"Speaking American: The Language of Migration in Samaná"

Ju st B e lo w S o u th I N I T e n c u L T U R A LP e R p o n u A N C E r N T H E C e n rssE A N A N D T H E U .S . S o u rH E d ite db y Je ssicaA d a m s, M ich a e lP . B ib le r,a n d C 6 cileA ccilie n N n u , W o n r. n S ru o lr- s A . J a rn e sA rn o ld , I r, d ito r l. M r c h r c l [) a s lr .[) a v id T . H a b e r ln :m d R o b c r to M 6 r q u e z , A s s o rta te b , d ito rs . lo a n l) r r y x n ,t) c ll I - 1 .lly r le s , V e r a M . K u tz in s k i,C a n d a c eS la te r , a r r c llr is N l. Z a v a la , A d u is ty F . d ito rs N e w \ ilo rld S tu d ie s A . Ja m e s A rn o ld , e d ito r U n iv e r s ityo f V ir g in ia P r e s s C h a r l o t t e s v i l l ea n d L o n d o n U r t r v c r s i toyf V i r g i n i al ) r e s s A 2 O ( \ 7 h y t h c R c c t o rr r r d V i s i t o l so f t h e L l n i v e r s i tov f V i r g i n i a A ll r ig h ts r c s c r v e d P r r r r tc din th e []n ite d S ta tc so f A r n c r ic ao n a c id - fr e ep a p e r ['ir s rp u h lis h e d2 0 0 7 987654.1 21 L ib r a r y o f ( io n g r e s s( , :r ta lo g in g - in - P r r h lic a tio l) an ta . l t r s bt e l o r vS o u t h : i n t c r c r . r l t L r r : r I p e r f o r r ni an nt hc ec ( , a r i b b e a na n d t h e U . S .S o u t h/ c d itc d b y . fc s s ic aA d a n r s ,M ic h a c l I '} llib . lc r , a n d ( l6 c ileA c c ilie r r . p . c m . - ( N e w w o rld s tu d ie s ) I n c lu d c sl- r ib lr o g r a p h icraelfe r e n c e sa n d in d e x . l S i t N -| 3 : 9 7 8 ' 0 - l l . l 9 - 2 - 5 9 9 -(8c l o t h: a l k . p a p c r ) I S B N - l l: 9 7 , t- 0 - 1 1 1 3 9 - 2 6 0 0(-p1b k . : a lk . p a p e r ) l. A n r c r ic a nlr te r a tu r c - S o u th e r nS ta te s - l'r lis to r ya n d c r itic is m .2 . C a r ib b e a n lite r ir tu r e - H is to r y a n d c r itic is n r 3. . ( . r c o lc lite r a tu r c - l lis to r y a n d c r itic is m . 4 . P c r fo r n lin ga r ts - . S o r r th c r nS ta te s..5 .P c r fo r n r in ga r ts - ( le r itr b c a n A r e a . 6 . S o r r th e r nS ta te s - S o c ia llife a n d c u s to r r s .7 . ( la r ib b e a nA r c a - s o c ia l life a n d c u s t ( ) r r 18s. .( , r o s s - c u l t u r as tl t r c l i c Is. . A d a r n s , . f c s s i c1a9, 7 ( ) - l l . 1 3 i b l cMr ;i c l r a c lP . , l 9 7 l - I l l . r \ c c i l i e n(,. 6 c i l c ,1 9 7 3 l ' S 2 ( r l .8f 7 2 { ) 0 7 ll1 0 . 9 '9 7 5 - c lc 2 2 2 0 0 6 0 .1 2 7 )1 F a rth e rS o u th S p e a k in gA m e ric a n , th e I - a n g u a g eo f M ig ra tio n in S a m a n d D o n E . W a lic e k S o c t o H t s t r ) R I C A L I N f o c u s ,t h i s e s s a ye x p l o r c st h e s t o r y o f a g ro u l'ro f A fric rrn A m e ric a n s w h o m ig ra te d fro n r th e U n ite d S ta te sto th e e a s te rns rd e o f H is p a n io la , o n c o f th e is la n d s o f ttre G re a te r A n tille s , in th e e a rly p a rt o f rh e n in e te e n thc e n tr- rryT. h is e v e n t a n d its re la tio n s h ip t< r la rrg u a g eb rin g to lig h t o n e s e t o f a m u ltip lic ity o f h is to ric a l, s o c ia l, a n d l i n g u i s t i cc o n n e c t i o n sb e t w e e n t h e C a r i b b e a na r c h i p e l a g oa n d t h e U . S . S o u t h , c h a l l e n g i n gt r a d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n sa b o u t i d e n t i r y a n d r e g i o n . t{T ith in th is re a ln r, th e im n re d ia te p e rfo rm a n c e o f e x c lra n g e a n d m u tu a l id e n tific a tio u ,a s w e ll :rs th e n re m o ry o f it, o ffe r a rn o d e l fo r re c o n fig , trrin g o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n go f g e o g r a p h i c a al n d c u l t u r a l b o r d e r s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , d e fin in g tl. re c irc u m - C a rib b e a n s o c io h is to ric a lly a s s is ts in fo rm u la tin g c ritic a l a n a ly s c so f c o n te rn p o ra ry th e o rie s o f c re o liz a tio n a n d la n g u a g e c o n ta c t. I m p o rta n t in b o th c a s e s is th e d e s c rip tio n o f th e p ro c e s s e s t h r o u g h w h i c h b o u n d a r i e sa r e e s t a b l i s h e da n d m e d i a t e d .I n t h e p a g e st o fo llo w , I d e v e lo p th e s e id e a s b y e x p lo rin g a c a te g o ry o f e v c ry d a y p e rfo rm a n c cs o u b i q u i t o u st h a t i t o c c a s i o n a l l yb o r d e r so n t h e u n f a m i l i a r - t h e r i t u a lo f s p e e c h . T h e p a r t i c u l a r I a n g u a g ei n q u e s t i o n i n t h i s e s s a yi s S a m a n dE n g l i s h ( h e re a fte rre fe rre d to a s S E ) , a v a rie ty o f E n g lis h s p o k e n to d a y b y d e s c e n d a n t os f A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s l a v e so n t h e S a m a n d P c n i n s u l ao f t h e D o m i n i c a nR e p u b l i c . lT h e e x a n r p l ep r o v i d e d b y t h i s s p e e c hc o m m u n i t y c o n t e s t sn a t i o n a l a n d l i n g u l s t i cb o u n d a r i e si n a t l e a s tt w o r e s p e c t sF. i r s t , it re m in d s u s th a t a c o m n ru n ity o f e x - s la v e sw ith ro o ts in th e U . S . S o u th m ig ra te ds o u th to th e C a rib b e a n , w h e re its rrre m b e rsn o t o n ly p re s e rv e d th e ir la n g r- ra g ea n c l s ig n ific a n t a s p e c ts o f th e ir c u ltu re o v e r s u c c e s s iv e g e n e r a t i o n sh, u t a l s o m a i n t a i n e d t o a l a r g e e x t e n t a s e p a r a t e"A m c r i c a n " i d e n t i t y w i t h i n a r u r a l , S p a n i s h - s p e a k i nsgo c i e t y .S e c o n d ,t h e d e s c rip tio no f lin g u is tic p e rfo rn ra n c e in s o c io h is to ric a lc o n te x t p u s h e sfo r F a rth e rS o u th S p e a k in gA m e ric a n , th e I - a n g u a g eo f M ig ra tio n in S a m a n d D o n E . W a lic e k S o c t o H t s t r ) R I C A L I N f o c u s ,t h i s e s s a ye x p l o r c st h e s t o r y o f a g ro u l'ro f A fric rrn A m e ric a n s w h o m ig ra te d fro n r th e U n ite d S ta te sto th e e a s te rns rd e o f H is p a n io la , o n c o f th e is la n d s o f ttre G re a te r A n tille s , in th e e a rly p a rt o f rh e n in e te e n thc e n tr- rryT. h is e v e n t a n d its re la tio n s h ip t< r la rrg u a g eb rin g to lig h t o n e s e t o f a m u ltip lic ity o f h is to ric a l, s o c ia l, a n d l i n g u i s t i cc o n n e c t i o n sb e t w e e n t h e C a r i b b e a na r c h i p e l a g oa n d t h e U . S . S o u t h , c h a l l e n g i n gt r a d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n sa b o u t i d e n t i r y a n d r e g i o n . t{T ith in th is re a ln r, th e im n re d ia te p e rfo rm a n c e o f e x c lra n g e a n d m u tu a l id e n tific a tio u ,a s w e ll :rs th e n re m o ry o f it, o ffe r a rn o d e l fo r re c o n fig , trrin g o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n go f g e o g r a p h i c a al n d c u l t u r a l b o r d e r s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , d e fin in g tl. re c irc u m - C a rib b e a n s o c io h is to ric a lly a s s is ts in fo rm u la tin g c ritic a l a n a ly s c so f c o n te rn p o ra ry th e o rie s o f c re o liz a tio n a n d la n g u a g e c o n ta c t. I m p o rta n t in b o th c a s e s is th e d e s c rip tio n o f th e p ro c e s s e s t h r o u g h w h i c h b o u n d a r i e sa r e e s t a b l i s h e da n d m e d i a t e d .I n t h e p a g e st o fo llo w , I d e v e lo p th e s e id e a s b y e x p lo rin g a c a te g o ry o f e v c ry d a y p e rfo rm a n c cs o u b i q u i t o u st h a t i t o c c a s i o n a l l yb o r d e r so n t h e u n f a m i l i a r - t h e r i t u a lo f s p e e c h . T h e p a r t i c u l a r I a n g u a g ei n q u e s t i o n i n t h i s e s s a yi s S a m a n dE n g l i s h ( h e re a fte rre fe rre d to a s S E ) , a v a rie ty o f E n g lis h s p o k e n to d a y b y d e s c e n d a n t os f A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s l a v e so n t h e S a m a n d P c n i n s u l ao f t h e D o m i n i c a nR e p u b l i c . lT h e e x a n r p l ep r o v i d e d b y t h i s s p e e c hc o m m u n i t y c o n t e s t sn a t i o n a l a n d l i n g u l s t i cb o u n d a r i e si n a t l e a s tt w o r e s p e c t sF. i r s t , it re m in d s u s th a t a c o m n ru n ity o f e x - s la v e sw ith ro o ts in th e U . S . S o u th m ig ra te ds o u th to th e C a rib b e a n , w h e re its rrre m b e rsn o t o n ly p re s e rv e d th e ir la n g r- ra g ea n c l s ig n ific a n t a s p e c ts o f th e ir c u ltu re o v e r s u c c e s s iv e g e n e r a t i o n sh, u t a l s o m a i n t a i n e d t o a l a r g e e x t e n t a s e p a r a t e"A m c r i c a n " i d e n t i t y w i t h i n a r u r a l , S p a n i s h - s p e a k i nsgo c i e t y .S e c o n d ,t h e d e s c rip tio no f lin g u is tic p e rfo rn ra n c e in s o c io h is to ric a lc o n te x t p u s h e sfo r 96 D rn L - '.lV ttlice k a s s u lllp tio llsa b o u t la n g u a g e a n c l th e rc c o n s id c rrrtio no f c e rta in s c ie n tific f o r i n s t a n c e t, h a t i d e r gf l i n g u i s t i c sl.t s h o r v s , e l l r i c h e s( ) u r u n d c r s t z r n r l i rO T a k in g iu s t th e s im p le S t" of , , 1 , ', g ;. ^lc ( ) lls tru c tss h :rp eo trr u n c le r- s ta n d irrg c i r e d o f a l l l i n g u i s t i cc o r r e n . r t i , , no f p l r r c e p, e r h a p st h e m o s t f r e q t r e u t l y th a t w e o fte n th in k a n d ta lk a b o u t l a r c s ,e r r d c x ; r m i n i n gi i c l o s c l yr e v e a l s 97 T h e L a n g n a g e o f M ig ra tio n in , S d m a n d l i n g u i s t i c st h a t a r e r e l e v a n tt o t h e d e s c r i p t i o no f S E . T h e t h i r d s e c r i o n i n c l u d e sa r e v i e w o f t h e c o n d i t i o n st h a t l e d t o t h e f o r m a r i o n a n d s u s r e n a n c e o f S E , T. h is fin a l p o rtio n o f th e e s s a yg iv e s s p e c ia la tte n tio n to lo c a l fa c to rs th a t fo r m o re th a n a c e n tu ry h a v e c o n trib u te d to th e rn a in te n a n c e o f a u n iq u e v irrie ty o f A fric irn A n re ric a n I rn g lis h in th e to w n o f S itn ra n i. ir. . ;fg e t> g ra p h y its c lfw e re rh e c a u s e c tflin g u is