The Kola Peninsula: Geography, History and Resources

zyxwvutsrq zyxwvutsrqp zyx zyxwvu ARCTIC VOL. 47, NO. 1 (MARCH 1994) P. 1-15 The Kola Peninsula: Geography, History and Resources GENNADY P. LUZIN, MICHAEL PRETES* and VLADIMIR V. VASILIEV’ (Received 2 7 August 1992; accepted in revised form 25 May 1993) ABSTRACT. The Kola Peninsula in northwest Russia is one ofthe most important economic regions in thecircumpolar North. The region contains valuable natural resources, including a wide variety of mineral and fish resources, and is proximate to the large gas fields of the Barents Sea. A large population, industrial complexes, and military infrastructure are also characteristic of the region. The Kola Peninsula developed rapidly during the Soviet period (1917-92) under the principles of socialist development policy. This policy favoured extensive resource extraction and industrialization and resulted in increased northern settlement, much of it involuntary. Soviet development policy prompted the opening of new mines and the construction of smelters and refining facilities, while Soviet military policy necessitated the establishment of large military basing operations. Resource development and processing have led to severe environmental damage in the region and beyond. This paper describes the geographical features of the Kola Peninsula and the region’s development history andcontains data on natural and labour resources. Key words: Kola Peninsula, Murmansk Region, Murmansk, Russian Arctic, Soviet Arctic, natural resources, economic development, militarization zyxw &SUMÉ. La presqu’île de Kola dansle nord-ouestde la Russie est l’une des plus importantes zones économiques du Grand Nord circumpolaire. La région contient de précieuses ressources naturelles, y compris une grande variété de ressources minières et de poisson, et elle est proche des champs gaziers de la mer de Barents. Cette région se caractérise aussi par une forte population, ainsi que par la présence de complexes industriels et d’une infrastructure militaire. La presqu’île de Kola s’est développée rapidement au cours de I’ère soviétique (1917-1992), selon les principesdes politiques socialistes de développement. Ces dernières, qui mettaient l’accent sur une intensification de l’exploitation des ressources et de l’industrialisation, ont accru la colonisation - en grande partie forcée dans le Nord. Les politiques soviétiques de développement ont amené l’ouverture de nouvelles mines et la construction de fours de fusion et de raffineries, tandis que les politiques militaires soviétiques ont rendu nécessaire l’édification d’importantes installations pour des bases militaires. L’exploitation et le traitement des ressources ont causé dans la région immMiate et au-del8 de sérieux dommages écologiques. Cet article décrit les caractéristiques géographiques de la presqu’île de Kola et l’histoire du développement de la région, et il présente des données sur les ressources naturelles et en main-d’oeuvre. Mots clés : uresau’île de Kola, région de Mourmansk. Mourmansk, Arctique russe, Arctique sovibtique, ressources naturelles, développement économique,militarisation Traduit pour le Journal par Nésida Loyer. - . . - Data on the Kola Peninsula is not readily available in English, and even Russian language sources are scanty. The Kola Peninsula (Kol’skiy Poluostrov) in the Russian During the Soviet period the region’s sensitive security Arctic is one of the most heavily militarized areas in the interests militated against any dissemination of data. We world and contains the world’s largest concentration of provide here some basic historical,social, and economic data nuclear weapons. The region has long been associated with in the hope that Western readers will utilize them in their large missile and nuclear submarine fleets andwith the research. Most of the data in this paper, unless otherwise strategic advance post for military action against northern indicated, are based on estimates of the Institute of Economic Europe and North America. The Kola Peninsula is one of Problems of the Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy the most important sources of minerals and fish products in of Sciences(IEP) or on material from the Official Yearbook Russia, is an important trade centre, and contains the only of Statistics forMumanskaya Oblast’(1991, 1992) (OYSMO), non-freezing harbours in the Russian Arctic. The city of which has a limited circulation. Murmansk is the largest city north of the Arctic Circle, with a population approaching a half million, and the city GEOGRAPHICAL OVERVIEW is the terminus of the Northern Sea Route (Northeast Passage). The region also has some of the most serious The Kola Peninsula is part of the Fenno-Scandian crystalenvironmental problems in Russia. With the collapse of line shield. The peninsula’s geological origin, physical geographic aspects, outcrops of bed granite massifs, high the Soviet Union and a new military policy in Russia, the dissection of relief, significant development of the aquatic military importance of the Kola Peninsula willpossibly decline and the economic aspects of the region assume network, great numberof lakes, and relatively mild and damp greater importance.The economic factors and the favourable climate are similar to the adjacent regions of Scandinavia geographic location of the Kola region at the northern juncture and Karelia. From the north, east, and partially south the of the European Economic Area and Russia give the region peninsula is washed by the waters of the Barents and White great potential. Despite the region’s importance, it is little seas and in the west it borders on Finland and Norway. The known outside Russia. Kola regionis officially knownas Murmanskaya Oblast’ and INTRODUCTION ~~ ‘Institute of Economic Problems, Kola Science Centre, 14 Fersman Street, 184200 Apatity, Murmansk Province, Russia *Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, P.O. Box 122, 96101 Rovaniemi, Finland; please address all correspondence to M. Pretes @The Arctic Institute of North America zyxwvutsrqpon zyxwvutsr zyxwvutsrqponm zyxwvutsrqpon 2 / G.P.LUZIN et al. zyxwvu the regional capital is Murmansk. The region is almost cool, withlow summer and winter air temperatures: the average temperature in January is - 8°C along the northern entirely situated above the Arctic Circle, with a total area of 144 900 k m 2 . The Kola region extends for 390 km from coast and - 12 to - 15°C in the centre of the peninsula. Winter is characterized by frequent blizzards, causing large south to north (66” to 69”N) and about 550 km from west snowdrifts. The summer is short, lasting only a few months, to east (28” to 41”E) and belongs to the “Northern Zone” of Russia, whichcovers almost half ofthe country. The Kola and is generally cool and rainy, with average June temperatures ranging from 8 to 14°C. Three-quarters of all precipitation Peninsula accounts for only 0.6 % of the northern zone; nevertheless, the Kola region is three to four times the size occurs between June and October, with an annual total of of such countries as Belgium, the Netherlands, and Denmark.400 mm. February is the coldest and windiest month; July According to the Russian regional classification, the Kola is the warmest and most calm. In winter the sun remains Peninsula, despite its polar location, belongs to the “Near below the horizon between 1 December and 13 January (at North,” since it is well developed and populated, located Murmansk), while in summer the sun does not set between relatively close to the country’s industrial centres (1500 km 23 May and 2 1 July (at Murmansk). In the south this period from St. Petersburg, 1800 km from Moscow), and connected is shorter and lasts from 2 June to 11 July. Forests cover about half of the peninsula, ranging from to them by a rail, road, and air network. Figure 1 shows northwest to southeast, and are composed of coniferous trees the basic geographic features. such as Scots pine and Norway spruce and deciduous trees Development and settlement of the regionhavebeen such as birch, mountain ash, and alder. The severe climate influenced by its geographical position and climate. The Kola and difficult soil conditions lead to slow tree growth, which, Peninsula is the most accessible part of the Russian Arctic and - due to the influenceof the GulfStream, which washes however, produces a dense, fine-layered wood suitable for the northern shoresof the peninsula with one of its peripheral furniture. The region’s flora is varied and numbers about branches - contains an ice-free coast and a relatively mild 600 species. The western and the central parts of the peninsula are the richest in plant species, where coniferous forest and stable climate. The presence of the Gulf Stream also explains the absence of permafrost. The climate is normally and mountain tundra vegetation are both found. The Kola z MILITARY INFRASTRUCTURE ~ zyxw 3 Naval base zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUT 1 SAM battalions Ground Forces basing area zyxw CITIES H Murmansk (472 SO0 people) 100 000 people 10 000 SO 000 people 10 000 people so 080 A a. WHITE SEA FIG 1. Main geographical and military features of the Kola Peninsula. - Hydroelectric dam Railway zy THEKOLAPENINSULA / 3 fishermen reached 1500 