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Bakunin's Confession Author(s): Eric Voegelin Source: The Journal of Politics , Feb., 1946, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Feb., 1946), pp. 24-43 Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Southern Political Science Association Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2125606 JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms The University of Chicago Press and Southern Political Science Association are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of Politics This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms BAKUNIN'S CONFESSION ERIC VOEGELIN Louisitana State University In 1849 Bakunin was arrested and tried by the Saxon authorities for his participation in the uprising of Dresden; in 1850 he was sentenced to death. The sentence, however, was not executed because the Saxon authorities agreed to surrender him to the Austrians who sought him for his participation in the Czech revolt of 1848. Again he was tried, and in 1851 sentenced to death. This time the sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life. The commutation was a formality for it had been decided in advance that on the day of the sentence he would be transported to the Russian border and handed over to the Russian authorities. In Russia, Bakunin had already been sentenced in absentia to loss of the privileges of nobility and to hard labor for life in Siberia when, in 1844, he refused to obey an order to return to Russia. Hence, in 1851, Bakunin was not tried by the Russian authorities but was simply imprisoned in the Peter-Paul fortress, in execution of the earlier sentence. In the fortress, at first, nothing happened; Bakunin waited in vain for his deportation to Siberia. After two months the door of his cell opened, and he received a call from Count Orlov, aide-de-camp to the Tsar and chief of the Third Section. The caller informed Bakunin that he was sent by the Tsar personally, and was ordered to invite him to write a confession of his sins to the Tsar. "Tell him," the Tsar had ordered, "that he shall write to me like a spiritual son to his spiritual father." Bakunin accepted the invitation; the result is the Confession.' I The source for the visit of Count Orlov is a letter from Bakunin to Herzen, in Michail Bakunin's sozial-politischer Briefwechsel mit Alexander Iw. Herzen und Ogariow (Stuttgart, 1895), p. 35. The Confession was published from the Archives of the Third Section by V. A. Polonsky in Vol. I of his Materiali dlya biografii M. A. Bakunina (Moscow, 1923). The text used is: Michael Bakunins Beichte aus der Peter-Pauls-Festung an Zar Nikolaus I, ed. Kurt Kersten, Mit einem Vorwort von W. Polonski (Berlin, 1926). 24 This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1946] BAKUNIN'S CONFESSION 25 I. MOTIVES To write a confession of one's sins to the Tsar is not considered good form among revolutionaries. The biog- raphers of Bakunin, who are either revolutionaries themselves or at least have sufficient sympathy for the revolutionary code d'honneur to feel apologetic about their hero, have worked hard to minimize the horror. Some of their arguments point, quite aptly, to the circumstances of the confession. Bakunin was a pioneer and the code of conduct for revolutionaries had not yet become standardized. Moreover, Bakunin was a nobleman and an officer, and for a man in his social position it was not extravagant to communicate with men of his class. Beyond this point, however, there is not much to go on. What some of the biographers have to say about the psychological motivations of Bakunin and the still more fascinating occurrences in the soul of Nicholas I, is mostly pure literary fancy.2 Besides the Confession itself, there are only two immediate sources which could be of help for its understanding. The first source is the letter to Herzen quoted above. Bakunin tells in this letter that in an ordinary trial he would have pursued the same course as in his Saxon and Austrian hearings where he confessed to his principles but did not give any information whatsoever. "But within four walls, in the power of the bear," he might relax and write a sort of confession, in the manner of Dichtung und Wahrheit. Besides, his actions had been quite open any- way, and he had nothing to hide. He only preserved the care of not mentioning any names of persons who might be compromised by him. "In the consciousness of my apparently helpless situation and considering the energetic 2 On Bakunin's Confession see Polonski in the "Preface" to Michael Bakunins Beichte (Berlin, 1926); Helene Iswolski, La vie de Bakounine (Paris, 1930); E. Yaroslavski, History of Anarchism in Russia (New York, 1937); and Guy A. Aldred, Bakunin (Glasgow, 1940). The excellent work by E. H. Carr, Michael Bakunin (London, 1937), is adequate, but brief in its account. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 26 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 8 character of Nicholas, my letter was very decided and bold-and that is why he liked it." 3 The other source is a secret letter which he smuggled into the hands of members of his family when they were permitted to visit him. Here he depicts his physical decay as well as his fear of approaching mental deteripration if the solitary confinement which he has now suffered for two years should go on. And then he assures his relatives that his former convictions have not changed; they only have become more burning and unconditional. All that is left to him is comprised in the one word "Freedom!" This is not a desire for freedom from imprisonment only, but the desire to act again as a revolutionary. "Give me the possibility to act. It seems to me that I have never had so many ideas, never sensed such a burning urge for move- ment and action. I am not yet quite dead; and precisely this life of the soul which has through concentration be- come profounder and more powerful, now demands more than ever to express itself, now has become for me the inexhaustible source of sufferings which I do not even attempt to describe. You will never understand what it means to be buried alive, to say to oneself every minute of the day and night: I am a slave, I am annihilated, I have become helpless, the body still living." To hear the echo of the great struggle, and to be condemned to silence! Rich in ideas, and unable to realize a single one! "To feel love in the heart, yes, love in spite of the walls around, and not to be able to give it away for something or some- body. To feel oneself full of self-denial, and even heroism, to serve a thousandfold holy-idea-and to see all this striving broken by the four naked walls, my only witnesses, my only confidants." 4 The two sources, together with a few other indications 3 Letter to Herzen from Irkutsk, December 8, 1860, in Sozial- politiecher Briefwechsel, op. cit., pp. 35 ff. In weighing the value of this letter one will have to consider that it was written almost ten years after the Confession. ' Text of the letter in Michael Bakunins Beichte, op. cit., "Intro- duction" by Kurt Kersten, pp. xiii ff. This letter is approximately contemporary with the Confession. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1946] BAKUNIN'S CONFESSION 27 which we shall introduce presently, seem to open an understanding for Bakunin's situation which makes all speculation superfluous. There is, first of all, the plain, vital horror of physical and mental decay; any step that would bring relief in this respect, such as the hard labor requested as an act of grace by Bakunin, would seem justified as long as other persons are not endangered by the Confession. Faced by the finality of fate "in the power of the bear," forms can be relaxed. On the spiritual level, however, the situation is more complex. There seems to be a contradiction between the secret letter and certain formulations of the Confession. In the secret letter Bakunin admits freely that still there is firm in his heart the hope "to begin anew where I had to stop the work that brought me here, only with greater tenacity, perhaps with greater circumspection." The Confession, on the other hand, concludes with the formula: "the sincerely repentant sinner M.B." The contradiction is obvious but not simple, for the formula is not a straight lie. The formula of repentance in its turn is contradicted by the whole content of the Confession itself in which Bakunin frequently expresses his repentance in such terms that the non-repentance is clear. Towards the beginning, Bakunin begs the Tsar not to ask of him to become a traitor and to confess the sins of others. "Even in your own eyes, Emperor, I would rather appear as a political criminal deserving the severest punishment than as a rascal." 6 The Tsar who was of the stuff of which inquisitors are made, noted on the margin: "By these words already he destroys all confidence; if he feels the full weight of his sins, only a complete confession, not a conditioned one can be considered a confession." A few pages later Bakunin speaks of his philosophical and political disease which has brought him into his present condition, "and I do not know even now whether I am completely healed." Note of the Tsar: "N.B. !" 6 Further on, Bakunin addresses the Tsar: "Emperor, I shall not talk to G Ibid., pp. 2 ff. 6 Ibid., p. 5. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 28 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 8 you of my late repentance: Repentance in my situation is as useless as the repentance of a sinner after death." The Tsar did not fall for the trick; he noted: "Wrong, repentance of every sinner can bring salvation if only it comes from a pure heart." 7 The Confession, thus, is not an attempt at deceiving the Tsar. What then do the assurances of repentance mean, if by their very formulation they defeat the purpose of moving the Tsar by a sincere repentance? There seems to be only one answer to the question: the moods of Bakunin are complex; and while the secret letter shows the rebellious mood, in the Confession Bakunin worked himself into the state of sincerity and repentance that is revealed in his words; he could stand as a repentant sinner, to a degree, before the Tsar. How was that possible? A key is perhaps offered by certain reflections of Bakunin in his early article on Reaction in Germatny. In 1842 Bakunin distinguished between two types of reactionaries: the consistent and the mediating. The mediating type has his full contempt, but not so the consistent. "In our bad and conscienceless age, when so many try to hide before themselves the strict consequences of their own principles out of sheer cowardice, in order to escape the danger of being disturbed in the artificial and weak shell of their supposed convictions, we are greatly obliged to these men. They are sincere and honest; they want to be whole men. They are honest and whole men, or rather they want to be honest and whole men; and they hate every halfheartedness, just as we do, because they know that only a whole man can be good and that halfheartedness is the foul source of all wickedness." 