tic v a ria rio tl'ltrc t> rp o ra tC o n n e c tio n s w ith in th e C irc u m - C a rib b e a n o f tl. ree x p la lra t( ) ryv a lu e s irrg tlrc in s ig trtsg a in e , , 1fro rl1 . t re c x ;ltllilliltio rr I n r e c e r r ty c a r s , l i n g u i s t ss p e c i a l i z i r r gi n t h e s t u d y o f C r c o l e l a n g u a g e s s r t r r < l t t t r c l i n g c o n c e p t t r a l i z a t i < l r t s < l f r r o t r n d a r i e s a r r d p l a c e s c a n c t l n t r i b u t eh a v e c o rn p le te cre l s c a rc hth a t a llo w s u s to im a g in e la n g u a g ea s a d e fin in g o f i t s r e l a t i o n s h i pt o o t h e r l a n g u a g e s t < la l r e t t c ru n d er s t a n d i l r go f s E a r r c l f e a t u r e o f t h e c i r c u r n - C l a r i b b e a Tn .h i s h a s b e e n d o n e i n p a r t b y i n v e s t i th c A fric a n tlia s P o ra . g a t i n g t h e l i n g u i s t i c c o n s e q u e n c e ,sr [ l n o v e m e n t h e t w e e n t h e s o u t h e r n T . lrtltrg , h ln a n y S t|. ld ie s rc c tlrc |lr< llv g rtrrtp s s rrc lra s s la v e s 'irtd e n tu re d U n i t e d S t a t e sa n d s p e c i f i cC a r i b b e a n i s l a n d s .T h i s m i g r a t i o n o c c u r s i n h o n d o f p lig h ts re s p . rrd c d to th e r'u ltip le lrrl. r. re rs a, n c l . rh c r u rig , ra rrrs tw o d ire c tio n s : n lo v e m e n t n o rth w a rd fro m th c is la n d s , a s w e ll a s m ilro s t e ith e r u rrd e re s tia g , c ,c o lo n ia lis tn , a rlc l th e p la n ta ti< 'rtle c o t. to m y ' g ra tio !'rs o u th w a rd fro n r rh e c o rrriu e n ta lU n ite d S ta te s . H o w e v c r, th e s e o f la llg u a g e ' R u t a s n rg u e d n rrltc o r a lttlg e th e r o v e rlo t> kth e in rp tlrta rtc c tra n s fc rso f p e o p lc a n c l c u ltu re 'd id n o t o c c u r b e tw e e ll a re a s th a t h a d n o lly N ic lrtlla s F a ra c l:rs , th e fo rc e a rrc lc re a tiv ity w itlrw h ic lrrn a rg in a liz e d h is to ry o f c o n ta c t, b u t w ith in a g e o g ra p h ic a ls p a c ea lre a d y in flr- re n c e bdy u r ( ) u p S : t r t l r t t t d t | r e w o r l d h a v e l r c t e d a g l l i t r s t c n c r t la c l r n r e n t s o r r t h e i r l a r r d , t h e r c a l i t i e so f s l a v e r ya n d E u r o p e a nc o l o n i a l i s n r . l a n o f r e l e v a n tt o a t h e o r y i r b o r . t r r r < l i t i o r t sb,o c l i e sa, r r d l i v e s a r e h i g h l y L i n k s b e t w e e nt h e U . S . S o u t h a n d i s l a n d so f t h e "i n s u l a r " C a r i b b e a n by r c s l ' r o t r s ea ss t h e v i n f o r m a n d a r e i r r f o r n r e d f , , "g ". ' l t x a r n i n i n g t h e s e s u g g e s tth a t a m u ltip lic ity c lf fa c to rs rn u s t b e ta k e n il- rto c o n s id c ra tio n t l r e r e I a t i t r r l s l r i l r b e t w e c r r l a t r g t r . r g e a l l d s < l c i e t y d e m a n c l s t h a t t l r e a l l s t r a c tw h e n e x p l o r i r r gt h c n a t u r c a r r d o r i g i n s o f A f r i c a n A r n c r i c a nl r r n g u a g e s . c o l r s i c l e r e d ' b e irn d h is to ry a n c l"t r t e s s i c r "c a t c g o r i e so f c t r l t t t r c 'p o l i t i c s ' A m o n g t h c s e i s o f t h e r o l e C r c o l e l a n g u a g e si n l a n g u a g ec o n t a c t . I a n I ln g u a g e a s . p e rf< lrm a n c e F . r r v i s i o r r citrlr t h i s c o n t e x t , a p p r < l a c h i r r g H a n c o c k a r g u e st h a t p r i o r t o 1 7 7 0 a r n a j o r i t y o f t h e b l a c k s i n G e o r g i a m c a n s t r r < lv it t g t h e c lis c u s s io r t lle y t ln d e x p lic it ly t h e a t r ic a lc ( ) n t e x t s t ( ) w e re f r o r n t h e C l a r i b b e a n . r l its t l r e r e f o r ep o s s i b l et h a t t h c n a r i v e t o n g u e ta lk a b tltrtlro w la n g tra g e is irrte rre la te tlw ith lris to ry a n d s trtrc ttlre s o f o f s o m e o f t h e s c s l a v e sw a s a l a n g u a g ew i t h o r i g i n s i n t h e C a r i b b c a n . e x a m p le s a s p e rfo rrn a tiv e : p o w e r. T w o c lis tirrc t'p l', it''t"t't'''ac a tr tre 's e e ll D i s c u s s i n gt h e e i g h t e e n t hc e n t u r n S a l i k o k o M u f w e n e s t a t e st h a r b l a c k s s p g a k e rs ;a n d re s e a rc h e rs ' o f rrc tu a l s l. , e e c hf, t'', n th e d a ily liv c s o f s E t h r o u g l r o u tC i e o r g i aa n d S o u t h C a r o l i r r a a r e l i k e l y t o h a v c s p o k e n a a s a d is tin c t s o c io c u lr e p r e s e t l t a t i ( l nosf S a t r l a r r il a n g u a g ea n c l c u l t t t r e C a rib b e a n C rc o le la n g r, ra g e .Ha e s u g g e s tsth a t th rs v a rie ty n rig h t h a v c o f th e lo c a l ( i'e ', S o u th ' t u r a l s y s t c r l t .A t b r l t h o f t h c s e l c v e l s ,n o t i o n s b e e nG u l l a h , a r r E r r g , l i sCh r e o l e s p o k e ni n s e c t i o n so f S o u t h C a r o l i n i ra n d p a s t ") m i g ' h t ( "r e g i < ) l ] , "a " rcco ve re d S a n t a n i )l r r d t l r c c i r c u r . n - ( . r r r i b b e a r r G e o r g i a ,a n d o n t h e S e a I s l : r n d s T. h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e so f s h a r e d l i n g u i s t i c ju d g e th e ()f rv ith w h ic h to b e u u d c rs to 0 tl rrs rw o tliffe re n t s e ts c ritc ria h e rita g ern a y h a v c rn e rn ife s teth d e rn s e lv e sin c l< ls e ra ffin itie so r s h a re dc u lv ia b ilitv tlflirrg u is trc p e rfo rtn a n c e n s a c . a te g o ry tlfs c lc i< lh is t< lric a la n a ly t u r a lp r a c t i c e sa m o n g s l a v e sw h o s h a r e da c o l n m o n l a n g u a g eo r p l a c eo f o f p ( ) w e r ( e 'g '' a g e ' ra c e ' p la c e s is . t{o w e v c r, th e rc lc v a n c eo f o tl- re rg 'ric ls o r i g i n .I r r a t l d i t i o r r ,f e a t u r c so f G u l l a h o r C a r i b b e a nl a n g r r a g e rsn a y l r : r v e o f u s e f u l n e s s w e q t t e s t i o l t) h e o f o r i g i r r .c l a s s ,s o c i o p t l l i t i c sr)e q u i r e st h : l t b e e np re s e rv e da m < ln gd e s c e n d a n tsc rfs o u th e rn s la v e sa n d e x te rrd e ds o u tlr c ( ) tltin u tlm ' t l r c q u n r r t i t a t i v (e) r s p o t i o lr n ( ) t l ctl r ( a c , r n r t n t t t t i t v - t o - r e g i ( ) n 1 d c c a d e lsa t c r w h e n p e r s o n so f A f r i c a n d e s c e n ti n r m i g r a t e dt o p l a c e sl i k e th a t e x p lc lre th c s e p h e l) e ta ilc , l . , ts . s tu . lic s o f lirrg tlis tic p c rfo rtrta n c e th e B a lra n rrrsth, e C iric o sI s la n c lsa, n d H is p a n io la . 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A s c e c ilia c u tle r o b s e rv e s ,d re p la n ta tio n re g im e o f tlre L jn ite d S ra te ss e rv e da s a te m p la te fo r th e c re a tio n o f a s irn ila r re g im c b e y o n d i t s c . a s r s . er h e B r i t i s h f l o v e r n m e . tc o n s i d e r e dp a r r s o f t h e B a h a m a s a n d th e C a ic o s I s l:rn d sth c b e s t p la c e sfo r re s e ttle m e n r. f h e f a c r t h a t a l a r g e n u r n b e ro f l o y a l i s t sw h o r . n i g r a t e rdo t h e B a h a m a s a fte r tlre R e v o l'tio n a ry w a r to o k th e ir s la v e s w ith th e m s u g g e s rsrh a t th e y :rn tic ip a te da s ig n ific e n t d e g re e o f c o n g ru e n c e lre tw c e n th e o rg a n iz a t i o n . f l i f c r h c r e a n d t h i r t o f r h e c o m m u n i t i e st h e y l e f t b e h i n d . s i x t o e ig h t th o u s a n c lk ry a lis ts le ft fro m th e s o u th a s w e ll a s o th e r p a rrs o f tl. re n e w l v f o u r r d ed t J ' i t e d S t a t e sR. l a c k sa r r i v e dw i t h t l r e n rn o r o n l y a s s l i r v e s , b u t a ls t'ra s "fre c " p e rs o n srv h o b e lie v e dth a t th e y w o u [d s o o n b e g ra rrte d t h e i r f r e e d , n r c l u et o r h e s u p p o r t t h e y h a d s h o w n B r i t a i n i n t h e w a r w i t h th e A m e ric a . s . H rlv e v c r, a s h a p p e n e d e ls e w h e rein th c c a rib b e a n , e v e n th t> s es la v e sw h o h a d b e e ng ra n tc d ( o r p ro m is e d ) th e d e ju re s ta tu so f fre c w e re a s s ig n e dto w h ite o v c rs e e rs F. o r m a n y , th is m e a n t d e fa c to e n s la v e m e n t . r oB y 1 8 3 t 1 t, h c t i n r e o f E r n a r r c i p a t i o inn t h e B a h a r n a st,h e s i z eo f t h e w h i t e r u l i n g c l a s sh a d d e c r e a s c ds i g n i f i c a n t l ya, n d t h e n u m b c r o t b l a c k s h a d g r. w n . A s . c io e c 'n o n ric s y s te m rn o d e le da fte r th a t o f p la n ta tio n - e rrr s l a v c r vi n t h e U . s . S . u t h r er n a i n e dl a r g e l yi n t a c r ,s t r o n g r yi n f l u e n c i n gt h c "A n re ric irrr" id e n titic . sth a t rn a n y o f tlre d c s c e n d a n fs. f rh e s e rn ig r:rn rs e m b ra c e dfo r y e rrrsto c o ln e . ( iro u p s o f l. y a lis rs fr. n r th e U 'ite d s ta te s a ls o m ig rirte d ro th e c a ic o s I s la n d sd u rin g th c la s t tw o d e c a d e so f th e e ig h te e n thc e n tu ry .T h e y b e g a rr r e c e i v i n gl a n d g r a n r s i n 1 7 i J 8 . r r h e g e o g r a p h i c a ol r i g i n s o f t l r e s ew h i t e f a m i l i e sc a n b e r r a c e d t o G e o r g i a , S o u t h c a r o l i n l , a n d E a s t F l o r i d a . i l T h e g e o g ra p h ic o rig in s o f th c ir s la v e s a re le s s c re a r, b rt a r le a s t 2 2 0 s la v e s1, 1 1 1 1o1f1wy h o rn m a y h a v e b e e u fro m G e < lrg ia ,tra v e le d w ith tlre n r a n d b e c a m et h c i s l a n d s ' 6 r s t i n h a b i t a n t s< l f A f r i c a n d c s c e n r . *\ w h e n t l r c t r a c l i n g. f s l a v e sw a s p r o h i b i t e c il n t h e B r i t i s h E r n p i r e i n 1 8 0 7 , n r a n y o f th e p la n tc rs w h o h a d s c rtle d in th e c a ic o s I s la n d s c h o s e to m o v e to th e B ritis hw c s t I n c lie s . L ik e th e c rn fc d c ra d . s w h o fle d th e u . s . S o u th f. r B ra z ila n d c u b a in th e n in e te e n thc e n tu ry , s o n re to o k th e ir s la v e s w itlr t h e m o; t h c r s ,r e m i r . r i s c c o r rft t h e s i r u a t i o ni n t h e B a h a m a s l, e f t r h e i r s l r r v c s b e h i n c [l -. i k e p r e s e n t - c l asyp e a k e r so f S E i n t l r c D o m i r - r i c a R n e p u b l r c c, o n t e m p o r a r yd e s c e n < J a not fs t h i s c o n r r l ] u n i t yt r a c e t h c i r a n c c s t r yt o s l a v e s \ b o rn in tlre [J rrite dS ra tc s . / A tte m p tsto c a tc g o riz ela rrg u a g e ssu c h a s s F . ,th e la n g . a g e so f th c B a h a m a sa n d ( ia ic o s ls la rrc lsa, n d c a rib b e a n C lre o lc sa re s o m e tim e sin flu e n c e d . l( ) ( ) D o u E . W a lir'e k I b e l i e v e ,b y w h a t K a r e n K o e g l e rc a l l s t h e "p a c k a g i n g o f p l a c e . " T h i s r n o c l eo f c l a s s i f i c a t i o na.s s h e e x p l a i n s ,s t e n r sf r o m "a n i n g r a i n e dh u m a n t c n c l e n c yt o n r a k e o r d e r o f t h e e a r t l . r ' s t t r f a c c , "o n e i n w h i c h "r e g i o n a l { i v i s i o n s r l r e l t o t I t e u t r i r l , "[ r r t t "c o l l s t r t r c t e df r o n r p a r t i s a l lv a ! 