men, who fished for cod and salmon. Peninsula contains a variety of berries, such as cawberry, With the development of trade in the city of Kola, this small bilberry, cloudberry, and great bilberry, all of which are settlement became a town and was well known inEurope, important wild foods, and there is a variety of mosses and with its trade extendingto Denmark, the Netherlands, lichens. Misuse of forest resources, industrial expansion, and Norway, England, and other places. theabsence of pollutionabatement measures, especially Trade along the Murman coast declined towards the end during the last 30-year period, have severely damaged the of the 16th century.In 1586 the Moscow government, fearing forests, especially in the vicinity of the large industrial centres of Murmansk, Monchegorsk, Olenegorsk, and the Pechenga that it could not protect its interests in this remote region, decided to create anewand moreproximate centre of area (including Nikel’). development: the city of Arkhangel’sk (Archangel) on the Severnaya Dvina River. Trade in Kola wasprohibited. The HISTORY OF SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT Murman harbours were closed and Arkhangel’sk was granted The Simi, or Lapps, are the indigenous people of the a trade monopoly. The flourishing communities along the Kola Peninsula. The generally accepted view is that they Murmancoastwereeclipsedby Arkhangel’sk fortwo originally lived on the banks of Lake Onega but gradually centuries; they only began to recover in the 19th century. migrated to the Kola Peninsula and northern Scandinavia. In 1860 the Kola region’s permanent population was about The first information about the Saini in the Russian Novgorod 500 people but reached 880by 1880, 790 of these living in chronicles dates from the 13th century (12 16). The chronicles small colonies between the Norwegian border and the Kola show that even then the Simi living in the southeast of the Bay. The intensification of cattle breeding in 1895 further Kola Peninsula were tributaries to the Novgorod Republic increased the population. Finns were prominent among the (Maksimov, 1859). The Simi were mainlyhuntersand new settlers and were concentrated on the shores of Kola fishermen andlater turned to reindeer herding. By 1895 the Bay. The Norwegians and Simi were concentrated on the number of reindeerontheKolaPeninsulaamounted to westernMurman coast, andtheRussiansonthe eastern 40 000, of which 25 OOO belonged to the SBmi. According coast. In 1899, out of a permanent population of 780, the to the all-Russia general census, the number of Simi was population consisted of40.8% Finns, 27.1 % Russians, 17.4% 1724 in 1897 and 2070 in 1907. Duringperiod the 1782-1907 Karelians, 7.4% Norwegians, and 5% Shmi (Dobrov, 1967). the number of Simi increased by 83% (Sidepsner, 1909). In the summer of1899,6700 people livedon the Murman The Simi werefollowed by the first settlers from coast, including the seasonal population, of which 4100 were Novgorod, which for a long period was the jumping-off point engaged in various trades. Russians, numbering 3200, were for the development and settling of the Russian European the most numerous group and were engaged in fishing on North. Novgorod citizens were attracted to the Kola Peninsulathe eastern Murman coast. The largest catch of fish took place by its plentiful animals and fish(salmon, herring, cod) and intheperiod 1892-97, whenitreached160 000 tonnes. relatively mild climate, and thus settled on the coast. The Russian fishermen fished in the offshore zone using traditional Russian settlement Varzuga, on the southern coast of the primitive methods and sailing in small or oarsail boats. Their peninsula, was one of the earliest. The most intensive Russian productivity was low and the catches were unstable. The settlement took place during the 15th and 16th centuries, wtien Norwegian colonists were equipped with motor boats and monks from the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea built more advanced tools, thus enabling them to catch fish not monasteries inthe north of the Kola Peninsula near the Kola onlyin the offshore zonebutalso on thebanksofthe andPechenga rivers. The first of these monasteries was Norwegian and Barents seas. As a result, in 1913 the Russians established on the Kola River in 1542 but only lasted a few caught about80 O00 tonnes of fish, whereas the Norwegians years. A second monastery was built near PechengaBay in brought to the Arkhangel’sk market about 3.5 times as much 1553 but was destroyed by the Swedes in 1590 (Armstrong, (IEP, 1992). Russia even began to import Norwegian fish. 1965). In the period prior to World War I the total population The city of Kola, at that time the northernmost city in (includingpermanentandseasonalresidents) doubled, Russia, was built to the east of the confluence of the Kola growing from 5200 in 1858 to OOO 10 in 1913,of which 2 100 and Tuloma rivers; the first mention of the town was made were S h i (Dobrov , 1967). The region still remained poorly in 1565 (Armstrong, 1965). The city was for many years developed and settled. There were no real cities; Kola and the centre of development for the northern territories. Despite Alexandrovsk were only small fishingsettlements. Most of the difficult political situation (the unification of the Muscovy the population lived in small settlements along the shores state took place at this time), the city of Kola flourished in of the White and Barents seas, while the continental areas the 16th century and was an important port for European were poorly populated as there were few roads. The Kola trade. Traders brought goodsfrom all parts of the Muscovy Peninsula remained in the periphery of Russia and did not state. The city established acustoms office and built a small play an important role in its development. At the erid of the wooden fortress. The city of Kola facilitated the settlement 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries small sawmills were of the western and eastern shores of the Murman coast (the built in the south of the Kola Peninsula and along the banks northern coastof the Kola Peninsula). Much of the populationofthe large rivers. By 1909 there were six sawmills. A was seasonal, movingbetween the cityofKolaand the significant portion of the lumber was exported to Great Britain seasonal fishingports. The annual number of such seasonal and Norway. zyxwvutsr zyxwvutsrqp zyx zyxw zyxw zyxwvutsrqponm zyxwvutsr zyxwvutsrqp zyxwvutsrqpon zyxwvutsrqpon 4 / G.P.LUZIN et al. zyxwv Even at the end of 19th the century the location of the futureand port fell into decay and the population was reduced to about 14 000 people (2500 in Murmansk) in 1920 main military port, Libava (Liepaya) or Murman, was still in question. Such a port was advocated inorder to stop the (Alymov, 1925). eastward advancement of Norwegian settlers. The minister The roleof the Murmansk railway and port in the settlement and development of the region was renewed onlyduring the of finance at that time, Count Sergei Witte, in the report presented to Emperor Alexander I11 inAugust so-called New Economic Policy (NEP), pursued in Soviet 1894, suggested that the port be constructed in Kola Bay because Russia from 1921 to 1928, when the role of the state was reduced and private ownership as well as small- and mediumof its favourable strategic location, ice-free harbour, and mild sized businesses were permitted. Lenin himselftook a great climate. The unexpected death of the emperor in October interest in northern development and was instrumental in 1894 hampered the realization of the project, however, as establishing the Floating Marine Research Institute the new Emperor Nicholas I1 favoured the building of the (Plavmornin) and in supporting northern exploration, port in Libava. Only one of the measures in Witte’s report was realized: in 1899 a small town, Alexandrovsk, was built research, and resource development (Slavin, 1972). The half-state-owned firm, the Murmansk Industrial and Transin Yekaterina harbour on Kola Bay. The First World War, having demonstrated the vulnerability of the southern and portation Colonization Combine, formed in 1923 by the amalgamation of theMurmansk railway and Murmansk and western ports of Russia (whichwere blocked by Turkey and Kemsk seaports, played an important role in the economic Germany, cutting off the country from its allies), led to development of the Kola Peninsula. In the Kola region the renewed interest in the construction of a large port on the soils and climate were unsuitable for agriculture, so the Kola Peninsula and a railway to reach it St. from Petersburg. colonization assumed an industrial form. The Kola Peninsula The perceived threat and need for access to Europe and the high seas was an important factor stimulating the developmentdeveloped as an industrialcolony, and attention was directed to the development of foreign trade, fishery and mineral of the Kola region andespecially in connecting it to central resources, and forestry. The combine hired labourers from Russia. World War I saw the construction of a railway to the Murman other parts of the country on a contract basis, and the development of agriculture was exclusively to service the population. coast. Construction of the railway from St. Petersburg