευθύνσεων της ΕΕ για την δημιουργία του Ευρωπαϊκού Χώρου Ανώτατης Εκπαίδευσης και του ρόλου της εκπαίδευσης στην κατεύθυνση της «Ευρώπης 2020».

Research into the basic components of North American system of architectural professionalism, embracing collegiate education, practical internship (IDP) and continuing education controlled through accreditation, licensure exam (ARE) and regular renewal of licensures

This paper was presented at the ID@50 Integrated Design Conference, 30 June – 1 July 2016, University of Bath, UK. The paper discusses the research design for a PhD project that examines how 'early career architects' engage with detailed design in architectural practice. The literature on detailed design in architectural practice points to a dominant discourse of experience informing decision making in preference to other forms of information, such as written guidance and standards. The literature gives only brief glimpses of recent graduates who can be considered 'early career architects' in relation to this dominant discourse. The literature also identifies that these 'early career architects' are encountering architectural practice as a discourse that is distinctively different to the discourse of architecture school. This research considers how these 'early career architects' learn to operate in an experience dominated setting. The research adopts an ethnographic approach using observation, diaries and interviews with participants to build a picture of their everyday actions and interactions during detailed design. The ongoing pilot study highlights a number issues that this approach has raised and how they are being addressed in a practical way.

The article belongs to the thematic "Crisis of the Profession" of the themes set by the curator —Association of Greek Architects (SADAS-PEA).

This article was published in English and Greek languages in the official edition of the catalogue of the Greek participation in the 15th Venice Architectural Biennale "Reporting from the Front" in 2016.