1 t a [ 4 et hs a t ( , a rib a i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t so f t h e A m e r i c a s , f o s s i l i z ct l r e i r c l y n : r m i s m . "rW b e rrn lin g u is tic tr. rro c c s s ea sre o fte l. r p a c k a g e d a s "s p e c ia l" rrtrd s e e n a s t h e r e s u l t < l f h i g h l y p a r t i c t l l a r h i s t p r i c a l c i r c u t n s t a n c e as n d p r o c e s s e s ' I p c 6 n t r a s t . 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B i c k e r t o r rs u p p o r t s h i s p o s r t i o n w i t h t h e a l l a l y s i so f t e n s e - l r l o o d - a s p e c t s y s f e n t sc, ( ) l l t p l e n l e n t i z e ras r, t d a r t i c l e s .H e h o l d s t l r a t t h e s e f e a t u r e se x h i h i t p r t r t o t y p i c l l "C r c o l c s t r t l c t ( r r e s "' ln g o I 'la g rc ie rs to B ic k c 'rro n 'sp o s itio n irs th e "u n iq u e n e s s h y p o th c s i s . "t 6( , l 1 ; s c l yc x a m i n i n g ,l l i c k e r t o n ' sd a t a , P l a g c o n c l u d e st h a t n e i t h e r th e ty p c s o f rn o rp h e tle s u s e d ilr e x p re s s itrgc e rta in g ra m m a tic a l c irte g c lr i e s . r r o r t h c n a t u r e o f t h e c : t t c g o r i e st h e n l s c l v e sa, r e s p c c i f i ct o C r e o l e lrrrrg rra g c slll. c o n tra s t, P ln g irs s e rtsth a t th e p r( ) c e s sO f g ra n lln a tic a liz a ' t i o r r t h a t l l i c k c r t r t n d e s c r i l r c sc a l l b e b e t t e r L r t t d e r s t o o ad S : 1 p r ( ) d u c tO f u n i v e r s a lp r ( ) c e s s e sT .l r i s u s e o f t h c t e r r n u n i u e r s d ld o e s n o t i n l p l y t h a t c e r t a i n ( l r e o l c f c a t u r e sw i l l b e f o u n d i n l l l l a n g t t a g e so f t h e w o r l d . 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" G i v e r rt h a t r e s e a r c hi n t h e a r e a . f l a n g u a g ec o n t a c t a d d r e s s e sq u e s t i o ' s o f l a n g u a g ec h a r r g c .i t s c e m st o b c a p r o m i s i ' g p o i r r t . f d e p a r t u r e f o r a v o i d i n g t h e f a l l a c i e sr r s s o c i a t ewd i t h t h e p a c k a g i n go f p l a c e a n d f . r u n d e r s t a n d i r rt gh e h i s t o r i c a lc o n t e x t i n w l r i c h S E a r o s e .H o w e v e r ,w i t h i n c o n t a c ts t u d i e s a s i r l i l a r p a r t c r n e r n e r g e s l:. i n g u i s t s u s u a l l y a p p r o a c h th e n r. v e m e n t o f fe a tu re s fro m o n e la n g u a g e to a n o th e r ( e . g . , S p a n is h t o E n g l i s h )a s a p r i m a r i l y l i n g u i s t i cp h e n o m e n o n l - "1 1 2 6 s f s 1 a, " p r o c e s s t h r o u g hw h i c h p r e s r r r n a b l yi n t a c t n i r t i o n a l b . u n d a r i e s a r c c r o s s e da n d t h e i rc o n t c r r t sn r i x e c l I. n c o n t r a s r ,h o w e v c r ,t h e d i f f u s i o n o f l i n g u i s t i cf e a t u r e sw i t h i n r h e t r o u n d a r i c so f a s i n g l e l a n g r - r a g( e . g . ,"E n g l i s h ") i s t y p i c a l l yc o n c c - i v e od f p r i m a r i l v a s a s o c i a l p r o c c s s - "d i a l e c t b o r r o w i ' g . " G iv e nth a t th e e x - s la v e ss p o k e A fric a rr A m e ric a n E n g lis h a t th e tir, e th e y l e f tt h e U n r t e d s t a t e s f o r H i s p a n i o l a a r d c o n t i n u e d s p e a k i n g. . E n g l i s h " a f t e rt h c i r a r r i v a l , i t i s p r o b a [ r l y i n t e r n r s . f s o c i a l p r o c e s s e tsh a t m o s r lin g u is tsw o u ld s itu a tc th e d e v e lo p n le n t( ) f S E a s it re l:lte sto c o n ta c r. 'rh e re a re a t le a s r tw ' p ro b le n rs w ith th c u s r. ra lla n g u a g e c o n ta c t a p p ro a c h A . fu rrd a rn e n ta lp ro lrle rn is th a t th e d is tin c rio n l) e tw e e n . , la n g u a g e "a n d "d i a l e c t " i s a b l u r r y o n e . D i a l c c t s c a n b e d e f i r e d i n t e r r n s 102 f) o n h ', .\ il/ a lice k o f c l a s s ,r a c e ,c t h n i c i t y ,a n d g c ( ) g r a p h ya, n d s o n r e t i t r l c i-Isr o p p o s i t i o n t o "l a n g , i r a g , c sN. "l o r c o v c r ,t h e r e e x i s t sa t e t r c l e r t cfyo r t h e v a r i e t i e st t s c di l r r n ( ) r e p o w c r f r t lc o u n t r i c sa n c l g r o u p s ( e . g . ,E , l r r o p e w, h i t e s , "s t a r l d a r d " s p e a k c rs )to b e d e fin c d a s "la r- rg u a g e s "a r. rdfo r th o s e o f le s s p o w e rfu l , o trs ta n c la rd " c ( ) u r l t r i e as n t l g r o u p s( e . g . ,t h e C a r i b l . r e a nt h, e c o l o t t i z e d "n s p e a k c r s t) o b e c o n s i d e r e d"d i a l c c t s . " F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v ee, v e n v a r i c tir:s o f O a rib b c a rr( lre o le s c a rr b e c o n s id e re d n re re d ia le c ts , c le s p itcth e p r e s c n c eo f d i s t i n c tg r a m r l a t i c a l f c a t u r c sa n d t h e e x i s t e n c eo f c o n s i d c r rrb le "c lis ta n c e "s e p a r:rtitrgtl. re rnfro rn th e ir littro p e a n le x ifie rs . 'l A s e c o n cpl r < , [ r l e r rars, S a r u l t h o t n a s o ne x p l a i n s .i s t h a t e v e n s t l - c a l l e c l c l i a l e c t os f t h e s a m cl a r r g u a g ne t a y h a v e p a r t i c u l a rs t r u c t u r a le l em e n t st h a t ;1 rellr( ) re d iffc le rrt fro rn e a c h o tlre r tlra tt tlrc y a rc fro m a n :rlo g ( ) u ss tru c tu rc s in re la te d o r c v c n u n re la te dla trg u a g e s . 2M'ro rc o v e r, s p e a k e rsw ith in l ao r ra c ia l g rrttr;lm ig h t s p c a k d is tirrc tiv ev a rie tie s a g iv e n g e o g ra ;r[ric arrre a t th e s i. u n etin ie th a t th e y s h a re c e rt:rin re g io n a l fe a tu re so f s p e e c h .F o r t h e s e r c a s o n s ,t h c a s s u r . n p t i o rat sn d c o t t c l u s i o n su p h o l d i n g t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t "c l i a l e c f s "c a r r b c c a t e g o r i z . e ads n e i r t s u b s e t so f "l a n g u a g e s "a n d u r r d er s t o o c lb e s ta s s o c i a lp h c n o r i l c n ar a t h c r t h a r ta s e x a m p l e s( ) f c o n t a c t a rc lrig h lyc rro n c ( ) \ rs . l n c f f c c t . r h c s i t u a r i < l no f c o n t a c tc r e a t c db y t l r c I r t i g r a t i o no f e x - s l a v c s to S a n ra n :iis e s rn u c l'ra lin g u is ticp r( ) c c s sa s it is a p ro c e s so f s o c ia lh y b rid iz a tio rr rc s u ltiu g fr< . , rna n re c tirlgo f "c li:rle c ts . "S l'.s h o w s th a t p re s u n ta t. rly f a m i l i a r s o c i a lp r o c c s s e tsh r o u g h w h i c h "d i i r l e c t s "c o n v e r g ec a r r l e a d t o t h c l r i r t h o f n c w l a n g u a g e sT. a k r n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o ns e v e n t e e n t ha- n d e - i g h t e e n t l r - c e n t r sl royc i o h i s t o r i c r ral n d t e x t u a l e v i d e n c e ., f o h n R i c k f o r d r c c o g r r i z c tsh c l i n g u i s t i cc o n n e c t i o r r sb e t w e c r .t rh e S o u t h a n d t h e C a r i [ r b e a n .w h e n h e w r i t c s t h a t "t h e r c c a n l r e u < ld < . r u bt tl t a t s c l m ep i d g i n / c r e o l e s p e e c l. r- w lrc th er lro rtrc - g r( ) w rlo r ittrp o rtc d - w a s a rt e le u re n tin th e fb rr n i r t i v es t a g eo f A f r i c a r rA m e r i c a nV e r r t a c u l a Er n g l i s h .I n s o n r ec o l o r l i e si t w a s c l c a r l y , r v c r y i r r f l r r e n t i aell e r n e n tr, r r r di t 1 1 1 3l y' r et h e s o u r c eo f i r r t r i g u i n g s i r n i l a r i t i e sw i t h C a r i b b e a n C r e o l e E r r g l i s hw h i c h w e f i n d i n A A V E e v c n t o d a y . "2 '( . u r i o u s l y ,u n d er t h e p r c s s u r eo f t h c d i a l e c t i c so f r n i g r a t i c l n a n c l t h e r n t r i n t e r l a n c ot :f a "f o r c i g n "/ "r e t n n a t t t " c u l t u r e a n d l a n g u a g e , g rc rfo rm a n c ae s it re lrrte sto v a rie tie slik e S I r n ta y e v e n b e tn o re h e a v ilyo v e rc l e t e r n r i r r etdl r a r ri t i s i n o t h e r c a s e s ,i n d e x i n g n a t i o n a l , r e g i o n a l ,a c r i a l , trn c llo c a l c o n r[) ( ) n e n tse, s w e ll a s s p c c ific itie so f ra tc c ,g e n d e r,a n c lc la s s . G ra m n ta r a n d S o c ic ty l ) c s c r i h i n g S l ' .i r r t e r n r s o f p a r t i c u l a r g , r i l n l r r a t i c arlu l c s a n d r n c c h a n i c s b a s e dc a t e g o r i c s ; r r o v i d eas l i r u i t e dv i c r v o f l e n g t r a g ec h a r r g ca r . r di t s r e l a - .l 0 .1 T ltt L a n g u o g e o f M ig ra ttr_ tnin S a n ta n d t i o . s h i p t o s o c i a rf a c r o r s .T h i s i s b e c a u s et h e r i n g u i s t i cs t u d i e so f S r - . th a t c r> v c rs rrc h to p ic s u s u a ily n rc lrtio n o n ly is o ra te d fe a tu re sa n d fh e n p re s _ e u t a s y 'o p s is 'f S a rn a 'd s o c ie ty a n c i h is t'ry th a t m a k e s b o th o u t to lre s ta tic ' T y p ic a lly , a s y rt, p s is o f th e rn a io r e v e n tss u rro u n d in g n rig ra tio n t< r s a n ra rri is p re s c . te d a s a r irrtro d rrc tio n to rn e c h a n ic a ol r . . g ra m m a tic a r, , c h a ra c te ris tic so f S F ',a s if s o c io h is to ric a l d a ta p ro v id e o n ry a b a c k d ro p f o r u n d c r s r a n d i n gt r r e c o m p r e x i t i e s o f r a n g u a g e T. h e r a r c r r r i s t o r y. f trre c o n l l r l u r l r t yi s u s t r a f l yn . t d i s c u s s e d a t a i l l l y r i n g u i s t s p, r e s . , m a b r yb e c a u s ei t i s n o t d e e n r e cal s i r n p o r t a n t t o l a n g u a g ec h a n g c . E x i s t i r r gd e s c r i p t i o n s. I S E a r e o f t c n e * a r n a n a t i < l '.sf p a r t i c u r a rg r a n r _ n la tic irl fe a tu rc sp re s c n te din c . m p a ra tiv e c o n te x ts . T h c y fo c trso n t( ) p rc s s u c h a s rc n s e .z e ro - rn a rk e dv e rb s , a n d c o p u la , "p h r". i, . , g iriirrr, . r, f. , . ". id e n tifie d a n u r'b e r o f "ty p ic irl" s e f""tu r"r. A m o n g rh e s ea re th e u s e .f c o t1 leo r c d n le a s a u x iri:rrie s . w ith s tr. n g v e rb s ( s e cE x a m p re t b e r'w ) , th e fre q u e n t u s c o f "is " rv ith tlrirc r- p e rs o n - p ru ra r s u b je c ts ( s e e E x a rn p re 2 ) , a n c lt h e u s e . f a r c r r i r i c x p r e s s i o n s( s e e E x a r n p r e3 ) . G e n e r a t y ,t h e s es t u d ie sh a v c g iv e n n r're ;lttc rtio n t'rn o rp h . r. g y a r d c e r ta into p ic s r e r a tc d to s c rn a lltrc s( s u c h a s te 's e a n d a s p e c t) ,a n c r . e s sto is s u e so t . ry n t"* .n.l p h o n o lo g y . Ii.xa m plaI H e c a m es i n ga t t h c c h L r r clha s ty c a r . 2 l E xa m 1 tle2 v i t h t h c r . u r i s r sw h : r t ' sc o n r i ni n t l r e t . w n , t h e r i t t l cs p a n i a r d iss b r c a k i n th t_ . hire a dto le , rrnI in g lis h:rn c ol u r, n is re frrs in it. g 2a I;,xa m 7 tle.) S h ew a st a k c ns i c ks u d d e n lby i g w i t h c h ilc . l. z , L / n f . r t t r ' a t c l y ,a r g u r n e ' t s r c r n a i n i n g r a r g e r yi n t e r n a rt o t h e d i s c i p r i n e o f l i n g u i s t i c sh a ' e l i ' r i t c d t h e s c o p e o i ; o r t c o m p r e t e do n S F r T. ' e p r i ' _ c ip a l a re a . f fo c u s h a s rre c ntrrc c o n rp a ris o n c lf s E ro v a rie tie so f A fric a n A m e r i c a nE r r g r i s hn, r a i n r yr o a r g u e a g a i n s tt h e i d e a r h a t s E a n d A f r i c a n A m e r i c a rEr n g l i s ha r e d e r i v e df r o n r a n * c a r l i e pr l a n t a t i o n c r e o l e . s i m i l a r i tie s b e tw e e ' A fric a n A . re ric a n E n g ris h a n d S E , rik e d iffe re n c e sb e rw e e n th e s clirrg u a g c s a n d c a rilrh e a ' E n g ris h c re o le s , h a v e b e e n p rc s e n te d a s e v id c n c eth a t t'e y rv e . rein flu c n c c c l p rirn a riry h y th e E u ro - A rn e ric a n v a r i e t i e s ' 1 Er n g l i s h t o w h i c h e a r r y s p c a k e r sw e r e c x p o s e c rr,a t h e r t h a n b y t h e A f r i c a n l a n g u r r g e tsh a t t h e a , r c e s t ' r s o f S t s p c a k c r s , s e d .T h e s e a s s e r t i o . qs u i c k l v r r e c . n r cr n o r e t c n u o u s i f t r r e c a r r y S F ,s p e a k e r sa r e s a i t r to h a v e c 'rre fr. 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S o n re u , lra ttro u b lirrg in th e s trrtly o f S ll is tlrc te n d c n c y to d e s c rib e l r r r r g t r a gper i n r a r i l y i n t e n n s o f "d e v i a r r t "c h a r a c t c r i s t i ctsh a t c l i s t i r r g u i s h i t f r o u r i t s n o r t h c r r ri r n t Js o u t h e r nn e i g l r [ r < l r sr a, t h c r t h a n a s : r c o m p l e t e o r a l l t ( ) n ( ) m ( ) ussy s t c m .S h a n a P o p l a c k a r r c l ) n v i < [S a n k o f f ,f o r e x a m p l e , r . t o t c"a g e n c r a la b s c n c co f f e a t r r r c sw h i c h a r e s p e c i f i c a l l yc h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f F . n g l i s h - b a s eccr lc o l c s , p r r r t i c u l a r l yi n t h c i r r c a so f n r o r p h o l o g y a n d s y n t a x . ") nA r r o t h c r c l r a r a c t c r i s t i oc f S l r l r o t c ( l( ) i t e 1 1i s t h e "a b s c r r c e "o I rc trs crrtrc al s p e c t rn irrk c rs frc q u c n tly fo trrtd in th e l'. rrg lis hC lre o le so f th e ( l a r i b l r c a r r . rT- -h c s c l r g , r r n l c n t sa r e h i g l r l y s i g n i f i c a r r br e c i l u s e a, s l l r l r n i r r r do t h o ' s b c l i e v e ,t l r e s cp r r e v e r b aalu x i l i a r i e sp l i l y a p i v o t a l r o l e i r r c l e f i n i r r g( , r c o l e l a n g u : r g c cs l u ef o p a r a l l e lf e a t u r c si n ' W e s tA f r i c i r nl a r r g t r a p i e s . ) 8 B trt th e c lc lc rn rc n t:rtio rro f S I i irs a s y s te n l in its o w rr rig h t re q u ire s th e i r i c f t r s i o rot f i c i r t u r e si r r / o c . sb q u c , t s w c l l a s t h o s e t h a t i t s h a r e s ' u v i t iht s n c i g h h o r s a; l s o i r r c l r r c l clcvlo u l c ll r c t h c r c c o g r r i t i o no f v a r i a t i o n a c c o r c J i r r g t o l i n g r r i s t i c i l t c g ( ) r i e os f r e g i s t c r: r r r ccl l o r n a i n . A s l ) c l ' r o r a h( l i r r n er o r r r c l n i r r d st r s ,W i l l i a r r L . a b o vs r - r c c e e d iendp r o v r n g t h a t l a n g r r r r g ies [ 1 y 1 1 1 1 , * "n onrer si t h e r r r t t h c l c v c l o f t h e s p e e c hc < l r n n r u u i t y t r o r : r t t h c l c v c l o f i n d i v i c l u a gl r r r n r n t a r . 2A"r t d c v e n w h e n n o r r n sa n d o r i g i n s r r r e s h a r c d ,r h e i d e n t i t i e so f i r r c l i v i c l u as lp e a k e r sc a n a f f e c t l r o w a s i n g l el a r r g u l g ei s u s c d w i t h i n a s p e e i h c c l r n n r r r n i tly" .B u t e v e n i f a p r c c r s e r e c o r d < > tf h c h e t c r o g e r r e i toyf t h e f o r r r r so f s p e e c hu s c d b y e a r l y g c n c r a t i o n s o f t h i s l t i g r r r r r tg r ( ) u p w i t s r e t r i c v : r b l ew, h a t c o u l d i t c o l ) t r i l ) u t ct o o r r r k n o r v l c c l g oe i l r < l wg r r m n r a r i s l i r r k c dt o s o c i a lr e l a t i o n s h i p s S? p e e c h s a r n p l c so f i u s t a f c w s 1 ' r c a k e ras s, W a l t W o l f r a n r a r r d N a t a l i c S h i l l i n g F . s tc sp o in t ( ) u t, c a n n ( ) t lre e x p e c tc c lto frtrn r i'r h O rn c lg e n r) ure s p rc s c n ta t i o n o f c v c n a s r l r l l g r o u l ' to f s p e a k c r s l,c t a l o n e a c c u r a t e l yr e p r e s e r ltrh e l a n g u a g e< l f t h e l a r g c r c o r n n r u n i t l ' . r r A r r t > t c l v r > r t rhcys p o n s et o s o m e o f t h c p r o h l c l r s t h a t h a v e b e c r ri d e n t i f i c c li n t h i s s c c t i o ni s a n u n d c r s t a r r r l i nogf l : r n g r "r a gt ler a t R o y H a r r i s c n v i s a F , c as s "i u t e g r a t i o r t a lli n g u i s t i c s . "I t s m o s t i n r p o r t ' . r r cr tl . r a r a c t e r i s tiisct h e - l'h is "n o n - c o r n p : r r t n nr et a l i z a t i o np r i r r c i ; r l.e" p r i r r c i p l er e j e c t st h e r r o t i o n t l r a t s o c i a lr e a I i t yc u u b c r a t i o n i r l l ys c p a r a t e di t t t o l a n g u r r g ea u c lr r o n h n g l r a g cA . s l { a r r i s c x p l a i n s ,i t i s : r n a p p r o a c ht h : r t "r e t r o u n c e isn a d v a n c e 'a c c o rrn t t h c p o s s i b i l i t yo f s c t t i r r gr r p f o r n r s a r r d m c r n i r t g sw h i c h w i l l fo r' i r c e r r t r a cl o r c o f l i n g r r i s t i ch e h a v i o ri r r e s p e c t i v eo f f h e c o r n r l u r r i c a t i o n a l 1 0 . 5 T b e L a n g u a g e o f M ig ra tio n in S a n ra n rj p u rp o s e sin v o rv e d ."1 2I t re c o g n iz e s s o c ia rh is to ry a n d id e n tity a s v a ria b re s th a t s h a p e la rrg u a g ea s a fo rm a l ( i. e . , p u rp < , . te d ly, . a u to n o u ro u r, , ) s y s re m rf re p re s e n ra tio na rrd c o rn n ru n ic a tio n . riirt in th is ru [rric , th e rin g u is tic in c lu d e s s p e a k e rs 'a n d lis te n e rs ' o v e rtry c - o n s c io u sc o m n re n ta rie s a b < ltrt la rrg u a g ea s w e lr a s th e ir n ro s t d e e p ly , , ib . - o n r. i. r. 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";r;;, ;. r"1 v a ria tio n , , , n ir. n . , n p tn y _ i r g "n r o d e l sf i r n r r vr o o t e c ri n th e s o c io r. * t r a n g u a g eo f t h e 1 9 6 0 s . , , r ] T ne .socioh "t i.storyrhar follow s r;;:,],.T ilk:; pl.i"* .""_ ",rpl,orir.r c ern in gth ed e s c ri;. rtio nS. oE f.F irs t,a p o o lo f d i* ;r. - i;;;, rr]J i"r, , . . . _ o n e th a t c o rrs is te d'f, b u t . ", n o , n . . . . rrrlly lim ite d to , tto rrte rn a n d s o u 're rn v a rie tie so f A fric a n A m e ric a rr E n g ris h - c h a ra c re riz e d th e v a ri_ e ty o f lrn g lis ' s p o k c n b y th e fir* g "n . . "tin n o f e x - s ra v e s w h o s e ttre cin l s a n ra n '{' S e c o n d , th is , n a rra tiv " n ff". . in s ig h t in to v a ria b l. , tt. , "t , r, ig r, t o ' r e r w i s e ' e o v e r r r > o k e dr n t h e r r "a y r e c o g n i z i n gt h a t r a n g u a g e v a ria tio n a s a fu n c tio n . f u s e ( e . g . , "i "i n , . . g irr". , d o m a in , d is c o u rs eg ra m m a r) a n d n ro re tra d itio n a l , o . io lin g u lri. lrt. g n r, * ( e . g . , a g e , g e n d e r, c lirs s ) w ith i' th e S E - s p e a k in gc o m m u rrity . T h e ta s k o f in te g ra ri'g a ll o f trre s e e x a n rp le sin to th e s E c o rp u s fa ts o u ts id e th e s c o p e o f th is e s s a y ;n e v e rth e le s s e, ffrrts to r'a k e s p a c e fo r s u c h c ra tac a n re a d to a s c h e n ra u s e fu l in h e tte r u n d e rs ra 'd in g _ th e r e r a t i o n r h i p -a n , o n g s E , A f r i c a n A m e ric a n I rn g lis h ,a n d C a rib h e a n C re o le s . S o c io h is to ric a l O v e rv ie w o f SE T h e r o o ts o f S E ,th c la n g u a g e s p o k e nin th e s m a lla n d re la tiv e ly is o la te d s a m a n dP e n in s u la ,rrrn . rr. ti"c . d ,u ,n" o f A fric a n A m e ric a n s ". rn "c u la r w h o l i v e d i r r t h e U n i t e c rS t a t e s in rh " A t t h i s t i r n e ,a r o t a r . f a p p ro x rn la re ly6 , 0 0 0 e x - s ra v e s , "". t z 0 s. i'c ru d in gf - is' ou m e c h irc rre n ,in - , m ig ra te . to r t h ec o u n t r y t o d a y c a ' e d t h e . D o r ' i n i c "" n . o rL tri. . D u rin g th is p e rio d , th e e n t i r ei s l a r r dr f H i s p a n i o l a ( t h e w e s te rl h a if, s a in t- n o n rin g u e , a s w e , as th e e a s re rnh a lf. S a n to D o rn in g o ) , "o , . rn rro tte d h y H a iti. T h e e x _ s la v e s, p a s s a gto e :rn d s e ttre m en t- in s a u to D o n rin g o , w h e re s ra v e r, * . , w h e nH a i t i i n v : r d c di n 1 g 2 2 , "itrrr. a * ", b y H a i r i a n l e a d e r s"u a n d c iv ic "r r "n g . J a n d re lig i. trs . rg a n iz - rrtio 's in th e U n ite i S ta te s .T h e F re c A fric a s o . , . ry in P h ila d e lp h iw a a s t> tre . f th e g ro L rp s t t r "r r r r i r r . a H a i t i a n a u r h o r i r r e s rn 106 D o n I :" V / a lic e k 107 T h e L a n g u a g e o f M ig ra tio n in S a m a n d t h e S o u t h .T h i s e x p l a n a t i o ni s e v e n m o r e p l a u s i b l ef o r a n y e s c a p e ds l a v e s w h o rn a y lra v e b c e n a n ro n g th e m ig ra n ts a n d w a n te d to p a s s a s "fre e . " S e c o n c l,a rc h iv c s s h o w th a t e x - s la v e sw h o w e n t to H a iti le ft fro m n o rth c l ' n p o r t s s u c h a s N c w Y o r k , q u i c k l y c o n r p l i c a t i n ga n s w e r st o q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s "W h e re d id y o u c o m e fro m ? " a n d "r, l( h e rea re y o u fro m ? " T h e t h i r d p o s s i b l er e a s o nt h a t t h e s o u t h e r no r i g i n sa r e n o t c i t e d m a y b e s i m p l y th a t th e y h a v e n o t y e t lre c n "p ro p e rly " d o c u m e n te d ( re c o rd e d in w ritte n t o b e f t r t r r t h - t l r f r f t h . g e n e f a t i o t l c l e s c e n d a n t s < l i t h e o r i g i n a lamn idg r a l l t s . fo rm ) , a t le a s t n o t to th e c x te n t th a t n o rth e rn d e p a rtu re sa re . 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'l, i. n in g S I i a s a th re a te n e d s ( lc i< te c tln tln lic h e r e t h n o g r a p h i cs t u d y b a s e do n l i e l d w o r k i n S a r n a n i ,S k o c z e nd i s c u s s e s o ra l h is to ry a s it re la te sto th e S a rn a n dP e n in s u la .T h is re s e a rc hc o n firn rs " A n te ric a n " O rig in s th a r id e n tific a tio rrw itlr th e U . S . S o u th is im p o rta n t to s o m e m e m b e rs o f n l( ) s tn a tiv e s p e a k e rso f S E re fe r t< l A s rro tc d lry a n r. tm [.rreo f re s e a rc h e rs ' th e c o n tem p o ra ry c o n rm u n ity .S h e w rite s : "A c c o rd in g to lo c a l le g e n d ,e x t l r e n r s c l v e s a s . . A m e r i c a n . . ' S p a r r i s h s p c a k c r s i n t h e a r e a n r a k e r e f e r e n c c s l a v e su s e d t h e u n d e r g r o u n dr a i l r o a d t o r e a c h P h i l a d e l p h i a t,h e n h e a d e d o f tlre ( lo trte n rp o r:rryd e s c e rrd a rrts ttr tlrc trr in S ;la n is lra s lo sa n te ric c ltlo s . s o u th b y w a te r w h e re th e y w e re s h ip w re c k e d o ff th e c o a s t o f S a n ta n d c lrig in a ls c ttI e rs re tn a in rc a < lily id e n tifia h le . I rrm ra rry c a s e s 'th e n a n re s o f a n d h e n c e s e ttle d th e a re a . T h e s e A fric a n A m e ric a n s c a rrie d th e n a n re s p a s s c ccl l< lw nto th e rrl, rn a k in g l) ix o n ' th e ir a n c e s t< ) rsm' tls te rsh "u a tr. a t] o f t h e i r ( ) w n e r sa s w e l l a s m a n y t r a d i t i o n s a n d c u s t o m sf r o n r t h e s o u t h . |rrn e s 's n ritlr. a n c iW illia rr]S c ( ) |. llll. t( ) llfa m ily ltlllT tc s a m o n g s p e a k e rs o f e r n U n i t e d S r a t e sp l a n t a t i o ns l a v ec u l t u r e . "r eA s w r i t t e r ra n d o r a l s o u r c e s S F - . r8 H is trlric a lrc c o r< ls s lr< rw tlra trrra rrtrrrritte d s la v e s fro m s ta te s lik e b o t h r e c o g n i z ,e t h e e a r l y A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n o f S a m a n do r i g i V irg in ia w e re a ls t> s e lltt( ) th e w e s tc rrls id e tlftlre is la rrtl( H a iti) d u rirlg n a t e sn ( ) t o n l y i n i r n m i g r a t i o ns p o n s o r e dl r y p o w e r f u l H a i t i a n s , b u t a l s o rc a c h e dS a rn iru {' "H a iti" is a ls o tlrc s a n rctim e p e rro c lth a t tlre A m e ric a n s in m o v e rn e n tsto w irrd fre e d o n ro rg , a n iz e db y e x - s la v e sth e n rs e lv e s . f i r s t p l : r c co { a r r i v a l o f S a m a r r 6 ' s t h c d e s t i n a t i ( ) nr h c i r r c h i v e sl l o t e a s t h c S a r n u e Hl a z a r d ,a N o r d r A n r e r i c a n ,p a s s e dt h o u g h S a m a n di n t h e n i n e ( c . g . . p o p la c k a n d S a n k . ff ) , s E L rrle ri( :( . tr( )As .c c o rc rin gr. s e v c ra ls o u rc e s te e n thc e n ttrry .H e re c o u n tsc o n v e rs a tio u sw ith A fric a n A rtre ric a n sfro rn . p . , k . . , c it e w e ll- k n o * n n n , t h ". n c it ic s ir lld a r c ils o f t h e t ] n it e d S t a t e s t h e U n i t c d S t a t e sa n d s t a t e st h a t t h e y a s k e dh i m q t r e s t i o n sa b o u t "h o m e . 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T h c re a rc a tle a s tth re e re a s o n s w lry s o trtlre rrrp la c e - n a m e s a re n o tp fe S o u thw e re a u ro n g th e in g re d ie n tsth a t c a m e to g e th e r to fo rm S E , .I t a ls o s e r v c t l i r r t l r c d < l c t t n l c n t s t h a t c l r r o r r i c | c t l r e l r i s t t l r y t > f t h i s c o t r r m t r t r i t y . T h e re m in d su s th a t S E ,s p re a k e rs d id in d e e d h a v e c o n ta c t w ith v is ito rs frc rn i d e r r t i f i t ' r t i o nw i t h s l a v e r ya n d f i r s t i s t l r r r tt h e I J . S .S o u t h b e a r s a c l o s e r a b ro a d .T h e s c in te ra c tio n sm a y h a v e in flu e n c e dp ro c e s s e so f c o n s tru c tin g t. irc is n rth a n th e N o rth . 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I t t 6 1 S p a i n r e i r n n e x e rsh e c o l o n y a n c lo i f i c i a l l y f o r b i d s P r o t e s t a n t ch u rch e s. 1 U 6 5 S p a i n a b a n c l o n st h e i s l a n d a n c le n c l sl t a n o t r P r o t e s t a n ct h r ' r r c h e s . 1 U 7 0 T h e ( l o n t n - r i s s i oonf l n q u i r y v i s i t s S a n r a r l ; r ' 1 8 7 2 A t t e n r p f sa r e r r r a d ct o s e l lo r l e a s eS a m a n i B a y t o t h e U n r t e d S ta te s . , e ilfo rp ra tio n N o tc : A ltfio trg lrp c r[a p sc 6 n s itlc re gde n c ra kl n p w lc {g eb y s 6 tn e th l c o r r e c tly in :r r tic lc s a ll< ltr tS E . o r n e c c s s a r y in c lu d c c la lr o v e is < r ftc u r e c . r r . le c in . e d :r ta lr e r e r :r c c o r llp ilc d n fte r c c ln tp a r in gs ( ) u r c c s s n c c ific a tio n sr r e n ( ) t tttr r tle l'lr l r y n o n l i n g u i s t st h a t d c r r lw i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e I ) o r r i n i c a n R e p u b l i c . R e c ru itn re n t o f M ig ra n ts o f S a m a n d 'sn in e te e n th - c e n ttlry d e s c e rrc la n ts T h e fa c t th a t 1 'rre s e n t- d rry re lirtc c 'lto th e L , n g lis ho f th e ir a n c e s to rs la n g u irg e a in [ra b ita n tstn a in ta in p a rt to th e [{:ritia n g o v e rn m e n t'so rin th e U n ite c lS ta te sc a n b e lin k e d ill g a n i z a t i o na n d f i n a n c i r r gt t f s e t t l e m e n ot n t h e p e n i r l s r - r l uTr .raarn s p o r ta n d s e t t l e n r e l tp f t f t e g r o t r p sw e r e a r r a l g e d [ y [ { a i t i a r l p r e s i d e n Jt c a n - P i e r r e H a itirrn g o v e rn m e n t b y tl. rc rra m e B o 'yf o e rni1 a t h1a8n2 4 , rv h e n a n a lle llf c lf th e t o y e r in v a d e d G ra n v ille w a s s e n tto N e w Y rrk . 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G r a n v i l l e t o o k - 5 0 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s < tf c o ffc e in rlrc le r to lln a n c e e x p e n s e sin c u rre d in N e w Y rlrk . a 2 , c e iv e dth e T h e c m ig ra rrts .a la rg e p e rc e n ta g eO f w h o n ] w e re P ro te s ta n ts re f( ) r th e firs t fo u r fo llo w in g irll6 c irfirtr. rsp:a ic l p a s s a g e ,e c g n g rn ics L lp p o rt m < l n t h so n t h e i s l a r l c l,'r t r t lg en e r o t t sl a r l d g r a n t s ' I t s t i m a t e so f t h e s i z e o f t h e e : r r l y ; l o p u l a t i c r nv i l r y 2 1 l . t 1 o sn eg c o n d a r y im n ris o u rc e s .lla r. ry H o e tin k in d ic a te strv o h u rrd re d ,rrsd o th e p la rrsfo r s t r g ie s tin g g r a t i o n .B u t h y I u 7 0 t h c p o p u l a t i o nh a d g r o w n c o n s i d e r a b l y , 109 T h e L a n g u a g e o f M ig ra tio n in S a m a n ri t h a t t h e i ' i t r a l r r i r n r b e r x ? l yh a v e b e e r rl a r g c r . a Ir n s . m e c a s e sc . l ' n i s t s re l. c a tc c l to jo irr r> th e rc 'l, n is ts a fte r h a rd s h ip in th e to w 'r w h e re th e y i n i t i a l l y l i v e r l ,[ r ' t t h e e x r e n tt . w h i c h t h i s h a p p e n e di n s a r n a n : ir c m a i n s tu n c :le a r. 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E a c l ro f t h e B o y c r g o v c r ' n l e n t ' st h r e e a l l o w a n c e sp r o v i d e s i n s i g h ti r r t . h r w a n c lw h y t h e N , r r h A m e r i c a nb l a c k sw h o s e t t l e di n S a m a n 6 ic ta in e d m u c h o f t h c i r c u l t r r r ea n d l a ' g u a g e . F i r s t , r e g a r c l i n gt r a n s p o r t , it is c le a r t h a t m o s t u r i g r a n t sw . u l d h a v e b e c n , u n a l r l et o m e e t t h e c o s t o f tra n s _ p o r t a t i o nt o H i s p a r r i r l a h a c lt h e i r t i c k e t sn o t b e e n p u r c h a s e d fo r th e m rrr e x c h a n g efo r th e ir a g re c n rc n tt. c rrrig ra te lm . 