to According to the colonization regulations, the combine was Petrozavodsk, 300 km in length, started in June 1914, granted a territory of 3.2 million hectares along the financed by French credit, and was finished in the summer Murmansk railway, including forests and mineral resources, of 1915. State funds financed the second stretch of the railway from Petrozavodsk to Kola Bay, 1044 km in length. A new for a ten-year period (Chirkin, 1929). The combine was financed independently without any assistance from the state. port andtown - Romanov-on-Murman, which after the Fees for wood and the resource rights, as well as industrial February revolution of 1917 was called Murmansk - was activity, constituted the income of the combine. Part of the built along Kola Bay 70 km from the sea (Slavin, 1961). combine’s revenueswere used to finance colonization aims, The railway was built in only a year and a half and was such as attracting and equippingsettlers and the construction put into operation on 3 November 1916. This phenomenon of settlements andenterprises; the other part was channelled can be explained by the emergency war situation. The rapid rate of construction in extremely difficult conditions, crossingto the restoration of the railway and the port. Within three years the Murmansk Industrial and Transporuninhabited rocky territory, marshes and lakes, and thick tation Colonization Combine controlled the fishing industry, taiga is an outstanding event in the history ofrailway recovery of mica, stocking and processing of wood, and construction. Out of 1044 km, 266 km were laid in marshes, export of lumber to England. Funds provided bythese which required difficult irrigation and soil operations. To operations were used for restoring the railwayforand settling cross multiple rivers about 1 1 0 0 bridges and artificial dikes the Kola Peninsula. The trade port was successfully restored. were built (Chirkin, 1929). The labour force was a difficult The port’s freight turnover increased tenfold and reached problem since the territory was sparsely inhabited. The 500 000 tonnes by 1928. By 1927 Murmansk was one of railway hired about 30 OOO peasants from all over Russia, the country’s leading ports and only 6 % behind Leningrad and because of the war and the lack of a free labour force (St. Petersburg) (Chirkin, 1929). Murmansk became one of the railway used about 40 OOO Austrian prisoners of war the most important foreign trade ports in the country. and several thousand Chinese workers. Many sections of In 1924 the Northern State Fishery Trust was formed in the railway were built in a hurry and required additional Murmansk.and was reinforced by a trawler fleet brought in construction. The total cost was 180 million rubles (at the exchange rate in 1913). By 1917 seven unloading moorages from Arkhangel’sk. The fleet was modernized through the operated in Murmansk harbour, and these could accommodatepurchase of new German trawlers and seiners. These additions made it possible to harvest up to 50 000 tonnes ten large ships simultaneously.The operating capacityof the of fish annually by 1928. All of these factors favoured the port was one million tonnes per year. The construction of quick settling of the region, andby 1928 the population the railwayand port in KolaBaychangednotonly the reached 27 000 people, or twice the 1920 population. military-strategic situation but also the economic situation In 1928 a new, lasting, and negative stage in the life of of the Kola region, providing infrastructure for future the U.S.S.R. and the Kola Peninsula began. The seizing at development. The 1917 revolution and civil war reduced the the end of the 1920s of unlimited power by Stalin and his potential for immediate development, however. The railway zyxwvutsrq zyxwvutsrq THE KOLAPENINSULA / 5 supporters - advocates of rigid authoritarian administration The. cruel policy of the 1930s and 1940s did, however, give the desired results. InOctober1929theApatite - ledtotheabandonment of the NEP andnewmarket Combine produced the first apatite ore, in 1933 the Ena mine relations. For the Kola Peninsula this meantthe liquidation of the combine and the policy of economic colonization of thebeganthe extraction ofmica,in1939theSeveronickel region. A new period of industrialization and rigid centralized Combine was put into operation, and by 1937 four power stations were built, two of themhydroelectric, which made planning, carried out through coercion and forced labour, was initiated. By the beginningof the 1930s large deposits of itpossible to beginthe electrification of theMurmansk apatite-nepheli, copper-nickel, and iron ores were discovered railway. The shortages of foodstuffs in the mid-l93Os, a result of the collectivization policy, prompted a search for new in the Kola region, butnofuel resources were found. food resources and in particular the expansion of the ocean Hydropower resources were also analyzed and developed. fishery by equipping the state Sevryba Trust with new The first Five Year Plan began in 1928 with the aim of German trawlers and after 1935 with ships built in Murmansk. massive industrialization, militarization, and forced collectiThis expansion made it possible to increase the fisherytrade vization of peasants, as Russia was basically an agricultural from 50 OOO to 350 000 tonnes. In 1937 Europe’s largest country and rapidindustrialization required a great amount fish-processing plant was put into operation in Murmansk of free labour. The “socialization” of villages was effected with3000 workers. In 1938 the freight turnover in the through compulsory collectivization, and the dispossession Murmansk port exceeded two million tonnes and the state of kulaks (prosperous peasants) made it possible torepress formed the Murmansk Arctic Steamship Line, which by 1941 several million of the most economically active peasants. had 37 commercialshipswithatotal cargo capacityof These dispossessed kulaks, alongwithdeportedurban residents, were forcibly removed to remote regions of Siberia 122 OOO tonnes (Anon., 1988). Due to the lack of latitudinal railroads in theNorth, the state developed the Northern Sea andthe North, includingtheKola Peninsula. The Kola Route, and Murmansk became the main northern base of the Peninsula was, in fact, the site of the first prison camps in the Soviet North(Armstrong, 1965:150). In the 1930s some icebreaker fleet. The Kola Peninsula, and especially the of port Murmansk, 220 OOO to 250 000 people were moved to the Kola was an important part of the Northern Sea Route. Murmansk Peninsula. Besides deportees, this figure includes a great and Arkhangel’sk were the two main western termini. The number of mainly political prisoners, leading to rapid growth route was used to provide a link between Soviet arctic and of the population: 23 OOO people in 1926, 27 000 in 1929, Pacific ports and also to provide access to resource-bearing 55 OOO in 1931, 192 OOO in 1935, and318 000 in 1940 regions of Siberia. By activating shipping along the route, (Dobrov, 1967). the Complete data on deportees and prisoners are not available, Soviet state could guarantee Sovietsovereigntyand occupation, provide support for the Pacific Fleet (especially but according to Professor A. Kiselev the largest colony of important given growing tension with Japan), and bring polar deportees in the Kola region was in the area of Khibinogorsk exploration under control of the state (Horensma, (Kirovsk) in the centre of the Kola Peninsula, where they 199153-54). In 1932 the state established the Chief Adminisbuilt mines and the dressing mill of the Apatite Combine. tration oftheNorthernSeaRoute (Glavsevmorput’, or By the end of 1932 there were 19 278 people (5561 families) GUSMP), which brought all facets of shipping under the inthat area, including7209 men,5321 women,and control of a single organization. With this central agency in 6748 children. These peoplehadnoright to leave the place, the state could begin extensive exploitation of Siberian settlement zone. In addition to deportees, a great number resources. Using forced labour, thestate thus colonized large of prisoners worked in the region. In 1935-36 approximatelyparts of the Arctic. 