8 7Ibid., p. 16. 'Die Reaktion in Deut-echland. Ein Fragment von einem Franzosen. Publiziert in Arnold Ruge's, Deutsche Jahrbuecher fuer Wissenschcaft und Kunst, in den NN. 247-251 vom 17, 18, 19, 20 und 21 Oktober, 1842, SS. 986-1001, Dresden. Pseudonym: Jules Elysard. We quote from the reprint in Michael Bakunin, Zwei Schriften aus den 40er Jahren des XIX. Jahrhunderts (Internationale Bibliothek fur Philosophie, Prague, 1936), Vol. 2, No. 11-12. The "Bibliothek" and these two publications of Bakunin are edited, with valuable notes, by Boris Jakowenko. The passage is quoted from p. 7. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1946] BAKUNIN'S CONFESSION 29 "The source of their striving is almost always honest." 9 There is more in common between Bakunin and a consistent reactionary than between him and a man who wants to compromise between traditions and the necessities of re- form. The Tsar was a consistent reactionary in this sense, and the letter to Herzen referring to the energetic character of Nicholas I seems to indicate a genuine respect for the enemy. Imponderables may have intensified this attitude, such as the fact that the Tsar was not the secular ruler only, but indeed Bakunin's spiritual head; as well as the memories of the officer-school and the enthusiasm of the young cadet for the Tsar on which the Confession dwells at length. To measure himself with this intimate and respected enemy was certainly a temptation. A further stratum of the soul is touched in the passages of the secret letter in which Bakunin expresses his despair that his self-denying and heroic love breaks in vain against the walls of the prison. This love of Bakunin, his political eros, does not go only to the "holy idea" of the revolution in a partisan fashion. It embraces also the opposing actors in the drama of freedom. Again the article of 1842 is greatly revealing for this problem. Bakunin asks himself whether the revolutionary should return in kind the hatred of the reactionaries. His answer: "No, that would not be worthy of the good cause of which we are the organs." By its very existence a partisan onesidedness presupposes the existence of another onesidedness. The revolutionary as a human being will be filled in the struggle with "evil passions," he will be partial and hateful. But that cannot be the last word, for in this case the revolution would not be any better than the reaction. To be a revolutionary partisan in politics can be justified only if "the onesided, merely political existence is perpetually overcome [aufgehoben] in the religion of the comprehensive and allsided principle." The revolutionary has to recognize in his reactionary opponent that he really wills the good and that only "by an incomprehensible misfortune" he, as an in9 Ibid., p. 9. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 30 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 8 dividual, has been detracted from his true destiny. "To us alone, who are called the enemies of the Christian religion, is it reserved and even made our highest duty to practice love concretely even in the hottest struggle, this highest command of Christ and this only essence of true Christianity." 10 The love that recognizes in the enemy a brother who also wills the good, and is perhaps even a secret partner in the common struggle, is a strong trait running through Bakunin's life. In the Russian legend Christ kisses Judas for his betrayal: before the face of God both have their roles in the drama of salvation; the one has to betray so that the other can redeem as the victim of the betrayal. That kiss is given again by Christ to the Great Inquisitor, in The Brothers Karamazov. Finally, we have to consider another "confession" of Bakunin, made a few years earlier in a letter to Annenkov.11 Bakunin tells his friend that his life had been determined by almost involuntary turns, independent of his own plans. "God knows where it will lead me. I only feel that I shall never retrace my steps and never shall be disloyal to my convictions. In this lies the whole strength and dignity; in this lies the whole reality and the whole truth of my life; in this lies my faith and my duty; for the rest I care little. This is my confession." If this should sound like mysticism, he continues,-well, who is not a mystic? Is there any life without mysticism? "Life is only where there is a severe, unlimited and therefore somewhat mystical horizon. Indeed we know almost nothing; we live in a living sphere, surrounded by miracles and vital forces; and everyone of our steps can bring them to light without our knowledge and frequently even without our will." The "severe and unlimited horizon" is the perfect symbol of a force that feels direction but sees no aim. The most unexpected contingencies in the sense of the fortuna secunda et adversa may arise to such a force which has no other standard but the loyalty to its demonic urge. l' Ibid., p. 8. " Letter to Annenkov, Brussels, December 28, 1847, in Soziatl politischer Briefwechsel, op. cit., p. 7. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1946] BAKUNIN'S CONFESSION 31 And who could say what might happen when the Tsar reads the Confession? The demonic adventure of throw- ing the Confession into time, as a potential crystallizing point for unknowable happenings, has to be taken into account in understanding Bakunin's act. II. CONTENTS The Confession itself is one of the most accomplished literary pieces written by Bakunin. It surveys his life from his youth in the officer-school,. and dwells at length on his revolutionary activities in the forties in France, Prussia, Saxony, and Austria. Because of this content it is, together with his other writings of the late forties, an important source of the revolutionary events of 1848 and 1849. The problems of political history, however, are not our primary concern. We have to explore rather the elements of the Confession which contribute to the understanding of Bakunin's revolutionary existence in the amplitude of crime and repentance. We have to ask, therefore, what precisely did Bakunin repent and what were the motives of repentance? Bakunin did not repent for a moment his revolutionary existence as such. He repented its futility. And he repented because his observation of the revolutionary events in Paris and Berlin, in Frankfurt, Baden, Dresden, and Prague had filled him with a solid disgust for the freedomloving republicans who turn and betray their revolution as soon as they feel their property interests at stake, and are only too glad to return to the fold of conservative power. The revolutionary experiences have produced in Bakunin a profound contempt for the West, especially of Germany. Correspondingly, his Russian national sentiments have become warmer than they were before; and while he has not at all become blind to the Russian evils, he has also discovered that Russia is not quite as bad as the West, and, particularly, that the consistently reaction- ary Tsar- is a figure of quality compared with the European monarchs who trembled abjectly in the face of the revolts This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 32 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 8 of 1848. "In spite of my democratic convictions, I have worshipped you profoundly in the last years, as it were against my will. Not I alone but many others, Poles and Europeans in general, have understood like myself that you are the only one among the ruling heads of the time who has preserved his faith in his imperial calling." 12 The disillusionment and repentance of Bakunin are closely connected with his attitude towards communism and the communist sects and secret societies of the forties. From the point of view of his revolutionary existence, Bakunin does not envisage a communist property order as the direct aim of the revolution that would abolish the evils of society. A mere change of property order without a "real," democratic revolution would not interest him. Communism would inevitably be incident to the revolution, but it would not be its purpose. Hence the communist move- ment is a symptom of social decay; it does not open a road to salvation. Bakunin insists in the Confession that he never was a communist, though he followed the movement with great interest because he saw in it "the natural, necessary, and inevitable result of the economic and political development of Western Europe." The social order of the West is corrupt and can be maintained only with the greatest effort. This state is the only explanation for "the panic terror" which in 1848 gripped the Western countries with the exception of England. "Wherever one turns in Western Europe one sees decadence, unbelief, and corruption, a corruption which has its roots in unbelief. From the uppermost social levels down, no person, no privi- leged class, has the faith in its calling and right." Privileges are maintained by egoism and habit only. "This is in my opinion the essence and the strength of commun- ism . . .: Communism had and has its starting point at least as much from the top as from below; below in the masses it grows and lives as an unclear but energetic de- mand, as the instinct of revolt; in the upper classes it appears as the instinct of a threatening and- deserved dis'2Michael Bakunins Beichte, op. cit., p. 25. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1946] BAKUNIN'S CONFESSION 33 aster, as an indeterminate and helpless anxiety caused by their own weakness and bad conscience." This anxiety and the perpetual howling about communism have contributed more to its spreading than the propaganda of the communists. "I believe that this indeterminate, invisible, intangible, but omnipresent communism, which under various forms but without exception is alive everywhere, is a thousand times more dangerous than the exact, systematized variety which is preached only in a few secret and public societies." In 1848, these societies revealed their impotence in England, France, and Belgium; more- over their program is so impractical that they could not survive three days of success. For once, Bakunin and the Tsar are in hearty agreement; the analysis of a Western society that is plagued by its bad conscience is annotated by Nicholas I with such remarks as "Right" and "A pertient truth." 13 The change of the economic order, thus, would interest Bakunin only as the inevitable accompaniment of a Western revolution. But for a real revolution the West is not ripe as the events of 1848 have shown. With this disillusionment and with the despair caused by a futile life, we touch the core of Bakunin's revolutionary attitude, and not of Bakunin's only but generally of the Russian revolutionaries of the nineteenth century. Bakunin was forced into revolutionary existence because only in a revolutionized Russia could a man of his energy and quality find an adequate field of action. The revolution in the West was of vital importance for him because he hoped that it would be the signal for the revolution in Russia; and the Russian revolution would enable him to go home and play an active role in the politics of his country. The Russian intelli- gentsia of the nineteenth century grows into a class outside the classes because the social and political order (in which even praise of the government was considered a subversive insolence) does not leave room for constructive action within the order to men of intelligence, temperament, educa18 Ibid., pp. 7 ff. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 34 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 8 tion, mature personality, and a moral will to reform. It has become a commonplace in the analysis of revolution that a government is in danger when the intellectuals go into opposition. As a surface description the commonplace contains a truth. But it does not bring out the underlying problem that intellectuals do not go into opposition of their own choice but because in their society they find nothing better and more dignified to do. A social order reaches its critical phase when men of intellectual and moral integrity would have to debase themselves if they would participate in public life. The gravest insult to human personality is the denial of opportunity to let qualities of high value become an active force in society. When a society has reached the stage of corruption where its most valuable members are simply shoved aside the consequence will be, according to personality types, withdrawal into contemplation or active resistance to the point of revolutionary destruction and criminality. The Russian social order of the time of Bakunin had developed a degree of repression which produced as its counterpart the extreme forms of nihilism. In his time, an educated Russian in his social position had the choice of sitting on his property and exploiting serfs, or of entering an administrative service in which he would have to submit to the rules of conduct of a depraved bureaucracy, or of becoming an officer in the army with a life of dull routine in out-of-the-world places in the company of some- what uninspiring comrades.'4 In the generation after 1 A forceful outbreak of the sentiment of repression is to be found in Bakunin's speech on the anniversary of the Polish revolution in 1847; "Nous aussi nous sommes gouvernes par une main etrangere, par un souverain d'origine allemande qui ne comprendra jamais ni les besoins ni le caractere du peuple russe, et dont le gouvernement, melange singulier de brutalit6 mongole et de pedan- tisme prussien, exclut completement l'element national. De sorte que, prives de tous droits politiques, nous n'avons pas meme cette libert6, patriarcale, pour ainsi dire, dont jouissent les peuples les moins civilises et qui permet du moins a l'homme de reposer son coeur dans un milieu indigene et de s'abandonner pleinement aux instincts de sa race. Nous n'avons rien de tout cela: aucun geste naturel, aucun mouvement libre ne nous est permnis. Il nous est presque d6fendu This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1946] BAKUNIN'S CONFESSION 35 Bakunin when the problem of an intellectually mature and active life had spread to the middle-class, the situation became aggravated because the lower-class intellectuals did not even have the career chances of a Bakunin. In a country without public life of the people, wedged in between the governmental organization of an upper class which they despised and a peasant people with which they had no contact, the intellectuals stood before a blank wall of nothingness, and nihilism to the point of terroristic murder became a sensible means of expression because for some of them it was the only one at their disposition. The prison walls against which the love of Bakunin broke were only the ultimate physical embodiment of the prison walls of society against which an active intelligence hammered until it was exhausted and broken. In this light we have to read the touching confession of Bakunin: "I would have subordinated myself to anybody if I had recognized in him the ability, the means and the firm will to serve the principles which I held as absolute truths. I would have followed him joyfully and would have subordinated myself to him with pleasure, because I have always respected and loved discipline that rests on conviction and faith." And then he turns his great problem even into a personal vice: "My nature had always a deep-rooted vice: my love for fantastical, for unusual, unheard-of adventures which open unlimited horizons. In an everyday and quiet circle I felt I had to suffocate. Usually men are in search of quiet and see in it the highest good. But to me quiet brought despair; my soul was in incessant excitement; it demanded action, movement and life. I should have been born some- where among western colonists in the American woods, where civilization is only about to blossom forth, where life is still an incessant struggle against wild men and de vivre, car toute vie implique une certaine independance, et nous ne sommes que les rouages inanimes de cette monstrueuse machine d'oppression et de conquete qu'on appelle l'empire russe." (The speech was published in La Reforme, December 14, 1847; we quote from the reprint in Sozial-politischer Briefwechsel, op. cit., pp. 279 ff.) This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 36 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 8 against a wild nature, not in a well-ordered bourgeois society." 