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T h e s e c . r r di n c e ' t i v e a l l o t t e c tl . t h e A m e r i c a ' s , i n i t i i r l e c o n . m i c sup_ p o rt, p ro v e d c rrrc ia l r. th c e s ta lrlis h n rc n to f th e s e ttle m e n t. T h e c o s rs a s s o c i a t e wd i t h s c t t i n g r r p h o r n e si n a n e w p l a c c a r e l i k e l y t o l r a v e be cn h i g h ,e s p e c i a l l yc . | t r r i r rt gh e f i r s t f e w m . ' t r r s . w h e t r r e re m a . c i D a t e d sra ve s o r s l a v e sr v l r ' c - s c a p c bc l. n d a g e t o m i g r a t e , t h e i n i t i a l , . r t l . r , a re lik e ly t o h a v e h a d l i r n i t e c lf i n a r r c i a rl c s ( ) u r c e sT. h e t h i r c l p r o r n i s en r a d c to tlre I l0 D o n F - '.W a lic e k s c t t l e r s l,a n d g r a n t s ,w a s p e r h a p sr h e g r e a t e s ti n c e n t i v ef o r t h e c x - s l a v e s rr> lc a v e h e h in rl rv lrrrtth e y h a d in th c tJ n ite 'tjS ta te sa n d e s ta b lis hth e n rs e l v c si n a f ( ) r c i g p ,S ; l a n i s h - s p e a k i nl ag n c l .F . x - s [ a vtee s t i n r o n i e fsr 6 r t r t h e t l n i t c d S t a t e sa n c i t h e C a r i b h e : r nr e t n i t r d t r s t h a t I n a n y s l a v e sd r e a r n e c l l . l ( ) (t ) n l y 6 f f r e e r l 6 p r [, r u t a l s o q f 6 l r y t r i n gl a l t l . a t M i g r a n t s t o H i s p a n i o l a h , t c ti l r e ( ) p p ( ) r t u n i t yf o r b o t h . I l c c r > r d si r r d i c a r ct h a t p r t > p e r t yw a s r c a d i l y a v a i l r r $ l 9c n t h c p e n i n s t r l ac, l e s p i t teh e f a c t t h a t i t i s o n l y t h i r t y r n i l e sl o n g i r o m e a s t t ( ) w e s t . O v e r t i m e , s u c h a v a i l a b i l i t ya l l o w e c ls o t n e o f t h o s e l tlre ir w h o s e ttle rlto rrc c u m u la tee v e n u ro rc lrln d th irtt lra d b e e rlrrlltltte c in c o u ld t h c y b a s e , c c o n o n t i c a n n t i g r a t i o ni r g r e c n r e n t . a , ' w i t hl a n d r r s ci 1 s th e rr t o o n c n f 4 a g icn a g r i c r r l t t r r ecra, l ' na l i v i n g , a n d l a t e r p a s st h e p r o p e r t y c lrilrlr- t'n . [ . , t r r ttlc t t t t t t ' i s , r l s s. ,i q r t i i i ( i l l 'illtl l c r t t t so i l o t l l ; - t c r t nl : r D g u a gl ,) e) a i l ] t c n a l t c c .O w r t i r t g l a n c lr v o r k e c lt ( ) P r e v c n tc o t r l t r l u t r i t i easr l d f a m i l i e s f r o m l e rn w ith [e in g ,s e p e ra tc c l,s irn p ly b c , c rtu ssctt$ s is tc n c efa rrn irrgp r< lv id e cth w o r k i n a r l a c c e s s i b l ep l a c e , t h t r s e f f e c t i v c l y d i s c o u r a g i n gm i g r l t i o t r i r r s e a r c ho f h i g h e r w i r g e so r a f f o r d a b l e p r ( ) p e r t y .T h e s e a r r a r t g e t n e n t s b ro u g l. rtt6 rg e th e ar d iv e rs e g ro u p o f tn ig , ra n tsb y n u rtu rirlg ro ( ) ts t( ) il s p e c i f i c r r l a c c( ) v e rt i l n c . 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( ) rre o f th e n ririn id e a s th a t lin g , ris tsh a v e p u t fo rw a rd in th e a tte m p r t . u n t l c r s t a n dl a n g u a g ci r n c ls o c i o l i n g u i s t i ci d e n t i r y i n C a r i b b c a n c o l r t e x t s h a s n r u c h r e l e v a n c ef o r s o c i o h i s t o r i c a l i n g u i s t i c s .T h i s c o n c e p r , "a c s o f i d e n t i t y , " b u i l d s o n L e p : r g ea n d J h b o u r e t - K e l l e r ' so b s e r v a t i o r r t h a ts p c a k e r sc r c i l t ec ( ) t n m r r n i c a t i o sr ry s t e l l l si r r c f f o r t s c i t h c r t o a s s o c j a t c t h e m s e l v ews i t l r a g r o u p t h c y w i s h t o h e i d e n t i f i e dw i r h o r t o d i f f e r e n t r a t e t h e m s e l v e fsr o n r t h o s e f r o m w h o m t h c y w i s h t o b c d i s t a n c e d . aTeh i s I l2 l ) , n [ "' \ V a l i c e k ( l l r o t r l i a r a k ia n c l N o r m a n r h e s i s f o r c s h a c l < t wa, sc e n t r a l t h e n r e r > f L i l i e i s [trilt in ttl th e g ra tltn :rti"t h e s o c i a l F a i r c l 6 u g f i ' sw < l r k , l a m e l y t h a t irld ic a tc c i l l r i s s u e. , f l r i l r g r r a g e . 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' T ' hScp a r r i s l r , s p e a k i pl l (g) p u l i l t i o n g, c n e r , r l l yo f t h e c a t h o l i c f a i t h . c l i r lr r o t : t t t c l l d t h c s c h o o l ss e t r l P b y t h c l ) r ( ) t e s t a l l t sa' f a c t t h l r t h c l p st o c x p l i r i n t v l r v S l t w a s s t l s f i l i n e db y A n l c r i c : t n sw h o w e r e b ( ) r l l d u r i n g t h i s p c r i o t l . I n c l i c r r t i voef h o w c e r t f l i r lA n t c r i c a n ss a w t l t o s co t r t s i d t t: h e i r c o r n sugr t r r r r r i t yi n t h c l a r c p a r t o f t h e r t i r r e f c c n t hc e n t t r r y ,S o m et c s t i l l . l o t l i e s g c s t t h a t t h e l o c a l sd i c l n o t c a r c a b o r r tt h e c c l r r c a t i o on f t l r e i r c h i l d r e na n d i l r n t S F .s p c l r k e r sc l i c i . " A r . i . i s t c r f r o n r t l r e U r r i t e dS t a t e st t a t r r c df o s e p h : f h e A l n e r i c a n sh e r ec a r e l l ) o s ta b ( ) t l t I l a m i l t o n o f f c r c t lt h c s ec o r n u t c n t s "ba ck c c l r r c r r t i o rl rt . i s r r O ts u p p o r t e dn t u c h a r n ( ) n gt h e n : l t i v e s ,e s p e c i a l l y or i p t l r c c < t u r r r r yT.h c y c l c l1 o t c i l f c a l ) ( ) u tw h e t h e r t h e y g e t : 1 1 c c l t l c a t i o l l a nd n ( ) t. A g , re ilrn ti:rn y( ) f rlre F , n g lis lr- s g re a k inc og lo rc d p e o p le c a n re 2 ld fro m ":r lrra n w h itc a s c lc s c rib e c l w ritc . " A fo rrn c r lla p tis t lllis s i( ) lllrry t e s t i r t t o ny l { i s t h c I J n i t e c lS t a t e s "o p e r r l t e dt h c f i r s t o f t h es c s c l r o o l s . 5 a t c i n r l i c r t t c tsh : r t l o c a l l ) i r e l l t s ,r T ' h o1 ' x t i ca l f e e i n o r d e r f o r t h e i r c h i l c l r c n I 1 . 1 T h e L d n g u a g e o f M ig ra ti< tn in S a m a n d s t u d y ,s a w t h e m a i n t e n a n c eo f E n g l i s ha s a n e s s e n t i : rclo m p o n e n to f t h e i r c h il d r e n ' se d t r c a t i o n : T h e p a r e n r sh e r ea r e a r x i o u st o e d u c a r et h e i rc h i l d r e nT. h e y w i l l w a l k f o r m ile sto s e llte n c e n ts 'w o rth r> fp ro v is io n sto c o m ea n d b u y A B C b o o k fro n r n re to te a c hth e ir c h ild re n . . . [T h e y g e n e ra llyw a n r rh e m to le a rn lE n g lis h a lto g e th e r. 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T h e A rre ric a n s. f S a m i r n dr e s p o n t i c dt o t h e b a n b y l e v y i n ga c o r n p l a i n ta t d - r el o c a l l e v e l .l , a t e r t h e s a n r a r . r gi o v e r n o r a g r e e dt h a t t h e y c . u l d w o r s h i p o n l y if th e y d id s o u n d e r s e v e re lyre s tric te d c o n c litio n s .T h e y w e re fo rc e d to c l o s et l r e i r c e n r r a lp l a c e o f w o r s h i p a n d t o n r e e ti n i r n o b s c u r e o l a c e r n t h e c . u n t r y s i d e . w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e p r o t e s t a n r so r g a n i z e df o ' n a l e d u c a t i o n a lo p p o r t u n i t i e si n E n g l i s h ( r h e s ec o u l d h a v e e x i s t e d i n a d d i t i o n t o c l a n d e s t i r rseu n d a y s c l r o o ln r e e r i n g sa n d w o r s h i p s e r v i c e sd) u r i n g t h e fiv e - y e a rb a n re rn a in s rrn c le a r.B trt th e s e c . m m u n ity s e rv ic e sc e rta in ly e x i s t e dw i t h E n g l i s h - b a s c cd u r r i c u l u m i r r t a c ta f r e r l g 5 - 5 . P ro lo n g e d re lig ic lu s re p re s s i. n m a y h a v e s tre n g th e n e d tic s a n ro n g P ro te s ta n t!. n g lis h - s p e a k e rse, ffe c tiv e ly re in fo rc in g th e id e a th a t c u ltu ra l d iffe re n c e s e t th e rn a p a rt fro m c a th o lic S p a n is hs p e a k e rs .F o r m e m b e rs o f t h e "h o s t c o r n m ' n i t y " w h o s a w i t a s j u s t , t h e r e p r e s s i o nu n d e r s c c l r e d g r o u pd i s t i n c t i o n sa n d s p a r k e da b e i g h t e n e da w a r e n e s so f l i n g u i s t i ca n d e th n icd iffe re n c e .w h e n th is h a p p e n e d ,d e s p ite th e s e lf- id e n tific a tio no f a m e s tiz aef id e n tity o n th e p a rt o f th e m a jo rity o f S p a n is h - s p e a k in g( ia th o l i c si n t h e a r e a ,t l r e "A n r e r i c a n s "r e n r a i n e d"b l a c k " o u t s i d e r sa n c ls p e a k e r so f a "f o r e i g n " t o n g r e . S p e a k e r so f S p a n i s h c, a t h o l i c s s a w t h e m s e l v e s a s "r n u l a r t o e s , "a l a b e l t h a t a l s . c l i s t i n g u i s h e tdh e m f r o r n H a r i t i a n sl i v i n g o n t h e p e n i r r s ' l a .T h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n sa f f e c t e d n o t o n l y h . w o t h e r s s a rvth e s e n rig ra n t g ro u p s , tru t a ls o d e fin e d th e p ro c e s s e srlrro u g h w h ic h s p c a k c r so r g a . r i z e dt h e m s c l v e sa s s p e e c hc o n r m u ' i r i e s , w h i c h D o n a l d w i n f . r c l d c f i . e sa s g r o u p s . f s p e a k e r st h a t s h a r el i n g u i s t i ck n o w l e < i g ac n c l | 14 l) c tn E . W a lic e k I 1 . 5 T h e L a n g u a g e o f M ig ra tio n in S a m a n d o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n . T h e p r o v i n c i a lo f f i c i a l t o w h o m t h e y a d d r e s s e dt h e i r le tte r w ro te th a t h e "re c c iv e d a n c x p o s itio n s u b s c rib e d b y th e in g lis h c o r n r n u n i t yo f t h i s p l a c e w h i c h w a s a s k i u g t h a t t l r e i n g l i s h l a n g u a g ea s a s t u d y b e a l l o w e d i n < t u rr u r a l s c h o o l sa n d t h a t s a i d d o c u m e n th a d b e e n s p e a k i n ga, r e : a s . fo rw a rd e d o n to th e ln s p e c tc trd e ln s tru c c i6 n fo r h is s tu d y a n c l in fo rrn a n irre te e n th o f th e p a rt A lth o trg lr S F Ic o n trn u e d to th riv e in th e le tte r tio n . 