10 OOO prisoners took partin the construction of the railroad, During the Second World Warmany enterprises of the the mine and nickel plant in Monchegorsk, the Lower TulomaKolaPeninsula were evacuated, whilethoseremaining Hydropower Station, and other projects. During the last producedmilitary products and repaired equipment. By prewar years the People’s Commissariat ofInternal Affairs mid-1942, when it became clear that the northern front had continued to widen its sphere of influence and the governmentstabilized, the Soviet government decreed the reconstruction handed over to the Commissariat most mining and metalof the Severonickel Combine in Monchegorsk, as Soviet lurgical enterprises in the Kola Peninsula, including the industry required nickel, cobalt, and copper. Part ofthe Severonickel and Apatite combines and the Lovozersk ore equipment was sent back from the Urals and Kazakhstan, mining and processing enterprise. to where the enterprises were evacuated in 1941 ; another After World War 11the number of the reformatory-labour part of the equipment was sent from the United States as camps began toincrease. Until 1953 each town had several lend-lease deliveries. such camps near it. Only with the death of Stalin and the In the late 1940s two new enterprises extracting iron ore assumption of power by Khrushchev did the picture begin were established in the region: Kovdorsky and Olenegorsky to change: by the end of the 1950s practically all camps were mining-concentrating combines. Exploitation of Olenegorsk liquidated and they began to hire free workers, using the deposits (with 29.5% iron) commencedin 1945, andin system of northern benefits and privileges. This practice made 1947 the combine was put into operation supplying iron it possible to quickly compensate for the outflow of labour concentrate to one of the largest metallurgical combines in resources by partially retaining it through economic measures. the country, theCherepovetskyCombine. In 1962the zyxwvutsrqpo zyxwvutsr zyxwvutsrqpo zyxwvuts zyxwvutsrqpo zyxwvutsrqpon zyxwvutsrqpon 6 / G.P. LUZIN et al. constructionof the Kovdorsky mining-concentrating combine During the Soviet period (1917-92) the North was developed was completed. The total output of iron concentrate at these under the principles of state socialism. Development policy was based on the exploitation of natural resources for the two enterprises is 12 million tonnes at present. In summer benefit of the state; this required the settling of the region 1943 the reconstruction of another large enterprise, the and the development of infrastructure. As S.V. Slavin Apatite Combine, was begun. By the end of the year the combine began to produce apatite concentrate. Apatite and (1972, 1982), headof the Economic Research Bureau of baddelite concentrate production began at Kovdorsky in 1974. Glavsevmorput’, argued, the criterion of effectiveness under Large changes took place in the Kola Peninsula industry in socialism was advantage to the national economy - this in the post-war years. In the 1960s the construction of several contrast to capitalism, under which the main criterion, he mines and enriching plants was completed. As a result the argued, was the rate of profit. Slavin notedthat the ore extraction increased from 2.9 million tonnes in 1950 to development of the North was “a question of distributing the productive forces in the most rational way” (1972:59), 55 milliontonnesin 1990, and concentrate production something that could only be achieved under a strict, centrally increased to 29 million tonnes (IEP, 1992). of the In the post-war years non-ferrous metallurgy was established planned economy. Resource exploitation in all regions country was justified on the grounds of building socialism: atrapid a pace. In addition totheabove-mentioned Severonickel Combine at Monchegorsk, which used its own The basic economic law of socialism - the law of the nickel, anew plant, the Pechenganickel Combine, was continuous growth and improvement of socialist production onthebasis of superiortechniquesforthepurpose of formed inPechenga from former Finnish copper-nickel satisfying to the fullest the constantly growing material and enterprises at Petsamo, a region annexed by the Soviet Union cultural requirements of the whole of society - determines after the Soviet-Finnish peace treaty in 1945. The rich Petsamo the need to draw ever new raw material and power resources nickel deposits were discovered in 1921 but exploitation did into economic use (Slavin, 1972:60). not begin until the late 1930s, when the territory was still Industrializationwas a major component of the development part of Finland. The smelters and necessary hydropower came strategy. The Kola Peninsula became heavily industrialized into operation in late 1942, with the International Nickel after important ferrous and non-ferrous mineral resources Company (INCO) of Canada as the principal concession were discovered and extracted. All of these development holder (Vuorisjarvi, 1989). The Petsamo mines were plans were in keeping with the general objectives of the Soviet Germany’s only wartime source of nickel and thus access state. The isolation of the U.S.S.R. from world markets to them wasof great international importance during World required development of domestic raw materials, exports War II. of these materials provided a source of foreign currency, After the defeat ofFinland, a Germanally, in the Continu- strategic considerations required permanent settlementthe in ation War of 1941-44 (an extension of the 1939-40 Winter North, and thelarge size of the country required that a certain War between Finland andthe Soviet Union), the Finns self-sufficiency within regions be reached. attempted to destroy the facilities. The Soviets were able to rebuild and the Petsamo (renamed Pechenga) region mines MILITARIZATION IN THE KOLA PENINSULA became one of the principal Soviet sources of nickel. A new large copper-nickel deposit, Zhdanov, was also discovered At present the Kola region is extremely militarized. Rapid militarization began after World War I1 and was associated nearby. New mines and aconcentrating plant were put into operation in the town of Nikel’. In 195 1 two more non-ferrouswith the beginning of the Cold War. The Kola Peninsula’s important military-strategicposition wasthe principal factor metallurgy enterprises were built in other parts of the Kola in siting military installations. The northern coast of the peninPeninsula: the Lovozersky Mining-ConcentratingCombine, which produced rare-metal concentrate, and the Kandalakshskysula is one of the few warm-water coasts in Russia with direct access to the high seas. The creation and development of Aluminium Plant, whichusedalumina produced from the Northern Navy began in 1916 and was associated with Khibiny Mountain concentrate in Pikalyovo, Leningrad. the necessity to protect the northern sea routes connecting All these enterprises required extensive power construction. RussiawithEngland from German submarines. For this Six hydroelectric stations were built, some by Norwegian and Finnish firms(e.g., those on the Paz and Tuloma rivers). purpose the Arctic Ocean Fleet was formed in 1916 with Now 17 hydroelectric stations of more than 1800 MW total its bases in the ports of Murmansk and Iokanga. The fleet wascomposed of ships from the Soviet Far East and capacity operate in the region. The state built alarge thermal purchased in alliedcountries, and it comprised 1 battleship, power station (Kirovskaya State District Power Station, with 2 cruisers, 6 destroyers, 2 submarines, and auxiliary ships 0.5 MW installed capacity) in the 1960s to ensure a reliable amounting to a total of 90 by 1918. During the civil war and stable power supply, and in the early 1970s the Kola almost all the ships were captured by England or destroyed. Nuclear Power Station was built atPolyarnye Zori (the first A revival of the Northern Navy took place in the Soviet in the North) with four smallwater-cooled reactors of period, when in 1933 the government ordered its establish440 MW capacity. At present the annual production of ment in the Kola Peninsula.Three destroyers, 3 patrol ships, electric energy in the region reaches almost 20 000 GWh, 3 submarines, and2 mine-sweepers were sent along the part of which goes toKarelia and Finland (IEP, 1992). The recently built White Sea-Baltic Sea channel (built using forced Kola region is on a single power grid. zyxwvu zyxwvutsr zyxwvutsr zyxwvut THEKOLA PENINSULA / 7 labour) from the Baltic Sea in 1933. On the basis of these (see Ries andSkorve, 1987). The reappraisal of the military ships the Northern Navy Fleet wascreated and in May1937 position in the 1990s will possibly leadto reduced employment and a contraction of military bases in the region, but wasnamed the Northern Fleet. The town of Polyarnyi (Alexandrovsk) at the entrance to Kola Bay was used as its data on this topic are not publicly available. base. The navy established a network of shore and antiaircraft defences, builta marine airfield in Vaenga,and POPULATION AND LABOURRESOURCES equipped the fleet with new ships. By the summer of 1941 The growth, dimensions, and structure of the population the Northern Fleet comprised 8 destroyers, 15 submarines, of the Kola Peninsula are closely linked with the develop2 torpedo boats, 7 patrol ships, 2 mine-sweepers and ment of its economy. At the beginning of 1992 the number 116 aircraft (BSE, 1976). During the war the fleet supported of residents reached 1 165 300 - ithad doubled within the 14th Army, defended Murmansk, tried to attack German 30 years (population figures may vary in the tables due to marine communications in northern Norway, and took part different estimates). Due to the arctic location, industrial in the defence of northern allied convoys, together with the orientation of the economy, and militarizationof the region, British. Despite its small size the Northern Fleet played an 92.1 % of the population is urban and only 7.9% is rural, important role and could handle its main task - to escort with this structure remaining constant (Table 1). Analysis and defend convoys to Murmansk and Arkhangel’sk - which of the population increase from 1960 to 1990 shows, despite was very importantfor the Red Army, and especially critical some fluctuations i n 1980, a steady tendency to diminish more in 194 1-42. The fleet played