16 The purpose of Bakunin's revolutionary activity is the return to Russia, to a Russia that will have room for him in public life. "To my life in Russia I could return only on a revolutionary, criminal path." 16 But how could such a revolution be effected? The answer of the Confession goes in its implications far beyond the immediate occasion: it reveals a characteristic of Bakunin's life that breaks through again and again in the enterprises of his later years; it goes far to explain the personal fascination which Bakunin had for everybody who met him; and it goes even beyond Bakunin's personal existence and reveals a source of strength which carries the revolution to success. The answer: "I had only one confederate: Faith! I told myself that faith moves mountains, overcomes obstacles, defeats the invincible, and makes possible the impossible; faith alone is one half of victory, one half of success; complemented by powerful will it creates circumstances, makes men ripe, collects and unites them. . . . In one word: I wanted to believe, I wanted others to believe." This is perhaps the most perfect description ever given of the magic of evil, of creating a reality out of nothing. It is the opposition of the demonic faith under will to the Christian will under faith. This "faith under will" manifests itself later in Bakunin in the prodigous invention of non- existing revolutionary societies and the injection of such figments of imagination into reality with quite tangible results. The faith and imagination of an isolated will break into the course of history, create indeed the circum- stances, and produce the most incredible effects among bewildered contemporaries who cannot believe that such things can happen. It is the first appearance of the black magic of the isolated will which later recurs in Nietzsche's "magic of the extreme," in Lenin's persistence through hopeless years until he grasped his kairos, and in Hitler's 1 Beichte, op. cit., pp. 47 ff. 1' Ibid., p. 14. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1946] BAKUNIN'S CONFESSION 37 staying power and "Victory of Faith." In the mood of the Confession, however, Bakunin is sensitive to the forced character of the "faith under will." He admits that not without effort, not without grave struggles he "achieved this hypocritical, artificial, violent faith ;" that he was tormented by doubts "about the morality and possibility of his enterprise ;" that he "heard voices of inner reproach;" etc.17 The experiential source of the doubt seems to have been Bakunin's revolutionary activity itself. In political practice a man is liable to find out a few things about ananke, the fate of being caught in a network of obligations and necessities which determine the course of action so narrowly that not much room is left for choice. Bakunin confesses that he has understood "one truth fully and thoroughly": that the business of ruling is difficult and requires experience; "that in the life of states and peoples there are higher conditions and laws, not to be measured by everyday standards, and that in high politics much is necessity that in private life seems unjust, oppressive, and cruel." "History has its own, secret course"; and rarely has a private individual, "however sincere, honest, and sacred his convictions may be," the vocation "to raise his rebellious thought and his impotent hand against the inscrutable forces of destiny." 18 The tension between faith and repentance in the Confes- sion is only the strongest manifestation of a tension which is permanently present in Bakunin's existence. We have noted the earlier manifestation in the respect for the consistent reactionary-and the love of the enemy. Even in his most destructive moods Bakunin always preserves the awareness of mystery in the historical drama and of an inscrutable fate that has assigned their r6les to the actors. We never find in Bakunin the Marxian confusion of attributing to the individual enemy as a personal guilt the r81e which is determined by biographical accidents and by social and economic circumstances. There is evil in Ba'. Ibid., p. 38. 18 Ibid., p. 43. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 38 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 8 kunin, and in his later years criminality and open Satan- ism, but there is at no time in him the mean streak of the little beast that coops itself up in righteousness and spits poison at the enemy. We have to stress this trait in Bakunin's existence because in contrast with it we gain a clearer understanding of the forces which determine the politically successful line of Western revolution and crisis: of the forces of spite, hatred, and defamation. In this main line we have to observe the crescendo in the moral decomposition of the West: from the Voltairean vulgarities of enlightenment; through the hatred, moral hypocrisy, and technique of defamation of the middle-class intellectual Marx, which have become a force in history through the movement of Marxism; to the final decomposition of Western society and its submerging in the stream of filth that pours forth in the mutual defamations of the Western middle-classes in the twentieth century. The most important factor in shaping the political and civilizational destiny of the West in this period is the "free-floating hatred" of the middle-classes. Bakunin envisages the Russian revolution as part of a pan-Slavic revolution. The first aim is the destruction of Tsaristic power. The abolition of the monarchical form of government, however, should not be more than the opening of the great Slavic liberation. A free Russia should take the lead of the Slavic peoples in wars against Austria, Prussia, and Turkey, and if necessary against Germany and Hungary, for the liberation of the Slavs from foreign