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''''T h is te s tin rc ln y s lro w s j o i n t h e l g l e s i aF i v a n g 6 l i c da e S a n t o D o m i n g o , a n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o no f i n c r e a s e c l a n d t o ' s p a n i s h "A n t e r i c a n " t w o t h i r r g s :f i r s t , f h a t a s l i i f t f r o r T r t h e S p a n is lr- s p e a k inPg ro te s ta n tc h u rc h e s .T h e c h a n g e w a s a re s p o n s eto th e w i t h i n g r o L r p s c er t a i n b i l i n g t r a l i s nmr a y h a v e p r o c e e d e dr a p i d l y : l l n o n g s u s p e n s ir> onf fin a rrc ia ls u p p o rt fro n r B rita in . A g ro u p < > fc h u rc h rn e rn d o m a in ' v a rie d a c c tlrd in g to . , rn ', , ', . , u n itya;u c l s e c o n d ' th a t la rrg u a g etrs e b e r sw a s s o u p s e t b y t h e d e c i s i o nt o j o i n a S p z r n i s h - s p e a k i gn rgo u p t h a t in c lic a teth a t S a rn a n 6n a n rin g p ra c tic e sa ls o C h L rrc hre c o rd s < tf b a p tis m s'fh ey th e y le ft th e M e th o d is t C h u rc h a lto g e th e r,e v e n th o u g h th e D o m in ic a n s h o w a g ro w in g p re fe re n c efo r S p a n is h g th is p e rio c l. c h a n g e c tlrrrin l c o l l c c t i v cw a s a P r o t e s t a n to r g a n i z a t i o na r r d c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g t h e firs tn a trte s tlv c rl. - n g lis lro tle s . 'u llts < ltn e c ]a s e s 'th iS m ( ) v e to w a rd S p a n c o n g re g a tio nw ith n e e c le dfu n d s . 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S o u t h u n t i l t h e r n i d d l e o f t h e p u b lic c c lttc irti< lrrrn S p a n is h to re s i< le n ts irtth e lrre a . ln re s p trn s e to th e ir tw e n tic th c e n tu ry . T h e s e lra v e s in c e tre e n le v e le da s th e re s u lt < l( a d e v c lw e re n o w a rn ( ) t. tgS a rn a n i's w o rrie s , th e A rle ric a n s ' llla tly o f w h o n l o p m e n tp ro je c t a n d rc p la c e dw ith s tru c tu re sm a d e o f c o n c re te b lo c k s . ln o s tp |. o m ln c rrtrc s ic lc n ts , c le n ra rrc le c ltlra tth e g ( ) v e rn ffle n tta k e a c tio n to I te c e n rin tc rv ie rv sre fle c ttl. red e c lin e o f la n g u a g ea s a tie to th e A rn e ria g a tn O tlc c c o n s id e re c rr l tltre a te rle dla n g u a g e ' f, . r. ru . S I r, w lric h tlrc y S o u th . 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"6 r H o w e v e rt,h e r e i s a l s o e v i c l e n c e t h r r t S p a n i s hs p e a k e r so n t l r e p e n i n s r r l ar r r e a c q u i r i n g E n g l i s h t o s e c u r e e n r p l o y r l e n ti r . rt o u r i s m . [ J u tt h i s h a s r r o t c o m e w i t h o u t a p r i c e ,a s h e a l t h p r o [ r l e r n sa n t i l o w c r w a g c si n t h e l i r t e r w e n t i e r hc e n t u r y l r a v eb e e n l i n k e c l t o i n c r e a s e ct ol u r i s l n i n S a n r a n d . r ' 2 A t a r r e m t r ' r i r i c al cl v c l , r h i s e s s a y h a s f o u r i m p o r t a r l t 6 n d i n g s . F i r s r , t h c i u i t i a l S a r r r a r rsde t t l e r so r i g i n z r t e di n t h e U . S . S o u t h a s w e l l a s i r r t h e N o rth . S e c o rrd ,s c lm e rn e m b e rso f th is firs t g e n e ra tio rrp ro b a b ly s p < > k ea r e g , i o n : vr la r i a r r t< l fA f r i c a n - A r n e r i c : r lnr n g l i s ht h a t w a s f o r m e d i n t l r e U . S . S o u t h ,o r r et h a t i s l i n k e d t o t h e C a r i b h e a nt h r o u g h m i g r a t i o n b . t h t o a n d fr'rl th e is la rrc lsT. 'h ird , c o rre m p ( ) ra ry s E is lik c ly to h a v e b e e n a ffe c te d b y o r r t s i c l ei r r f l r r e n c e as n, r o n f jw h i c h a r e . f a r n a i c a an n d B r i t i s h v a r i e t i e so f F . n g l i s h I. r o u r t h , t l r e m a i n t e n a r r c oe f S F .i s a r c s u l t o f t h e "A m e r i c a n s "' rc p c :1 tc dc ffo rts t< l c le G n eth c rn s e lv e sv is - i- v is a c lis tir- rcctu ltu ra l a n d lin g t r i s t i ci d c n t i t y . l ) o s i t i o n i n gS E i n a v a r i e t y o f h i s t o r i c a lc o n t e x t s d e m o n s t r a t e st h a t r- rn d e rs ta n c linits g trn c rg c n c e ,e v o lu tio n . a n d p re s e n ts ta te re q r_ rirems o re t h a n s i r n p l yr e c . v e r i n ga, n i n i t i a l v a r i e t y o f A f r i c a n A n r e r i c a nE n g l i s ht h a t p t r r p o r t e d l ys c r v e d a s t h e b a s i so f t h e l a n g u a g c .M o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d v c a r so f h i s t o r y o n t h e i s l a r r dd e m o l l s t r r l t et l r a t t h e c o m m u n i t y ' si d e n r i t y i s d y n a r n i c ,u r r d e r g o i l r gs h i f t s o v e r t i n r e , a n c lt h u s r e v e a l st l - r a tl i n g u i s t i c p e rfo rrtta n c e c lo e s rrrrt ju . s t rc flc c t, b u t a ls o c ( ) n s fru c ts ,s o c ia l m e :rn in g . A s [ ) e n c k l p el r c k e r t i r g u e s , "t h e m e a n i n g r f v a r i : r t r l e si s l o c a r e d n o t i n t h c ' c a r e g o r i e so f p e o p l e w h o e n t p l o y t h e n r , [ r u t i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c eo f i c l c n t i t i e st l r a t p o p t r l a t ec a t e g o r i e s . "6crh o i c e , r r c t i o r . ar ,n d r e s i s t a n c ea r e e l l r t - a l i t i c ss h a p i r r gl a ' g u a g e a n c lc r n r p l i c a r i n go u r k n o w l e d g cr f i t . D i r e c t i n go u r a t t c n t i ( ) nt ( ) t h e n e e c fl o r k > c i r sl t r > r i c as n d h i s t o r i e s t, h e y c a l l fo r rr c liffc re n t w a v c li c . n c c iv in g th e re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e S o u th a n d r l r e ( , a r i l r b e a r ra, r r c lp r o v i d e i r c ( ) n c c p t u a sl p n c ei n w h i c h l i n k s b e t w e e n rc g io n s , s to ric s ,irn d h is to rie sc a n b e fo rg e c l. N o te s I th lrrk A lic il I ) o trs a daa rttlJ e s s ic A o n a n d in tc re s irr r a d a n rsfrrr th c ir c o rn rn e n ts c :rrlie lv c rs io n so f th is e s s a y . l. . fo h nl{o lm , l'}lrig lz as n d O re o le s , 2v o ls .( C . a n rb rid gCe ia : rn b rid gI etn iv e rs i t y I ' r c s s l, g l t f t , 1 9 8 9 ) H. o l n r ( v o l .2 ) e | r r ens( ) ts r a t ew h e t h e or r n o t t h e n u n r b e r h c p ro v id e s1, 1 , 0 0 0in, c lu d e s p e :rk e rs w h . u s eS F a. s a s e c o n dla n g u a g eH. is n u n rI t c ri s l : t r g c rt h a r ro t h c rc s r i n r a t e s . 2 . N ic h o la sI :irra c lrrs"(,llo lrn liz a tio rr a rrdth e F u tu reo { O re o leL a n g u irg e s , " J o ttn u l rtl l . a n g u a gae n d P o litit:s4 , n o . 2 ( 2 0 t) 5 ) -: l. ll- 6 . 5 . 117 T ltc L a n g u a g e o f M ig r u tio r t in S a m a n d - J . I r r r r F l a r r c o c k , "( i t r l l a h a n d B a r b a d r a n :( ) r i g i r r s a n d R e l a t i r r n s h i p s , " A n te r ic a n S p e tth . 5 . 5( I 9 U 0 ) : 1 7 - , 1 . 5 . 4 . S r l i k o k o S . M t r f v g e r r c"(, i u l l a h ' s D e v c l o p n r e n tM: y t h s a n d S o c i o h i s t o r i c a l I ", r c ts , "it L a n g u a g e V a r ie ty in tb c S o u tb R e u is ite d ,c d . C y n th ia B e r n s te in ,R o b in . lirrn S a l r i r r car n, t l N u n a l l y ( T u s c a l o o s aU: n i v c r s i t yo f A l a b a m a P r e s s ,1 9 9 7 \ , l l 3 - 22. - 5 . S e e ( ie o r g e T . D o r r ill, "A ( io r n p a r is o n o f N e g r o a n d W h itc S p e e c hin ( l e n t r a l S o u t h ( , a r o l i r r a , "P h . D . d i s s . ,U r r i v e r s i t yo f S o u t h C a r o l i n a , C o l u r n b i a , 1 9 7 5 ; R o n a lc l B u tte r s a n d R u tb N ix , "T h e E n g lis h o i B la c k s in $ T ih n in g to n , N o r th ( la r o lin r r , " in L a n g u a g e V u r ie ty in tb a S o u th , c c j. M ic h a e l M o n tg o n le r , v a n d ( i u y l l a i l e y ( T u s c a l o o s aU: n i v e r s i t yo f A l a b a m a P r c s s ,1 9 8 6 \ , 2 5 4 - 6 3 . ( r. F l< rlm . P id g in s d n d ( ', re o le s . l:7 . 7 . N ic h o l:r s l;a r :r c [a s ,"F r o n r O ld C iu ir r e ato P :r p u a N e w ( iu in e a : T r a c ir r g N ig c r - ( . o n g o I n flu e r r c ein t]r e l) e v e lr > p r n c n{t) f N ig c r ia n P id g in , " in P n tc c e d in g st> [ th e F irs t I n te rn a tk m a l ( ', c tn ft'rc n c eo n T c tk P r- s ln( M a n d a n g , P a 1 'ru aN e w C iu rn e a , te S u ) ,9 t- t6 e . 8 . S a l r k o k oS . M u f w c n e , "D e a t h o f A f r i c a n l , a n g u a g c si r r P l a n t a t i o nS c t t l e m c n t ( ir lo n ie s , " p a p e r p r c s e n te cal t th e J o in t N { e e tir r go f th c S o c ie ty fo r P ic lg ir r r r n d C r c o le L in g u is r ic s ,th e S o c ie tyfo r C a r ib b c a n l- in g u is tic s ,a n d th e A s s o c r a tio r r o f P o r t r r g u e sac r r d . S p a n i s hl - c x i c a l l yB a s e d( , r c o l e l . a n g r r a g e s( ,, u r a q a o ,A u g u s r 2004. 9 . ( l c c i l i a C u t l c r , "F . n g i i s hi n t l r e T u r k s a n d ( . a i c o sl s l a n c i sA: L o o k a r ( i r a n d T r r r k , " in C . o n ta c tI ', n g lis h e so f th e E a s tc r n C , d r ib b e a n c, d . M ic h a e l A c e fo a n d r h: . fo h n B e nja n r in s , 2 0 0 . ]) , . 5 7 . . [e ffr c yW i I lia n r s ( I 'h ila c le { p ia 1 0 . I le c k y ( lh ild s , fc ffr c y R e a s e r n, n c j !ftr lt W o lfr a n r , "D c tin ir r g E th n ic V a r ie t' l c c o m m o d a t i o ni n B l a c k a n d W h i t e E n c l a v e i e s i n t h c f i a h a r n a s P: h o n o l o g i c a A ( , < r r r n r u n itie s , "it ( . tn fta c t I '. n g lis h e so f th e F , a s tc r nC a r ih h c a r t, c d . A c c t( ) a n ( l W illia m s, 4 . 1 l . O u t l e r ,"E n g , l i s hi n t h e l - u r k s a n c l( l a i c o s , ". 5 6 . 'fh e ( , a rih b e a n F . x i l er r n c [l ' l a n t a | 2 . ( - h a r l e n cJ . K o z n "- I r r n c sl r a n s p l a n t c d : ti< r r rS e ttle n r e n tso f S o u th e r n L o y a lis ts , " ( ) e o r g ia H is to r ic ttl Q . u a r te r ly7 5 ( 1 9 9 1 \ : \ l- 3 2 . l . l . M i c h a c l ( , r a t o r r a r r d ( i a i l S a u r r t l e r sI ,s L t n d e r si n t h e S t r e a m : A [ l i s t o r y r f t b e B a h a n t i a n P e o l t l e s , 2 v o l s . ( A t h e n s :U n i v e r s i t yo f ( i e o r g i a P r e s s , 1 9 9 2 , ) . N { y a s s e r tio nth a t a s ig n itic itn tn u r n l) e r o f th e fir s t g r o u p o f s la v c s to a r r iv c in th e ( iir ic o s I s la n d sw e r e fr o n r ( ic o r g ia is h a s e d( ) n th e ( ) t) s e r v a ti( ) nth a t a c c o r d in g to a v a ila b lc r e c o r tls .4 4 p e r c e n t o f th c L o y a lis t fa n r ilic - sr o s e ttlc th e r c w c r e fr o r r . r ( i c o r g i a ;s e cC u t l e r ,"I l n g l i s h r n t h c ' I u r k s a n d C a i c o s . " : 1 4 . K a r c r r K c , e g le r "F , r r > n rth c S tr r ttc r in gI,s la n d to n R e g ir > ror f O r r c V r > ic c A P c r fo r m a n c e l) < r s s ib leO e o c u ltu r a l l'r a n s fo r n r a tio n o f th e O a r ilr b e a n , " S a r g r ts s tl, d n d T e x !. in O d riltlrttn L itc ra tu re a ttd A rt, s p c c ia l is s u e ( 1 9 9 9 1 : 2 0 . 1 , 5 .D c r e k I l i c k e r t o n , "( ) n t l r e S u p p o s c d ' ( i r a d r r : r l n c s s ' o(fi r e o l c D c v c l o p r n e n t, " . l< tu n u l o l l'id g in tr n d O r c < tleL a n g tta g e s6 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 2 . 5 - . 5 1 1 . I l8 D tn [:'. \ X / a lite k . , ( l r c o l i z a t i o na n d [ , i r n g u a g oe l r a n g e: A c o n r p a r i s o r t . "i n F t r m t 1 6 . I r r g <Pr l a g , ( ' , g 1 t ! t . lt 6 ( s . t , t i lrc1 r y !f l p t l r t n i , c d . l ' h i l i p B e k e r( [ . g n t l t l n :t l r r i v e r s i t yr r f V / c s t n t i t r s t c r l ) r ( ' s s 1, 9 9 . 5 ) l, 7 - 1 9 . 'fv p e o f l. a n g r "r a g e ?in" L ir r g r r i- s 1 7 . l) ie r e r M tr y s k c , n ."A r c c r e o le s ir S p e c ia l I m p lic a tic s :T h c ( ', , ttttl, r id L :t'S u r u e yv ,a l. ) , I ittg ttis tic 'l'b e o ty :E x te n s k tn sa n d ( . a r n b r itlg c P r ts s ,l9 llti) , U n iv c r s itv / jo ls , c . tl.lr r e tle n c k N c r v r r r e v c r( ( . r r r r tlr r itlg c : 28s_101. l i l . l ) o r a d i s c t . t s s r o, rt fr ( , r c o l c p r { ) f ( ) t y p c ss e c. l o l r n M c w l t o r t e r , "l d e n t i f , v i n g , - ly p o lo g r c a l ( ila s s , " I 'd n g u a g c 7 4 ( l9 9 tll th c ( . r c o le P r o t( ) ty p c :V ir r tlic e tr r r ga "A g , r i n s t 7 U f i - Bl [ . 1 .t i o r : r r g u r n c n t si l g , 3 i r ] sctx c e p t i o n a l i s t rs c e M i c h e l D e G r a i f , "A g a i n s t 1 0 , a n d ( . r c < r l cI - . r c t , 1 . r t i ( ) n : r l i sLr rorn, "g u a g e7 9 , r r o . 2 0 ( 2 0 0 3 ) : 3 9 1 - 4 119 T b e L a n g u a g c o f M ig rd tio tt in S a n ta n d 2 9 . D e b < r r a hC a r n c r . n , "D e r n y th o l. g iz in g s o c io lin g u is tic s , "in S c tc io lin g u is t i c s ,A R c a d e r ,e d . N i k o l r r s( , . r r p l a n d a n t l A d a r n J a w o r s k i ( N e w y o r k : S t . M a r r r n ' sf ) r c s s ,1 9 9 7 ) . 5 . 5 - 6 7 . . l ( ) . S u z a r r r r Re . r n a i n c , "w h a t I s a S p e e c h( . o m m u n r t y ? " i n s r c i o l i n g u i s t i c v a r i i l i < t r ti n s p e e c h( ' m n n u n i t i e s ,c d . S u z a . n cR o r ' a i n e ( l - o n d o n :A r n o l d , r 9 g 2 ) , 13 - 2 4 . ll. w r lt w . lfr a n r a n d N a r a lie s c h illin g - E s r se . A n te r ic a n E n g lis h : D ia la c ts d n d V d r i a t i o n( ( ) x f o r d : B l a c k w c l l , I 9 9 8 ) . 'I - h e 3 2 . R < r yI I a r r i s , L a n 5 4 u a gMe y t h ( N e w Y o r k : S t . M a r t i n ' s p r e s s ,1 9 g l ) . 16.5. 3 . 1 . S r r s a n n eM iih le is c n , C r e < ;leI ) is c o u r s e :F . x p k tr in g P r e s tig ef;o t. m a tic tna n d ( 'b a n lie A c r o s s ( '. a r ih h e d n L n g lis h - l. e x ic o n ( , r c o le s ( P h ila c le lp h ia : ( , r c t r lc F . x c c t . r t io n : r lis n r ( R e d r r x ) , "il'it t lt t t lP P 1 'l0 , t r o '4 ( 2 0 0 4 ) : t t 3 4 - '3 9 ; f o r t h e o p B e n ja n r r r r s , ( ir e o le 2 0 0 2 ), 6 -7 . E x c e p tio n a lis m !'' p o s in g v ic w p o ilt s c c l) c r e k B ic k e r to n , "lle c o n s id e r ir lg - J 4 . M o n s e n o r R ic h a r d A lle n w a s a c r iv e in th e F r e e A fr ic a n S o c ie ty a n d a s L a n g u , t g t ' f | 0 r, r o .4 ( 2 0 0 4 ) :U 2 8 - 3 3 . - lh t, E < - rio g y ( N e w Y o r k : s is te d( ir a r r v ille ; s e c R o s a L o c k w a r d . F , s tu d k ts o c io - F . c o n 6 m ic cy t ( . u ltu r a l d e la o f L a n g ttg e E , u o lu ti< ttt l g . S a l i l < o k oS . M t r i w e n e , B a h ia d e s a m a n ti, P t'( ) p u e s t( tR c s e n , dd e B ic ts fc ra ( rrv a s h in g to n ,D . ( . . : T h c C e n te r ( , r r n b l i . l g c L J r r i v e r s i tI v) r c s s 2' ( X )| ) . l { 4 ' r h o r | : r s r > n , , ' ( , 0 r r t a c t i n 7 / r e ( ) f f o r N 4 a r i r r (el o n s e r v a r i o.n 1 9 91 \ . c l r a n g e , " a s i) s ( ) llr( 'e L a n g rta g e 2 ( ) . S e rrh ( ,. D . 3 . 5 . M . T r e r r d ly , "T h e lJ n itc d S ta te s a n ti S a n to D o n r in g < :t, ,T, lte . lo u r n a l < tl' R i c h a l d fa n d a I l t t r t t l l t t x t ko f I l i s t r n . i r a lL i n g u i s t i c sc, i l . l J r i a n I ) . . f O s e p ha n d R u c e a n d D e u e k tp m e n t7 ( 1 9 l6 \ : 2 2 3 . ( l v l a l d c r rN, 4a s s . :B l a c k w e ll, 2 ( ) 0 -)l . 6 f ll t . j 6 . P o p l a c kr n d S : r n k o f f ,"T h e t , h i l a d c l p h i aS t o r y . " T e x t u r l r n c l . ) r i o r ( , r e o l i z r r r r o or rf i \ r W E ? S o c i o h i s t o r i c a l 2 1 . l o h n l { i c k f ( ) r r l "l n < t ' 3 I ' ( . e n r t r r i c s , " 3 7 . K a t h l e e n N . r : r s k < r c z c u "P , r . c e s s i n g( - h a n g e i n A l n r . s t p a r a d r s c - : ' - r ' h c l t n r t t r a !t t f ' s o c i o l i n g u i ' s / l t - s I : v i c f c r r cfcr , r r nt l t c l 7 t [ . r r r d l l l t l r P r > l i t i c a l L . c < > r r o n r y : n t i I ) i s c o u r s co f H e a l i n g i n S a r n l n ; i ,D o m i n i c a n R c p u [ r l i c , " ( 1 e 9 7 ) :l 3 l . "l ' h e r e ' s P h . D .t J i s s .S, y r a c u s c[ J n i v c r s i r yS, l , r r r c u s cN. . Y . , 1 9 9 S . 2 2 . l : u r r n n l v s c os i t c t t s cs c e S h a n l P o p l a c ka n d S a l i T a g l i a n t t r r t t e , 3 8 . t b i d . ,7 8 . N o T c r . r s cL ik c th c P r c s c r . rVr :e r l. r r l- s lr r tlc c tio nir r l'. a r ly tlla c k lin g lis h . " I 'o ttg r ta g e A c c o ttn te tl 3 9 . lb id . , 2 7 . V d t. i( tti( , atltttl O ltd r tc r I ( lc ) 8 9 ) : 4 7 - 8 4 :n r r d . ) a m e sA . W a lk e r , "P r e s e tr t I l n i t l i s s ' , 4 0 . s a r r r - r e Hl a z a r c l,S a n to D o n tin g t P a s ta n d p r c s e n tu tith u G la n c e a t I la y ti I r o r : P r o s o t l ya n d A s p c c t i n l ' - r r r l vA f r i c ; l n A n t e r i c a r tE n g l i s h , "P h . D ' 'lir r o r r to . ( l l J 7 . l ) ,- ) d c d . ( S a n t o [ ) o r l i n g o , [ ) o n r r r r i c a nR c p r r h l i c ,l 9 8 2 ) , 4 6 1 . a n d P o p la c k 2 ( ) ( x ) . F < > ra r r ;r n r r [y s r so f th e c ( ) p u lr rs e e s h a n a v c r s itt. 0 f ( l a r i b b c a n "' A m e u c a n 4 1 . I I o c t i n k , "A r l e r i c a n s i n S a n r i r n 6 , ."5 . D a v r t l S e r r k 0 f f ,"l ' h c I ' h i l a c l c l P l r iSa r o r y i n t h c S p a n r s h ( o n t r a c 4 2 . . fo n a th a r r( ir a n v illc , B io g r a p h ic d e . lo n a th a n G r a n u ille , p a r s r n S p c a , .6l t2 ( l g t l 7 ) : 2 9 1 - 3 1 4 ; . fa r n e sA . W a l k c r ,"l { c p h r a s i n gt h e c i o p u l a : lils ( p a r is , o f H is to r y 1 8 7 3 ) ,e 2 - e 3 . tic r n a ttc l Z c r < t ir t I '. lr lv A fr ic :r n A tn c r ic a n I "n g lis h "' h T h c l:n g lis h 4 . 1 .H o c t i n k , "A r n e r i c a n si n S a n r a n i , " 8 . A l"r ic a nt\ tr tc r ic a nl:n g lis h , e d . s h a n a P o p la c k ( ( ) x fo r c l: tlla c k w e ll, 2 0 0 0 ) . 3 - 5 - 7 2 . 4 4 . R e p r fi r n tb c C r n n n ils s ir > on f I n q u ir y , 2 3 0 . ljo r tlr c r n a ly s r s o f z c r o - tr ta r l< c dv e r b s s e e S h a r ta P o p lr r c ka n d S a li T z r g lia n r o n te , 4 . 5 . s ta n le y F in g e r r n a n "o , n e K in c l o f lr r c e d o r n , "E x p k v a tio n s ir t b ) c o tr ttn it. , e ( lr c o lc I ly p o th e s is , " J t> u r n a l r tf P id g in a n d "flr c / - c r o M a r k e c l \ I c r b : T e s tin g th I l i s t o r y 3 8 ( 2 0 0 1 \ :6 4 - 6 7 . ( ' , r ( ( ) 1 L. d n l y t a g e s[ l ( 1 9 9 3 ) : 1 7 1 - 2 O 6 'I h g li:r r n 9 n r c ,"( , o r n c / ( lir r n cV a r i:r tio n in l'ln g lis hD ia le c ts , " A r r te r ir a n 4 6 . H o c t i n k , "A n r e r i c a n si n S a r n a n i , " 8 . 2 .1 ,S . a li 4 7 . S e e fo s 6 G . ( ia r c ia , ( , o n tp e u < li<dte ltt H is to r itt ie S d n to D . r r iz g o ( s a n to S p c c c h7 ( r . t t o . | ( 2 ( X l l \ : 4 2 - 4 6 . D o m in g o . 1 8 9 3 ) ; a n d F - r n ilioR < . r d r ig u c D z e r n o r iz i, , \ , tttu n ti, I r its d r lot p o r t, e n ir 2 4 . S c e P o p l a c ka n t l S r n k o f i , "l ' h c I ' h i l ' t d e l p h i aS t o r y "' ( ' . t r i b l t e a n s t u c l i e s2 ' n o . I ( S a n t o[ ) o r n i n g r . ]t : c i i r t > rda c l C a r i b c , 1 9 7 j ) . 2 . 5 .t l a t . r y I l ( ) c t r r r k , "A r r r e r i c r i l r isn s r t t t t i t t t ' i , " 4 8 . l l o e t i n k , "A r n c r i c a n si n S a r n a n r i , "1 4 . ( 1 9 6 2 13 - 2 2 . 4 9 . I { . B . L e P a g e a n d A n d r ic T ;r b . u r c t- K c lle r ,A c ts o f I d e n tity : C r e t> lc - h a s ttd l n r r k o f f ", l h c l ' l t i l r r c l e l p l rSr rt o r v . ' '2 9 7 ' 2 ( , . P o p l a c ka r r c S ' l h g l i a r . l l o n t e"T, l t t ' r c ' s A p p r . a c b c sto l:th n ic itl' a n d L a n g u a g a ( ( , a n r b r id g e :c . a r n b r id g cL J n i'e r s ityp r e s s . N o le n s c L ik c th e P re s e n t'" 2 7 . S e e[ r o p l r r c ka n c l r9 8 . 5 ) . 2 tl. I lr r ln r , ['id c in s a n d ( , r c r lc s , t'o l' 1 ' 120 [) c n F . W a lic e k 5 0 . L ilie ( . h o u lia r a k i a n d N o r n r a n F a ir c lo tr g h ,D is to u r s e in L a te M c td e r n ity : : in b u r g h lln iv e r s ity l) r e s s , R e th in k in g ( , r ilir ttl l) is t r n r s e A n a ly s is( F , d in l'r r r g h l"d 1999). 5 l , P o p l r c k a n d S a n k o f f , "' T l r eP l r i l a d e l p h i aS t o r v , "2 9 7 ' 5 2 . H o c t i n k . "A n t e r i c n n si n S a m a r r . { , 1" 0 . tf I n q u r ty , 2 2 3 . . 5 . 1 S. e e R e 1 o r t o n tlta ( '', r - tttttis s k tn s 4 .I b i d .z, z \ , 2 2 4 . 5 5 . I b i d . , 2 2 6 . I _ c s si n f o r n r a t i ( ) ni s a v a i l a h l ea b o r , r t h e o t h e r s c h 6 o l , w h i c h w , r s s r lllle r a n d m o r e c lo s ely a ffilia tc d w ith th e M e th o d is t ( , h u r c h . 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