an important role in defeating than eight times (from 24 200 in 1960 to 3900 in 1990) the German forces in the areas of Petsamo (Pechenga) and (OYSMO, 1991). This can be explained by a decrease in Kirkenes in 1944. Until the middle of the 1950s the capital investments and the concomitant slowdown inlabour militarization of the region was relatively small and was demand. characterized by the development of the Navy. Previously At present the Shmi population is approximately1800 (but most basic ground forces had been sent to the Far East to estimates vary based on identification criteria). The remainder fight against Japan. of the population consists mainly of migrants from central During WorldWar I1 the military actions on the Kola Peninsula began one week later than on the Soviet-German Russia, Ukraine, andByelorussia (Belorus) (Table 2). front. On 29 June 1941 the German forces began the advance Migration has consistently accounted for over 50% of the on the Murmansk line and 1on July on the Kandalaksha line. total population increase and migrants have always exceeded the number of people leaving the region. Only in 1990, with Their purpose was to take possession of the seaport and the economic recession, did these figures change. In that year military base in Murmansk and to capture the strategically important railway station and the town of Kandalaksha in TABLE 1. Population dynamics order to surround all Russian land and naval forces in this polar region. The attacks were bitter and long, but in spite 1990 1960 of the thoroughness of the military action’s preparation and % (000) % the availability of considerable landand air forces, the 100.0 1159.0 100.0 609.3 Total population Germans were a failure; none of their goals was achieved. Urban 561.2 92.1 1067.8 92.1 In 1959 the headquarters of the Northern Fleet was Rural 48.1 7.9 91.2 7.9 transferred from Polyarnyi to the new town ofSeveromorsk Totalannualincrement 24.2 100.0 3.9 100.0 15.1 13.3 Born (Vaenga), located inside Kola Bay, near Murmansk. The 2.8 Died 6.9 extensive militarization of the region promptedconstruction Naturalincrement 50.8 12.3 6.4 100.0 of new settlements with various service enterprises and bases, Migrational increment 11.9 49.2 (2.5) 44.1 Arrived in region 59.5 located as a rule in remote areas of the peninsula. The Left region 50.9 46.7 population of these settlements consists of servicemen and Mechanicalincrement 8.6 (2.6) their relatives with small numbers civilians. of The required Source: OYSMO, 1991; IEP, 1992. labour force is supplied by the soldiers and sailors who are used in construction andrestoration, which greatly increases TABLE 2. Population by nationality the size of the Army andNavy. According to the prevailing doctrine, it was cheaper to use forced soldier labour than Persons % of total Nationality to hire civilians. Russians 965 727 82.9 Militarization of the region increased at the end of the Ukrainians 105 079 9.0 1950s, when the Soviet Army was equipped with missiles. 3.3 38 794 Byelorussians The quantitative and qualitative rise of the Northern Fleet Tatars 1 1 -459 1 .o Mordovians 4 214 0.4 belongstoa later period and is associated withLeonid 0.3 Karelians 3 505 Brezhnev and Admiral Sergei Gorshkov, the latter especially Sdmi 1 615 0.2 a strong proponent of maritime development. From this Finns 0.1 590 period until the middle of the 1980s there was a constant Others 33 603 2.8 Total 1 164 586 100.0 increase in the armed forces in the region, and new missile, aircraft, marine, and land armed forces were established Source: OYSMO, 1992. ’ zyxwv zyxwvutsrqpon zyxwvutsrqpon zyxwvutsrqpon 8 / G.P. LUZIN et al. the migration balance was a negative 2500, and the total population increase of3900peoplewas due to natural increases. The population is expected to decrease slightly in future. Incentives for settlement in the Russian North were first used in 1869, when the government issued the first decree on the advantages for settlers alongtheMurman coast. Settlers were freedfromtaxesandmilitary service. The system of incentives was revised twicebefore 1907. During the Soviet period the state continued the policy of compulsion and incentives to developa northern labourforce. At present there is a system of incentives for workers and employees of state enterprises and organizations. The incentives include salary bonuses (for the Kola Peninsula this coefficient equals 1.5 times the nationalaverage), an additional 18-dayleave, FIG2. Kola Bay, near the city of Kola. reservation of a flatatthepreviousplace of residence, retirement 5 years early, and a number of other advantages. Recently, however, the revision of salary scales and salary employees, including62 O00 people witha higher university increases across the country has tended to equalize salary degree. This number increased by a factor of 2.65 between rates, causing people to leave theregion. In April 1992 the 1970 and 1987; however, at many state enterprises up 40% to Russian government, following a speech by Vladimir of these specialists did not work according to their profesKuramin, chair of Goskomsever, discusseda new policy for sion, which speaks of their ineffective use (Lazarev and the North. This policy, if implemented, would encourage Korchak, 1991). Ninety percent of the Kola region's poputhe non-productive northern population to resettle inthe lation has at leasta secondary level education, and this figure South, where theywould be lesscostlyto the state is above99 % for those aged 20-39. The Kola region contains (Economist, 1993). (The amount of state pension payments 252 full-time schools, 21 evening schools, 27 vocational in the Kola region increased from 144 300 rubles in 1985 schools, 10 special secondary schools, and 2 institutions of to 193 O00 rubles in 1991.) The plan involves the voluntary higher learning. resettlement of up to one million northerners in central and About 730 O00 people were employed in the Kola region southern Russia ata projected cost of27 billion to 30 billion in 1990, ofwhich 75% (548 000) were engagedinthe rubles (People's Congress Proceedings, 1992:35). Already national economy. The distribution of labour resources is the population of some parts of Chukotka in northeastern shown in Table 4. The number of workers increased as the Russiahasbeenreduced by 20% (John Hannigan, pers. economy developed. From 1960to 1990 the level increased cornm. 1993). Various reasons account for this exodus. Some 1.9 times, reaching 468 400 by 1991. As the Kola Peninsula people are leaving to ensure that they retain a flat in their is industrially developed, the greatest number of workers home community or citizenship in a non-Russian republic. and employees have been engaged in material production: Others, especially pensioners, find the costs of living to be zyxwvutsrq zyxwvuts zyxwvut zyxwv lower in the South, 'while some professionals, such as medical doctors, are leaving becauseof the lack of adequate supplies TABLE 3. Settling in the Kola Peninsula in the North (John Hannigan, pers. comm. 1993). 1990198019701960 The Kola Peninsula is the most densely populatedpart of Total settlements 418l 300 the Russian North and contains 66% of the population of Total cities 7 11 the Russian Arctic.In 1992 the population density in the KolaTotal settlement population (OOO) 561.2 720.7 Peninsula was 7.9 peoplekm2, which exceeded the other 235.0 316.0 Murmansk population (OOO) polar areas of the country by 30-50 times (OYSMO, 1992). IEstimates. There are more than 200 settlements in the region, with% 92 Source: OYSMO, 1991; IEP, 1992. of the population living in 12 cities and 42% in the administrative centreof Murmansk, which hasa population of almost TABLE 4. Labour distribution, 1990 a half million (472 900) (Fig. 2). Three cities, Apatity , Severomorsk, and Monchegorsk, havea population between 60 000 and 90 000, and the others have fewer than 60 O00 Labour resources, total 100.0 730.3 people (Table 3). The citiesandvillages are unevenly Engaged innational economy 75.1548.2 distributed inthe territory andmainly cluster alongthe 97.5 534.4 State sector Murmansk railway and alongthe coast. The eastern part of 2.2 Kolkhozes 0.4 10.8 the peninsula, or almosthalfthe territory, is virtually Cooperatives 2.0 0.8 Privatesector uninhabited due to the severe climate and lack of roads. The educational level in the Kola Peninsula is high: in 1987 Students over 16 4.6 33.6 148.5 the number of specialists with advanced and technical educa-Others 20.3 Source: OYSMO, 1991; IEP, 1992. tion amounted to 160 000, or one-third of all workers and h i 222 11 927.8 394.0 12 1067.8 472.9 % % 183l o. 1 zyxwvu zyxwvutsr zyxwv zyxwvu THEKOLAPENINSULA 334 600 people, or 71.4%. Of this tots 11. 