domination. "Half of Prussian Silesia, the greatest part of West and East Prussia, that is all Slavic and Polish speaking territories, should be separated from Germany." In a further sweep also Hungary, the Moldavians, Rumanians, and Greeks should be induced to join the Slavic Federation so that a united, free, Eastern Empire would emerge, as a New Eastern world-power against the West, with the capital in Constantinople.'9 The revolutionary 19 Ibid., p. 45. For details of the Slavic Federation, with autonomy of the member-nations and a cornmon military and foreign policy, see Bakunin's Statuten der neuen slavischen Politik and the Grund- This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1946] BAKUNIN'S CONFESSION 39 republic would not be built according to the ideas of Western liberalism. It would not be representative, not con- stitutional, not parliamentarian, and it would have no balance of powers. Democracy cannot be realized through parliamentary representation in a country where the vast mass of the people is not politically articulate and cannot form its own representation. A parliament of aristocrats and bourgeois, however, would only continue the oppression. "For Russia, there is necessary a strong dictatorial power which concerns itself exclusively with the elevation and enlightenment of the masses; a power which is free in tendency and spirit but without parliamentary form; a power which prints books of a free content without introducing the freedom of the press; a power which is surrounded, advised, supported by the free cooperation of like- minded men but which is not limited by anybody or anything." The only difference between dictatorial and monarchical power would be the tendency of the former to make itself superfluous as rapidly as possible through education of the people, while the monarchical tries to perpetuate its existence by keeping the people in unchanged childhood.20 ziige der slavischen Foderation of 1848, in Sozial-politischer Briefwechsel, op. cit., pp. 285-289. For an even further extension of the revolution see the Appel aux peuples slaves par un patriote russe: "En declarant la guerre aux oppresseurs, la revolution proclamait done le remaniement, le bouleversement de tout le Nord, de toute la partie Oriental de l'Europe, l'emancipation de l'Italie, et, comme but final: la federation universelle des republiques Europeennes!" The Appel was published for the first time in Josef Pfitzner, Bakuninstudien (Prague, 1932). The Appel is the first draft, considerably more radical in content than the Aufruf an die Slaven. Von einem russischen Patrioten which was published in December, 1848, by E. K. Keil in Leipzig, bearing on the title-page the designation: "Koethen, Selbstverlag des Verfassers." The Aufruf is reprinted and annotated by Boris Jakowenko in Michael Bakunin, Zwei Schriften aus den 40er Jahren des XIX. Jcahrhunderts (Internationale Bibliothek fiir Philosophie, Prague, 1936), Vol. 2, No. 11-12. 2" Beichte, op. cit., p. 46. The idea of the benevolent, "provisional, iron dictatorship" recurs in Bakunin's Siberian years. Bakunin formed a close friendship with the governor of East Siberia, General Muraviov-Amurski, a cousin on his mother's side. The empirebuilder and the revolutionary apparently found much common ground, This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 40 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 8 It is unnecessary to elaborate the significance of Ba- kunin's program in the light of contemporary events. The line that goes from Bakunin to Lenin and Stalin is clear. It is more important to accentuate the difference between his conception of revolution and that of Marx. The difference becomes acute over the question: How should such a revolution be made and by whom? On this point Bakunin reveals the absence of concrete ideas. He assures the Tsar that he certainly had no personal ambition to become the dictator of Russia. On the contrary, he was convinced that he would perish in the struggle. His generation is called to destroy, not to build; "the building will be done by others who are better, cleverer, and fresher than we are." 21 And if one should ask how he could plan the horror of a Russian revolution without having a clear idea of what should become of the enterprise, he would have to admit that he himself was trembling when he envisaged the consequences. Revolutionary Russian peasants are bestial in their cruelty, and he remembered Pushkin's word: "Deliver us, oh Lord, from the Russian revolt which knows no sense or mercy!" Partly he hoped that the drunken wildness of the masses could be restrained, partly he comforted himself with the thought that at certain times a terrible disaster is necessary.22 This attitude towards process and technique of revolution is not a passing mood with Bakunin. The willingness to start the revolt, in the hope that out of terror wholesome forces would emerge and build the new society, persists throughout the later years. In a pamphlet of 1871, Bakunin formulates the question on principle. He insists that human dignity in nations and peoples manifests itself for in the letter to Herzen from Irkutsk, November 17, 1860, Bakunin praises at length the merits of Muraviov, the true democrat and "unconditionally one of us." He seems to have contemplated with some seriousness the possibilities of a Russian revolution and a panSlavic liberation under the leadership of a liberal dictator like Muraviov. See the letter to Herzen in Sozial-politischer Briefwechsel, op. cit., pp. 11-29. 21 Beichte, op. cit., p. 48. 