312.5’% (152 200 people), are engagedin industry, 12.2% -(57200)in construction, and9.7% (45 600) in transport. About 133 800 people, or 28.6%, are engaged in the tertiary sector (OYSMO, 1992) (see Table 5). Table 5 shows that there has been a gradual increase in the ratio of persons employed in the non-production sector by 8.9 % . The small increase in employment took place in education and culture, from 12 900 in 1960 to 50 800 in 1990, and is associatedwiththe age structure of the population, as well as with the creation of several new high and technical schools. The number of people employed in health and sports increased almost2.5 times (OYSMO, 1991). Withchangesineconomicpolicyand legislation, the numberof cooperatives and private firms hasincreased substantially. The number of cooperative organizations in the Kola region amounted to903 in 1991, a 72.6 % increase over the previous year. The largest number of cooperative organizationswasin the building, purchasing, consumer goods production, and trade sectors, in that order. Private firms totalled 707 in 199 1, employing 8012 people. The total 1991 profit for these firms was 106 million rubles. Trading companies accounted for the largest share of private firm activity, followed by construction and industrial companies. A number of joint ventures have also been established in the Kola region - 37 in 1991. The share by country was Finland 12, Norway 7, Sweden 6, and others 12. Together the exports of the joint ventures totalled 12.4 million rubles in 1991, and imports totalled27.0 million rubles in the same period (OYSMO, 1992). Though the dataindicate a gradual reconsideration of the priorities and a shift towards social goals, the largest part of the labour force is nevertheless still engaged in material production. The data reflect state policies for improving the interests of party bodiesthrough the intense development of the region as a military and raw material appendix of the state. The state gave a lower priority to the improvement of social conditions. / 9 MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES As indicated in Table 6, only 0.7% of land resources are used for agriculture and industry. Over %61of the total area is occupied by reindeer pastures, and even these are not fully utilized. The proportion of other lands, including military areas and border zones, is significant (though datafor these areas are classified). In thefuture military andborder zones will be gradually reduced, making it possible to expand protected natureareas, which at present occupy9.5 % of the territory (11 600 km,).Figure 3 shows the basic resource regions. Minerals Northern Russia contains eight important mineral resource regions. The Kola Peninsula isthe most important of these bothin the variety of mineralsandin their stage of development. TheKola Peninsulacontains deposits of iron, copper-nickel, other non-ferrous and rare metals, phosphate, mica, clays, andmany other types of minerals. Table 7 shows the region’s mineral resource base. The Kola Peninsula is the country’s main source of raw materials for phosphorous fertilizer production, comprising five typesof multicomponent apatiteores. The basis of these resources is the apatite-nephelinores (located in the Khibiny Mountains in the centre of the peninsula), which contain 45-50% apatite, 35-40% nephelin, 6-10% aegirine, up to 2.5 % sphene, and about 2 % titanium-magnetite. Rich ores with a P,O, content of up to27% make up one-third of the depositsandpoor grade ores up to 10%. Other known deposits of apatite-magnetite and apatite-staffelite ores are found in the west of the region, in the Kovdor area. Eleven deposits have been discovered in the area; seven of them are producing mines. Total quantities ofapatite ore in 1990 TABLE 6 . Land use in the Kola Peninsula, 1990 zy zyxw zyxwvutsrqponm 000 km2 % ~~~~ TABLE 5 . Employment structure - 1990 1960 (OOO) % (OOO) % Forests Scrub Pasture and tundra Agriculturalland Built-up areas Roads Other Total 25.9 0.4 61.6 0.3 0.2 11.4 31.48 0.47 74.98 0.21 0.41 0.26 13.89 121.70 employment Total 242.4 100.0100.0 468.4 production Material 80.2 194.4 71.4 334.6 Source: OYSMO. 1991. Industry 36.9 89.4 152.2 32.5 Agriculture 11.8 4.6 1.9 2.5 Forestry 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.2 TABLE 7. Selected mineral resources, 1990 Transportation 37.5 15.5 45.6 9.7 1.7 Communication 7.8 1.5 3.7 Deposits Construction 36.2 14.9 57.2 12.2 (lo6 tomes) catering and Trade 51.2 8.5 20.5 10.9 1grade .1 0.2Proven services Information Ore Inferred Resource Others 0.8 6.9 1.5 2.0 ores Apatite 1 1 OOO 687 Non-production sector 47.6133.8 19.7 ores 28.6 Iron 3100 1600 5.7 26.9 1 1 . 1 4.6 Services Aluminium ores recreation andHealth 6.9 32.5 5.6 13.5 Nephelin culture Education and 12.9 5.3 50.8 10.9 10 Kianite OOO 1700 Science 2.4 5.7 14.8 3.2 Micas (Muscovite, 3.8 insurance and Banking 0.4 1.0 0.8 52 Vermiculite) Phlogopite, 24 Administration 1.4 3.4 5.0 1.1 80 21 Feldspar Source: OYSMO, 1991; IEP, 1992. Source:IEP, 1992. 0.2 lW.0 (%) 9-27 25-32 13 30-35 30 - zyxwvutsrqpo zyxwvutsrqp zyxwvutsrqpon 10 / G.P. LUZIN et al. were estimated at1087 million tonnesof P205; 63 % of them (687 million tonnes) are proven resources (IEP, 1992). There are ten iron ore deposits, represented in the region by ferrous quartzites, magnetites, and titano-magnetites. The Olenegorsk (magnetite quartzites) and Kovdor (magnetite) deposits are the largest. The average content of iron in Olenegorsk ores is 32.3 % ; in Kovdorthe ore contains 28.8 % iron and 7.04% P20,. Total iron ore deposits are estimated at 3.1 billion tonnes, including1.6 tonnes of proven resources (Fedoseev, 1979). The Kola Peninsula is second in the country in known deposits of copper-nickel ores (after the Noril’sk region in the Taymyr Peninsula); these are located in eight deposits of the Pechenga-Allarechensk area bordering on Norway, with 96% of the resources being in developed deposits, mainly polymetallic sulphideores. Besides copper and nickel, they contain cobalt, selenium, tellurium, and precious metals. Six deposits are being mined, two by surface methods. The ores are mainly poor (the nickel content is%)1and the known deposits of rich oresare almostfully extracted. Nickel smelting in two large plants (Pechenganickel and Severonickel) also uses rich but rather sulphurous Noril’sk ore. Noril’sk ore has been processed in the Kola region since 1964. Noril’sk is an isolated city in Siberia and has no road zyxwv or rail links to central Russia. Ratherthan construct a 2000 km railway at the cost of 400-500 millionrubles, the state decided to ship Noril’sk ores to the Kola region for processing (Horensma, 1991). Transportation of Noril’sk ores requires a manifold transport infrastructure. The ores are first shipped from Noril’sk to the river port of Dudinka by rail, then by barge to the port of Dikson atthe mouth of the Yenisey River, then by ship to Murmansk, and finally by rail to the Kola smelters. The future of nickel smelting in the Kola Peninsulais open to question. The smelters have not been well maintained and may be nearing the end of their productive lives (Arctic NewsRecord, 1992a). The same source notes that the complicated transport route described abovemay be too costly, especially now that the Murmansk Shipping Company is a for-profit enterprise. Investment in developing richer Kola ores and in modernizing thesmelters, however, would allow the Kola smelters to continue operating. The Kola Peninsula is the leading source of rare metals in Russia. Alkali metals - lithium, rubidium, and caesium in association with beryllium, niobium, and tantalum- are concentrated in spodumene and polucite from pegmatites of the Voronia tundra in the centre of the peninsula. These metals, in combination with gallium (in nephelin) are found zyxwvutsrq AGRICULTURE Reindeer breedine ” BARENTS SEA ** Cattle Fish farming farming Fur MINERAL REGIONS -..:. .&y . iron Cu Ni Fe P M A a WHITE SEA Principal mineral and agricultural resources of the Kola Peninsula. copper nickel zyxw zy P FIG 3. main mineral deposit regions apatite-nepheline mica CITIES Murm8nrk (472 500 people) 50 000 100 000 people 10 000 SO 000 people < 10 000 people - Aydroelectric d8m Railway THEKOLA PENINSULA / 11 in ores of the Khibiny Mountains but are not exploited except hydrocarbons. Recently large natural gas and oil deposits were discovered offshore in the Barents Sea. Russian and for gallium. Western estimates have ranged as high as 4000 billion m3 The Khibiny apatite-nephelin ores are combinedraw for natural gas and the fields have been described as material. Besides phosphorus they contain fluorine, lantanoids, and strontium; in nephelin, gallium, caesium, and “supergiant” (Arctic News-Record, 1992b). Preliminary prospecting hasshown the promising character ofthese rubidium; and in sphene, titanium, niobium, and tantalum. deposits; however, these require more detailed study and Titanous raw materials occur in titanomagnetite and sphene in combined Khibinyores and in great amounts in the tailings reliable estimation.The potential development is nevertheless substantial. (up to500 million tonnes) of the Apatite Combine. The region also containsdeposits of titanium-bearing ores with niobium Water and Hydropower (Afrikanda, Seblyavr) and with apatite (Gremiaha-Vyrmes, Water resources of the region are represented by annual Lesnaja Varaka). Geological conditions make it possible to mine them. Zirconium minerals occur as baddelite (Kovdor) river flow, which is estimated for the Kola Peninsula to be 79 k m 3 , of which 53.6 k m 3 are formed within the region and eudialite (Lovozersk mountains). Large deposits of and the remaining25.4 k m 3 outside the region. The assumed combined rare metals are in the deposits extracted by the potential resourcesof ground waterare 6 million m3 perday. Lovozersk ore extracting and processing combine in the At present the water supplyfor the population and economy centre of the Kola Peninsula, which is the principal supplier is 2.5 k m 3 of water resources peryear, of which92%is used of this raw material in the country (IEP, 1992). by industry. During the past 15 years water consumption in Aluminium-bearing raw materials occur as nephelins in the region increased by 250% (IEP, 1992). Khibiny and kianites of Keivin the east of the region. The Hydropower resources of the Kola Peninsula comprise content of A1,03 in apatite-nephelin ores is 13-14%. The 28 rivers with potential resources of 2500 MW, or 92% of enrichment plants of the Apatite Combine contain an even all hydro resources of the region. The rivers are characterized higher content, which amounts to more than 500 million by small water catchment areas and a spillway typeof longitutonnes. At present a small portion (about 1.6 million tonnes dinal profile, which ensures the relatively small power of of nephelin concentrate) is processed into alumina at the their branches and which cannot be considered as indepenVolhov and Pikalevsk plantsnear St. Petersburg. The dent sources of hydropower. In the region 7 large rivers aluminium resources of the Keiv area at the east of the Kola concentrate 66%of summary power and 21 medium rivers Peninsula are promising, where totalreserves of rich kianite the remaining 34%. The northeast of the peninsula has the ores are estimated at 3.4 billion tonnes and are found in greatest potential for hydropower. This area represents 27 % 23 deposits, 5 of which are already prospected (0.9 billion of the peninsula but contains 41 % of all hydro resources; tonnes). The average content of kianite is35.3 % ,of alumina the west represents57 % of territory and45 % of hydropower, 30-35 % ,and of silica 60-65 % (Fedoseev, 1979). Enriching and the southeast 14%of territory and 16%of hydropower. ores and obtaining kianite concentrate with 56-57% A1,.03 The main factor influencing the high content of hydropower content (and its processing into silumine andalumma in the northeast is the great value of the absolute fall of the refractories) is mastered in test-industrial volume. The water surface, the sheer spillway profile, and the high average mastering is hampered by the lack of roads and basic inframodulus of river flow: 12.4 1 ~ k m instead - ~ of 11.5 1 structure in the east of the peninsula. ~ * k m in - ~ other areas. The most powerful river in the Kola By volume of provenresources and the variety of non-ore Peninsula is the Pona (in the east), containing 12.4%of all raw materials - such as micas (muscovite, phlogopite, and hydro resources. Otherlarge rivers are the Voronia, Iokanga, vermiculite), ceramic and quartz raw material, carbonates and Tuloma. Hydro resources of the region are well (carbonatites and dolomites), facing and lining materials, anddeveloped. There are 17 hydraulic power stations with a total semi-precious stones - the Kola Peninsula is one of the capacity of1800 MW (IEP, 1992). The distribution of hydro leading regions in the country. Micas occur mainly in the resources is shown in Table 8. Kovdor phlogopite-vermiculite area at the west of the Tidal Power peninsula, but are also found in other areas; however, only the first is of industrial importance. Mica resources are The Kola Peninsula has significant tidal power potential estimated at 24 million tonnes. These deposits are currently along its northern coast, which in the form of tidal waves being extracted. Non-ore building materials are practically unlimited and TABLE 8. Territorial distribution of potential hydro resources are represented by building stones such as granite, diabase, olivine, sienite, quartzite, and shales. Proven resources rivers Medium rivers Large include 21 deposits of building stone, 35 of sandy gravelResources Resources boulder formations, and17 sand deposits including7 quartzy. MW Number Areas % MW Number % Total resources are about 21 million tonnes (IEP, 1992). zyxwvutsrq zyxwvutsr zyxwvutsrq Petroleum Despite such variable andvast resources in the Kola Peninsula, it was long impossible to discover deposits of zyxwv zyxwvu zyxwvu Western Northeastern 3 Southeastern 4 - 712 494 7 - 84.4 66.2 - 5 9 112 253 252 13.6 33.8 100.0 Source: Hydropower Resourcesof the Kola Peninsula, Issue3. Leningrad: U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, 1970. zyxwvutsrqpon zyxwvutsrqp zyxwvutsrqponmlk zyxwvutsrqpon 12 / G.P. LUZIN er al. z reaches a height of 4 m near the Rybachi Peninsula and up species), with anaverage planting density of0.43. Available wood resources are intensively used, reaching1.4 million m3 to 7.2 m farther east in Lumbovsk Bay. At the entrance to the White Seathe height of the tideincreases near the Kuloi in 1990, although according to scientists, the optimal harvest River (Arkhangel’sk area) to 10.2 m. Near the shore of the shouldnotexceed614 000 m3a year. Average annual WhiteSeatheamplitude of tidesdiminishesandnear ingrowthisabout2million m3 of lumber, ofwhich Kandalaksha it is1.5 m and in Arkhangel’sk0.75 m. In the 1.4 million m3 is softwood and 0.6 million m3 hardwood. eastern part of the Barents Sea the tide also decreases and Fish Resources near the Pechora River it is only 0.31 m. In the European North the technical potential of tidal power Fish, along with minerals, is one of the twopillars of the is estimated to be 40 600 GWh (20% of the Soviet total) and KolaPeninsula’seconomy. The Kolafishingindustry is distributed as follows: Kola Peninsula (Lumbovsk Bay), developed rapidly following WorldWar 11. The Ministry of 1300 GWh; Arkhangel’sk area (Mezensk Firth), 39 300 GWhFisheries believedthattheachievement of production ( E P , 1992). Tidal energy is difficult to use due to its cyclical efficiency may lead to losses in specialization and concencharacter. Tidalpowermust be supplemented by river tration. The ministry therefore amalgamated the sea fishery hydropower stations. Preliminary estimates for the proposed of three neighbouring northern Russian regions (Murmansk, Lumbovsk tidal power station are 380-650 MW. The high Arkhangel’sk, and Karelia) into one organization known as specific price of 1 kw of energy and some unsolved technical Sevryba. Sevrybathencontained four subdivisions:the problems delayed the realization of the project, however. trawler fleet, Murmanrybprom (the former Mumansel-d), The pilotKislogubskaya tidal power station, generating Sevrybholodflot (motherships, transport ships, and tankers) 400 kw, is the only tidal power station operating for any and the fishingport, shipyard, fish combine, and other land length of time. auxiliary objects. In the 1960s and 1970s Sevryba was constantly increasing Wind Energy catch volumes and reached the maximumcatch, 1.8 million tonnes, in 1976. This totalaccountedfor 17.6% of the Windenergy resources are non-traditional sources of all-Union catch. In the following years the catches began to energy for the region. Wind energy possesses a number of decrease and totalled about 1.6 million tonnes of fish (or peculiarities: smallconcentrationinaunitof air flow, 16.1 % of the Soviet total). In 1988 the world fish catch spontaneous change in velocity and direction, and instability reached 94 million tonnes, 30% of which was caught by four over time. Nevertheless, itsubiquitous occurrence, the countries: Japan, U.S.S.R., China, and U.S.A. The Soviet possibility of technicaluse, and ecological puritygive wind catch was 11.5 milliontonnes (in 1989 itdropped to energy great potential as an additional power source. 10.6 million tonnes), 60 % of which was composed of mass In the Kola Peninsula coastal and offshore areas are characfish species, such as herring (0.8 million tonnes), sardines terized by unstable and relatively strong winds. Along the northern coast the average annual wind velocity at a height (0.6 million tonnes), andcod (0.5 million tonnes). The contribution of Sevryba is higher for food fish production, of 10 m of the near-earthair layer reaches 6-9 m-s- l, along the south coast it reaches 4-6 m-s-1, and in the continental reaching 17.8 % of the Soviet total in 1990, 96% of which was sold outside the Murmansk region. In 1990 the total part of the peninsula it is 3-3.5 mas-’. According to the Sevryba catch was 1.6 million tonnes, ofwhichthe wind energy cadastre the technically feasible wind energy Murmansk fleet share was 73.8 % . The state sector share of resources are estimated at 34 900 GWh of electric energy, production was 94.3%, whilethe share of thefishing with set energy of wind energy installations being1.7 1 MWh collective farms was only 5.7 % (IEP, 1992). The private (Stepanov, 1973). sector was absent from the fishing industry in the region. At present, scientists from the Kola ScienceCentre of the Sevryba is the largest enterprise in the Kola region: the Russian Academy of Sciences are conducting industrial tests value (at cost) of its basic production assets is estimated at of wind energy in the village of Dalnie Zelentsy on the shore 2.9 billion rubles, which is much larger than the value of of the Barents Sea. Wind energy is of special interest for mining industrial assets: Apatite Combine (1.7 billion rubles), remoteandwindysettlements.Windenergyinstallations Severonickel Combine (0.6 billion rubles), Pechenganickel could be combined with diesel generators in asingle station. Combine (0.57 billion rubles), and Kovdor Combine (0.24 billion rubles).In 1990 the share of the basic production RENEWABLERESOURCES assets situated in Murmansk was76.4% of Sevryba’s total, in Arkhangel’sk region 13.8 % , and in Karelia 9.8 % . Forest Resources The Russian Ministryof Fisheries determines the strategy The forests of the region are low in production, low site for development of the fishing sector.The ministry, through class, sparse, andwithfewwood resources. Totalwood the subordinate Sevryba administration, also determines resources are estimated at 201 million m3,of which 116 economic and financial policy. Over the last several years million m3 are mature and overmature. Harvestable forests the ministry’s policy has been to maximize the fish catch are an estimated 138 million m3, out of which 82 million even at the cost of decreasing production efficiency. This unreasonable policyof momentary profit led to the depletion m3 are mature and overmature. Norway spruce and Scots pine are the prevailing species (accountingfor 74 % of total of fish stocks in some traditional catch regions. zyxwvut zy zy zyxwvutsrqp THEKOLA PENINSULA / 13 the Pechenganickel and Severonickel combines to process highly sulphuric Noril’sk nickel ore. The state plan attempted Agriculture in the Kola Peninsula is insignificant, due to minimize costs and thus gave little if any consideration mainly to the climate and short growing season. About to the ecological impact of the expansion. Evidence of 8.2 millionha is used for agriculture, muchofthis for environmental degradation has been accumulating and local reindeer herding; 33 300 ha are classified as arable land. residents have begun to stage protests about pollution. The Much of the agricultural sector consists of cattle breeding, state plans to introduce new purification systems, but given reindeer herding, and vegetable gardening. Reindeer herding the high costs of scrubbers and other technology, the ability is no longer as important as it once was, due to substitutes of the enterprises to carry out this plan is called into question. and environmental problems, whichhave destroyed the In 1992 the Russian Minister of the Environment noted that reindeer’s food sources and limitedthe number of reindeer. the Russian state could not afford to finance such Vegetables are grown in greenhouses and are used for local improvements and asked the Nordic countries to subsidize consumption, butthey do notmeet local demand. The 70% of the costs (Arctic News-Record, 1992a). Cost production of themain agricultural cropsis shown in Tables 9 estimates for reconditioning range from US$600 million to and 10. Fur farms are also active, withblue arctic fox US$1 billion. Further information about environmental (58’028 pieces in 1991) and mink (45 120 pieces in 1991) damage in the region, as well as a list of Russian and produced, andwithmuch smaller numbers of ermine, Scandinavian technical papers on the topic, can be found in squirrel, and whitehare. The general agricultural potential in Doiban et al. (1992). . the regionmay increase if climatic warming trends continue. Agriculture CONCLUSION Ecological Problems zyxwvutsr zyxwvutsrqp zyxwv Soviet development policy had a major impact on arctic Anthropogenic influence, primarily through resource development and provides a good example of regional exploitation, on the natural environment of the Kola Peninsuladevelopment under socialism. Soviet development policy has led toconsiderable changes in the buffer capacity of the transformed the Russian North, andespecially the Kola biosphere. Metallurgic and chemical enterprises are the main Peninsula, from a marginal and remote fishing colony into sources of pollution, accounting for 85% of emissions. By im important resource, industrial, and military centre. the end of the 1980s over 850 OOO tonnes of harmful Assuming the need for continuous growth and production, substances were being emitted annually, including 650 000 Soviet policy fostered the exploitation of natural resources tonnes of sulphur dioxide, 18 OOO tonnes of nitric oxide, and the development of an industrial base in the North. 15 000 tonnes of hydrocarbons, and 69 000 tonnes of hard Strategic interests also necessitated the establishment of a wastes. About30%of sulphur emissionsare deposited within vast militaryinfrastructure. Under Soviet planning, environ% in the vicinity ofthe enterprises. the Kola Peninsula and 15 mental impacts were not considered and resources were These emissions have led to a complete destruction of all viewed as free gifts of nature to be used for the benefit of flora and faunain the area surrounding the large enterprises the nation as a whole.The consequences of this development (see Figs. 4, 5). A significant portion of sulphur dioxide is policy were large permanent settlements in the North, carried outside Russia to other countries. About 4.10 million m3 together with an industrial and military complex. The Kola of wastes are annually discharged into local waters, and about Peninsula, as one of the richest and mostproximate regions 55 million tonnes of solid mining wastes are produced each of the Russian North, witnessed substantial growth in year (Doiban et al., 1992). population and in the establishment of new industries. The The rate of pollution and environmental destruction impacts of this growth are felt today, as environmental and increased within the last two decades, when the former social conditions worsen and as the new state of Russia Ministry of Non-Ferrous Metallurgy of the U.S.S.R. and reconsiders its northern policyand the need for a large the U.S.S.R. State Planning Committee decided to expand permanent population in the North. . The problems of political and economic transformation in TABLE 9. Crop yields, 1970-91, all enterprises, tonnesper hectare Russia notwithstanding, the Kola Peninsula will continue to remain an important part of the Arctic, given its natural 198519801970 1990 1991 resources, large and well-educated population, existing infraPotatoes 21 9 10 10 12 structure and transportation links, strategic importance, 30 5 9 5 6 Vegetables shared border with Norway and Finland, and proximity to 2.4 3.1 2.5 2.7 2.0 Hay, perennial the gas fields of the Barents Sea. Hay,annual 1.4 2.6 1.6 3.9 2.4 ~ ~~~~~~ zyxwvutsrq zyxwvuts Source: OYSMO, 1992. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE 10. Livestock, 1971-92, all enterprises, in thousands 1981 Cattle Pigs 78.6 Sheep2.8 and goats 2.7 3.3 Source: OYSMO, 1992. 1971 15.9 31 41.7 .O 32.6 131.2 5.8 1991 43.9 139.1 1992 We thank theTamperePeaceResearchInstitute,Tampere, Finland, and the North Calotte Committee, Rovaniemi, Finland, for financial assistance with this project; Knud Sinding, of the Copenhagen Business School, for helpful comments on mining; Reino Kallio, of the Arctic Centre, for preparation of the maps; and John Hannigan, of Carleton University, and the anonymous reviewers for critical comments. Please address all correspondence to Michael Pretes in Finland. zy z zy zyxwvutsrq zyxwvu THE KOLA PENINSULA / 15 LAZAREV, E., andKORCHAK, A. 1991.Labourpotentialofthe Murmansk area. In: Economic and social aspects of using production ALYMOV, V. 1925. The population of Murmansk at the beginning of 1925. forces of the Kola region. Apatity: Kola Science Centre. In Russian. Murmansk. In Russian. MAKSIMOV, S.A. 1859. A year in the North. Vol. I. St. Petersburg. In ANON. 1988. TheMurmanskregionisfiftyyears old. Murmansk: Russian. Murmansk Publishing House. In Russian. OFFICIAL YEARBOOK OF STATISTICSFORMURMANSKAYA ARCTIC NEWS-RECORD. 1992a. Russia nyets Kola clean-up. 8(7). OBLAST’ (OYSMO). 1991, 1992. Murmansk: Goskomstat. In Russian. -. 1992b. The perils of northern resource development. 8(3). PEOPLE’SCONGRESSPROCEEDINGS.1992.Kuramin addresses ARMSTRONG, T. 1965. Russian settlement in the North. Cambridge: CongressonNorth.FBIS-SOV-92-0784. Moscow: Congress of Cambridge University Press. People’s Deputies. 22 April. BSE. 1976. Soviet Encyclopaedia. Vol. 23. Moscow: Soviet Encyclopaedia. RIES, T., and SKORVE,J. 1987. Investigating Kola:A study of military In Russian. bases using satellite photography. London: Brassey’s Defence. CHIRKIN, G. 1929. The awakening of Murman. Moscow: Moskovski SIDEPSNER, A. 1909.A description of the M u m coast. St. Petersburg. rabochi. In Russian. In Russian. DOBROV,V. 1967. The population of the Kola North. Murmansk. In S L A W , S . 1961. Industrial and transport development of the USSR North. Russian. Moscow: Economica. In Russian. DOIBAN, V., PRETES, M., andSEKAREV, A.1992. Economic -. 1972. The Soviet North: Present developments and prospects. development in the Kola Region, USSR: An overview. Polar Record Moscow: Progress. Trans. byD.Danemanis. 28(164):7-16. -. 1982. Exploration of the North of the Soviet Union. Moscow: ECONOMIST. 1993. Northern lights-out. 6 March. Nauka. In Russian. FEDOSEEV, V. 1979. Efficiency of using mineral raw material in the STEPANOV, N. 1973. Problems of power of the North. Leningrad: Nauka. extreme North. Leningrad: Nauka. In Russian. In Russ@n. HORENSMA, P. 1991. TheSoviet Arctic. London: Routledge. 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