22 Ibid., p. 49. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1946] BAKUNIN'S CONFESSION 41 only in "the instinct of freedom, in the hatred of oppres- sion, and by the force of revolting against everything that has the character of exploitation and domination in the world." 23 In this "firm conviction" that the instinct of freedom is the source of revolt and the essence of human dignity, that the revolt of the soul is the primary moving factor of history, and that the realm of freedom somehow will emerge, without bothering too much about techniques, once the revolt has started, Bakunin puts himself into opposition to the Marxian idea of revolution. The school of "German authoritarian communists," he continues, has developed the materialistic principle that human history "even in the ideal manifestations of the collective and individual life of mankind, in its intellectual and moral, religious metaphysical, scientific, artistic, political, juridical, and social developments" is nothing but the reflex of economic facts. "This principle is profoundly true if considered from a relative point of view; but if it is taken absolutely, as the only basis and first source of all other principles, it becomes completely wrong." 24 The materialistic conception of history contains for Bakunin a relative truth insofar as he too assumes that the social world, and- the specifically human manifestation of the spirit, rest on the animal basis of man, and the animal basis in its turn on matter. Spirit is the culmination of the evolution of matter. But it can be the culmination of matter only because matter is not inorganic but contains spirit. The rise of matter to humanity means the release from matter of the independent principles of thought and revolt. The negation of mere animalism, the blossoming out of matter into the revolt of the soul, is the new independent factor forming history.25 The opposition between the principles of the free, inde- pendent soul in revolt and of the determination of thought *' Bakunin, L'Emnpire Knouto-Germanique et la Revolution sociale, in Michel Bakounine, Oeuvres, edited by James Guillaume (Paris, 1907), Vol. 2, p. 455. 24 Sophismes historiques de l'Tcole doctrinaire des comtmunistes allemands, Oeuvres (Paris, 1908), Vol. 3, pp. 9-18. Dieu et l'Itat, Oeuvres, Vol. 3, pp 18 ff. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 42 THE JOURNAL OF POLITICS [Vol. 8 through the economic situation, as well as the ensuing op- position between the two revolutionary tactics, has re- mained the issue between Bakuninists and Marxists to this day: on the one side, the faith in personality and the ability of free men to produce order out of revolutionary likemindedness without authoritarian leadership, on the other side the belief in the necessary march of history that progresses through the action of not too revolutionary souls under the authoritarian leadership of the executors of the historical Will.26 The revolutionary will, untrammeled by doctrinaire con- ceptions of historical necessity, allowed Bakunin a considerable latitude of political imagination. In the Confession he reveals that at one time, in 1848, when the pan-Slavic hatred against everything German was roused to its height by the Frankfurt Parliament, he had thought of appealing to the Tsar himself to assume the leadership of the pan- Slavic liberation. Not only the Poles, but all the Slavs of Prussia and Austria would have followed at this time,. in Bakunin's opinion, a call of the Tsar to a war against Germany and all Western Europe. He had drafted, the appeal but destroyed it because he considered the attempt futile. The Tsar, indeed, was not enthusiastic about the idea. Bakunin's assurance that all Slavs would have followed his call for liberation, he annotated on the margin: "I do not doubt it; and I would have stood at the head of a revolution of a Slavic Masaniello; no, thank you!" 21 III. SHADOW As far as Bakunin's fate was concerned, the immediate effect of the Confession was nil. He remained in the PeterPaul fortress. Over his later life, the Confession seems to have hung like a shadow. During the Polish insurrection of 1863, Bakunin was in Stockholm participating in 26 For a good comparison of the two contrasting positions see a modern Bakuninist, Erwin Rholfs, in the Preface to Vol. 1 of Bakunin, Gesammelte Werke (Verlag "Der Syndikalist," Berlin, 1921). 7 Beichte, op. cit., p. 63 This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1946] BAXUNIN'S CONFESSION 43 the movement. The Third Section prepared at this time a pamphlet containing the Confession and a few other documents; this pamphlet was never printed; Bakunin, however, suddenly broke off relations with the Poles and left Stockholm. In 1870 Bakunin participated in the uprising of Lyons; again a similar pamphlet was prepared; and again Bakunin withdrew from the scene. Authors who wish to pile all nefariousness on the Tsarist regime, assume a connection between the threatened publication and Bakunin's withdrawals. There is, however, no proof of such pressure; and there were other reasons sufficient to justify withdrawal.28 It is only certain that, whatever went on behind the scenes, the Russian government never made public use of the Confession although its publication would have discredited Bakunin in revolutionary circles. 28 On these events in Bakunin's life see Kurt Kersten in the "In- troduction" to the Beichte, op. cit., p. xvi. This content downloaded from 75.69.106.163 on Tue, 02 Aug 2022 02:10:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms