Dropping of the Visarga before Sibilants

Dropping of the Visarga before Sibilants Abstract Dropping of the visarga before a sibilant which is followed by an unvoiced consonant is a Vedic rule mentioned in the Prātiśākhyas and a Vārttika of Kātyāyana on the Pāṇini sūtra 8.3.36. According to the Vyāsa Śikṣā, the Śamāna texts and Bondalakṣaṇa the consonant after the sibilant can either be unvoiced or voiced. Pāṇini / Kātyāyana वा शरि ॥३६॥ vā śari ||8.3.36|| ḥ + (ś, ṣ, s) = (ḥ/s) + (ś, ṣ, s) खर् पिे शरि वा रवसर्पलोर्ो वक्तव्यः kharpare śari vā visargalopo vaktavyaḥ (Vārttika of Kātyāyana) It should be said that the visarga is optionally dropped before a sibilant (śar) which is followed by an unvoiced stop-consonant (khar) ḥ + (ś, ṣ, s) + unvoiced stop = (a) (ś, ṣ, s) + unvoiced stop / (b) ḥ + (ś, ṣ, s) + unvoiced stop / (c) s + (ś, ṣ, s) + unvoiced stop => (śś, ṣṣ, ss) + unvoiced stop (8.4.40-41) Example: mandibhiḥ + stomebhiḥ = mandibhi stomebhiḥ / mandibhiḥ stomebhiḥ / mandibhis stomebhiḥ (RV 1.9.3) Ṛgveda-Prātiśākhya ऊष्मण्यघोषोदये लुप्यते र्िे नतेऽरर् ॥ ūṣmaṇy aghoṣodaye lupyate pare nate 'pi ||4.36|| (4.12) If a sibilant (ūṣman) followed by a voiceless consonant follows, (visarjanīya) is dropped, even if the (following) sibilant is cerebralized. ḥ + (ś, ṣ, s) + voiceless consonant = (ś, ṣ, s or ṣ) + voiceless consonant The only combinations in the Ṛgveda-Saṁhitā starting with a sibilant and followed by a voiceless consonant are: śc, sk, st, sth, sp and sph. This sandhi is called ‘Anvakṣaravaktra’ in sūtra 4.37. Examples: stokāḥ + ścotanti = stokā ścotanti (RV 3.21.2) 1 yajuḥ + skannam = yaju ṣkannam (RV 10.181.3) mandibhiḥ + stomebhiḥ = mandibhi stomebhiḥ (RV 1.9.3) duḥ-stutī = duṣṭutī (RV 2.33.4) nīcīnāḥ + sthuḥ = nīcīnā sthuḥ (RV 1.24.7) viśvāḥ + spridhaḥ = viśvā spridhaḥ (RV 10.18.9) naḥ + sphātim = na sphātim (RV 1.188.9) The printed Ṛgveda Saṁhitās with the exception of the transliterated edition of Aufrecht do not show this sandhi. They read stokāḥ ścotanti, yajuḥ ṣkannam etc. with the exception of duṣṭutiḥ (1.53.1), duṣṭutī (2.33.4, 7.32.21) and niṣṭhitaḥ (1.182.7) See the list of all dropped visargas in the Aufrecht edition of Ṛgveda Saṁhitā. Śamāna-Śikṣā This text enumerates those words of the Ṛgveda-Saṁhitā ending in āḥ which drop the visarga (1) before a voiced consonant and (2) before a sibilant (ś, s) which is followed by a consonant. āḥ + (st, sth, sp) = ā (st, sth, sp) āḥ + (śr, śv, sm, sy, sv) = ā (śy, śv, sm, sy, sv) Śamāna-Śikṣā refers to a Saṁhitā in which the visarga is dropped before a sibilant which is followed by an unvoiced or voiced consonant. Example: candramāś cetāś cakṣāś cakrāṇāś cakṣāṇā matau caniṣṭhāś citrā rodhasvatīr-yāmebhiḥ-paro 'śvāpaś candrā riśādasaḥ-paraś ca cakramāṇā rihanti-paro nava 14 vayaṁ te asyāṁ sumatau caniṣṭhā(ḥ) syāma varūthe aghnato nṛpītau ||RV 7.20.8|| vayam | te | asyām | su-matau | caniṣṭhāḥ | syāma | varūthe | aghnataḥ | nṛ-pītau || Reference: https://sites.google.com/site/vedalaksana/shamana-shiksha-with-commentary-T.pdf Bondalakṣaṇa As seen in the following sūtra Bondalakṣaṇa refers to a Ṛgveda-Saṁhitā in which the visarga is dropped before a sibilant which is followed by an unvoiced or voiced consonant. śnathayan svarṣāḥ [svāhā] pibatu starya sravitave svabhiṣṭisumnaḥ svaśvayuspaṭ śmaśrūṇīndro visargeṇa | indraḥ in the Padapāṭha; in the Saṁhitā indra with dropped visarga before a sibilant followed by a consonant 2 1.051.09a anuvratāya randhayann apavratān ābhūbhir indra(ḥ) śnathayann anābhuvaḥ | anu-vratāya | randhayan | apa-vratān | ā-bhūbhiḥ | indraḥ | śnathayan | anābhuvaḥ | 3.034.04a indra(ḥ) svarṣā janayann ahāni jigāyośigbhiḥ pṛtanā abhiṣṭiḥ | indraḥ | svaḥ-sāḥ | janayan | ahāni | jigāya | uśik-bhiḥ | pṛtanāḥ | abhiṣṭiḥ | 3.050.01a indra(ḥ) svāhā pibatu yasya soma āgatyā tumro vṛṣabho marutvān | indraḥ | svāhā | pibatu | yasya | somaḥ | ā-gatya | tumraḥ | vṛṣabhaḥ | marutvān | 4.019.07c dhanvāny ajrām̐ apṛṇak tṛṣāṇām̐ adhog indra(ḥ) staryo daṁsupatnīḥ || dhanvāni | ajrān | apṛṇak | tṛṣāṇān | adhok | indraḥ | staryaḥ | dam-supatnīḥ ||4.019.07| 4.019.08c pariṣṭhitā atṛṇad badbadhānāḥ sīrā indra(ḥ) sravitave pṛthivyā || pari-sthitāḥ | atṛṇat | badbadhānāḥ | sīrāḥ | indraḥ | sravitave | pṛthivyā ||4.019.08|| 6.020.08a sa vetasuṁ daśamāyaṁ daśoṇiṁ tūtujim indra(ḥ) svabhiṣṭisumnaḥ | saḥ | vetasum | daśa-māyam | daśa-oṇim | tūtujim | indraḥ | svabhiṣṭi-sumnaḥ | 8.045.07a yad ājiṁ yāty ājikṛd indra(ḥ) svaśvayur upa | yat | ājim | yāti | āji-kṛt | indraḥ | svaśva-yuḥ | upa | 8.061.15a indra(ḥ) spaḻ uta vṛtrahā paraspā no vareṇyaḥ | indraḥ | spaṭ | uta | vṛtra-hā | paraḥ-pāḥ | naḥ | vareṇyaḥ | 10.023.04a so cin nu vṛṣṭir yūthyā svā sacām̐ indra(ḥ) śmaśrūṇi haritābhi pruṣṇute | so iti | cit | nu | vṛṣṭiḥ | yūthyā | svā | sacā | indraḥ | śmaśrūṇi | haritā | abhi | pruṣṇute | Reference: https://sites.google.com/site/vedalaksana/Bondalakshana-with-commentary.pdf Taittirīya-Prātiśākhya ऊष्मपरो ऽघोषपरे लुप्यते काण्डमायनस्य॥९.१॥ ūṣmaparo 'ghoṣapare lupyate kāṇḍamāyanasya ||9.1|| Visarjanīya, when followed by a sibilant which has an unvoiced letter after it, is dropped, according to Kāṇḍamāyana. Examples: divaḥ + skambhaniḥ = diva skambhaniḥ (TS 1.1.6) vaḥ + stena = va stena (TS 1.1.1) citaḥ + stha = cita stha (TS 1.1.7) garbhāḥ + spṛtāḥ = garbhā spṛtāḥ (TS 4.3.9) Weber’s edition (http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/ind/aind/ved/yvs/ts/ts.htm) shows this sandhi. http://www.parankusa.org/KrYajurBrowse.aspx reads divasskambhaniḥ, vasstena, citasstha, garbhāḥ spṛtāḥ http://vedicreserve.mum.edu/yajur_veda/taittiriya_krishna_yajur_veda.pdf reads divaḥ skambhaniḥ, vaḥ stena, citaḥ stha, garbhāḥ spṛtāḥ 3 Vyāsa-Śikṣā ु लुप्यते संयतोष्मोर्ध्वोऽप्यवर्ाप द्घोषवत्पिः २१५ lupyate saṁyutoṣmordhvo'pyavarṇādghoṣavatparaḥ ||215|| (Visarjanīya) is dropped if placed before a sibilant which is followed by a consonant. ḥ + (ś, ṣ, s) + consonant = (ś, ṣ, s) + consonant Examples: a) voiced consonant tisraḥ + śyāmāḥ = tisra śyāmāḥ (TS 5.6.12) cakṣuḥ + śrotram = cakṣu śrotram (TS 1.1.10) namaḥ + śvabhyaḥ = nama śvabhyaḥ (TS 4.5.4) lokāḥ + snuvanti = lokā snuvanti (TS 2.1.4) gṛhyāḥ + smaḥ = gṛhyā smaḥ (TS 1.8.6) kṛṣṇāḥ + syuḥ = kṛṣṇā syuḥ (TS 2.3.1) namaḥ + srutyāya = nama srutyāya (TS 4.5.7) ūrjasvatīḥ + svadhāvinīḥ = ūrjasvatī svadhāvinīḥ (TS 4.4.11) The printed or online Taittirīya Saṁhitās do not show this sandhi. They read tisraḥ śyāmāḥ, cakṣuḥ śrotram etc. b) unvoiced consonant āyuḥ-stomam = āyuṣṭomam (TS 7.4.11) agneḥ + stomam = agne stomam (TS 5.5.6) harīḥ + stha = harī stha (TS 1.4.28) catuḥ-sthanām = catustanām (TS 5.1.6) In the German book “Die Vyāsa-Śikṣā besonders in ihrem Verhältnis zum Taittirīya-Prātiśākhya” Heinrich Lüders (1894) compares the Vyāsa-Śikṣā with the Taittirīya-Prātiśākhya. He says: This rule of the Śikṣā has not the restriction of the Prātiśākhya that the consonant following the sibilant has to be unvoiced. In the manuscripts the visarga is dropped when the sibilant is followed by an unvoiced or voiced consonant. In the South Indian manuscripts this happens regularly, also in non-Vedic texts. In Nāgarī manuscripts it happens so frequently, that one has to consider the deviations as inaccuracy. 4 Śamāna(prakaraṇa) This text which is included in the Saptalakṣaṇa enumerates those words of the Taittirīya-Saṁhitā ending in āḥ which drop the visarga (1) before a voiced consonant and (2) before a sibilant (ś, s) which is followed by a consonant. āḥ + (st, sth, sp) = ā (st, sth, sp) āḥ + (śy, śr, śv, sn, sm, sy, sr, sv) = ā (śy, śr, śv, sn, sm, sy, sr, sv) Śamānaprakaraṇa refers to a Saṁhitā (probably from South India) in which the visarga is dropped before a sibilant which is followed by an unvoiced or voiced consonant. Examples: syuḥ stha bhavanti bhavantu paraḥ bahudheti varjayitvā ||26|| prajā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 2.2.8, 2.3.4, 6.1.3) śulkā(ḥ) syuḥ, kṛṣṇā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 2.3.1) madhyamā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 2.5.5) asaṁyuktā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 2.5.7) pramāyukā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 3.2.6) rathā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 3.4.8) dam̐śukā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 5.2.9) prapādukā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 5.6.9) parāpātukā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 6.1.3, 6.1.7) sarpā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 6.1.10) prātaryājyā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 6.2.3) vyatiṣaktā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 6.2.6) mohukā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 6.5.3) apratiṣṭhitā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 7.3.10) paśukāmā(ḥ) syuḥ (TS 7.4.3, 7.4.7) prokṣitā(ḥ) sthā'gnaye (TS 1.1.5) prajātā(ḥ) stha (TS 1.1.8) sam̐srāvabhāgā(ḥ) stheṣā (TS 1.1.13) śvātrā(ḥ) stha (TS 1.4.1, 6.4.4) paśyateḍā(ḥ) stha (TS 1.5.6) māndā(ḥ) stha vāśā(ḥ) stha, tejasyā(ḥ) stha, rāṣṭradā(ḥ) stha (TS 1.8.11) vadhyācchatrubādhanā(ḥ) stha (TS 1.8.12) nigrābhyā(ḥ) stha (TS 3.1.8) āpūryā(ḥ) sthā mā (TS 3.2.5) ṛtasthā(ḥ) stha (TS 4.4.11) Maitrāyaṇī-Saṁhitā Examples from http://vedicreserve.mum.edu/yajur_veda/maitrayani_krishna_yajur_veda.pdf 5 showing dropped visarga if placed before a sibilant which is followed by an unvoiced consonant. vāyava stha; va stena (MaiS 1.1.1) huta stokaḥ (MaiS 1.1.3) prokṣitā stha (MaiS 1.1.4) sam̐srāvabhāgā stheṣā (MaiS 1.1.13) Kāṭhaka-Saṁhitā Examples from http://vedicreserve.mum.edu/yajur_veda/kathaka_krishna_yajur_veda.pdf showing that the visarga is not dropped but changed into the following sibilant. iṣe tvorje tvā vāyavassthopāyavasstha devo vassavitā (KāthS 1.1) Kāpiṣṭhalakaṭha-Saṁhitā Examples from http://vedicreserve.mum.edu/yajur_veda/Kapisthala_Katha_Samhita.pdf showing dropped visarga if placed before a sibilant which is followed by an unvoiced consonant. iṣe tvorje tvā | vāyava sthopāyava stha | devo vaḥ savitā; mā va stena (KāpS 1.1) Vājasaneyi-Prātiśākhya ु रित्पिे १३ लुङ् मरद luṅ mudi jitpare ||3.13|| Visarjanīya is dropped before a sibilant (s, ṣ, s) which is followed by an unvoiced stop consonant. Examples from the Mādhyandina-Saṁhitā: diva skambhanīrasi (MS 1.19) divaḥ | skambhanīḥ | asi (MP 1.19) grahai stomāśca (MS 19.28) grahaiḥ | stomāḥ | ca (MP 19.26) andha sthāndho vo bhakṣīya maha stha maho vo bhakṣīyorja sthorjam̐ vo bhakṣīya rāyaspoṣa stha rāyaspoṣam̐ vo bhakṣīya ||MS 3.20|| andhaḥ | stha | andhaḥ | vaḥ | bhakṣīya | mahaḥ | stha | mahaḥ | vaḥ | bhakṣīya | ūrjaḥ | stha | ūrjam | vaḥ | bhakṣīya | rāyaḥ | poṣaḥ | stha | rāyaḥ | poṣam | vaḥ | bhakṣīya ||MP 3.19|| sthālībhi sthālīrāpnoti (MS 19.27) sthālībhiḥ | sthālīḥ | āpnoti (MP 19.25) 6 yadajaya spṛdhaḥ (MS 19.71) yad | ajayaḥ | spṛdhaḥ (MP 19.69) Example from the Kāṇva-Saṁhitā: iṣe tvorje tvā vāyava stha | (KS 1.1) iṣe | tvā | ūrje | tvā | vāyavaḥ | stha Ṛktantra (a Prātiśākhya of Sāmaveda) ऊष्मा स्थानम ् ūṣmā sthānam ||177|| Visarjanīya is converted into the spirant corresponding to the place of articulation of the following letter. ḥ + (k, kh) = jīvamulīya + (k, kh) ḥ + (p, ph) = upadhmānīya + (p,ph) ḥ + (c, ch) = (śc, śch) ḥ + (t,th) = (st, sth) ḥ + (ś, ṣ, s) = (śś, ṣṣ, ss) ḥ + (ś, ṣ, s) + consonant = (śś, ṣṣ, ss) + consonant Example: devāḥ + sthana = devāssthana (SV 368) In the Sāmaveda-Saṁhitā http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/1_sam/samavedu.htm the visarga before a sibilant is not converted into ś, ṣ or s. If the sibilant is followed by an unvoiced stop the visarga is usually dropped but there are eight exceptions: Dropped visargas in the Sāmaveda-Saṁhitā: viśvā yadajaya spṛdhaḥ || (SV 211) amī ye devā sthana madhya ā rocane divaḥ | (SV 368) yo na idamidaṁ purā pra vasya ānināya tamu va stuṣe | (SV 400) stotā vāmaśvināvṛśi stomebhirbhūṣati prati mādhvī mama śrutaṁ havam || (SV 418) sakhāya stomavāhasaḥ || (SV 740) sa tvaṁ naścitra vajrahasta dhṛṣṇuyā maha stavāno adrivaḥ | (SV 810) yadā vājasya gomata stotṛbhyo maṁhate magham || (SV 829) prāvīvipadvāca ūrmiṁ na sindhurgira stomānpavamāno manīṣāḥ | (SV 945) udu tye madhumattamā gira stomāsa īrate | (SV 1362) bhūyāma te sumatau vājino vayaṁ mā na starabhimātaye | (SV 1422) agniṁ vo duryaṁ vaca stuṣe śūṣasya manmabhiḥ || (SV 1564) evā hi vīra stavate sadāvṛdhaḥ || (SV 1684) 7 revāṁ idrevata stotā syāttvāvato maghonaḥ | (SV 1804) Maintained visargas in the Sāmaveda-Saṁhitā: agniṁ vo duryaṁ vacaḥ stuṣe śūṣasya manmabhiḥ || (SV 87) sakhāyaḥ stomavāhasaḥ || (SV 164) tubhyaṁ sutāsaḥ somāḥ stīrṇaṁ barhirvibhāvaso | (SV 213) varūthye3 varuṇe chandyaṁ vacaḥ stotraṁ rājasu gāyata || (SV 255) eto nvindraṁ stavāma sakhāyaḥ stomyaṁ naram | (SV 387) ā gha tvāvāṁ tmanā yuktaḥ stotṛbhyo dhṛṣṇavīyānaḥ | (SV 1085) ya ugraḥ sannaniṣṭṛtaḥ sthiro raṇāya saṁskṛtaḥ | (SV 1698) balavijñāyaḥ sthaviraḥ pravīraḥ sahasvānvājī sahamāna ugraḥ | (SV 1853) Śamāna (Sāmaveda) This text which is included in the Saptalakṣaṇa enumerates those words of the Sāmaveda-Saṁhitā ending in āḥ which drop the visarga (1) before a voiced consonant and (2) before a sibilant (ś, s) which is followed by a consonant. āḥ + (st, sth) = ā (st, sth) āḥ + sv = ā sv Śamāna refers to a Saṁhitā in which the visarga is dropped before a sibilant which is followed by an unvoiced or voiced consonant. kaśā iṣṭāḥ sajoṣā nayanaṁ somāḥ karaṁ kāṣṭhā yuktā na va tatyayau vardhatyaye | tu yā madhumattamā rudrā jīvā dvitīyaḥ 4 tubhyaṁ sutāsaḥ somā(ḥ) stīrṇaṁ barhirvibhāvaso | (SV 213) anāgāḥ padajñā vedhā avā ayakṣmā ajñātā vṛjanā niṣṭhāḥ prathamāḥ smṛḍīkāḥ priyāḥ saṁyogetyaye | sugopā devayā aruṇā yajamānāstā naḥ sahojāstā jayantūgrā anādhṛṣyāḥ kumārā vṛddhaśravā amitrā aṣṭamaḥ 10 yatra naḥ pūrve pitaraḥ padajñā(ḥ) svarvido abhi gā adrimiṣṇan .. (SV 1359) svasti na indro vṛddhaśravā(ḥ) svasti naḥ pūṣā viśvavedāḥ . (SV 1875) Reference: http://peterffreund.com/shiksha/sama_veda_saptalakshana.html#verse1 Caturadhyāyikā (a Prātiśākhya of Atharvaveda) रवसिपनीयस्य र्िसस्थानोऽघोषे ॥४०॥ visarjanīyasya parasasthāno 'ghoṣe ||2.40|| Visarjanīya before an unvoiced consonant becomes of like position with the following sound. 8 Whitney: “The rule that the visarjanīya is to be dropped altogether before a sibilant followed by a surd mute, a rule which is laid down by the Ṛk and Vāj Prātiśākhyas and not by our own but which is rather more usually although with very numerous and irregularly occurring exceptions followed in the Atharvan manuscripts has been uniformly carried out in the edition although many will doubtless be inclined to think with me that considering the varying usage of the manuscripts it would have been better to follow the authority of the Prātiśākhya and so to avoid the ambiguity occasionally arising from the omission of the final spirant.” Examples showing dropped visargas: jarāyujaḥ prathama usriyo vṛṣā vātābhrajā stanayann eti vṛṣṭyā | (AV 1.12.1) nīcaiḥ khananty asurā arusrāṇam idaṁ mahat | (AV 2.3.3) amī ye vivratā sthana tān vaḥ saṁ namayāmasi ||AV 3.8.5|| diva spaśaḥ pra carantīdam asya sahasrākṣā ati paśyanti bhūmim ||AV 4.16.4|| mā va stena īśata māghaśaṁsaḥ pari vo rudrasya hetir vṛṇaktu ||AV 4.21.7|| āsthāne parvatā asthu sthāmny aśvāṁ atiṣṭhipam ||AV 6.77.1|| pra tad viṣṇu stavate vīryāṇi mṛgo na bhīmaḥ kucaro giriṣṭhāḥ | (AV 7.26.2) paramebhiḥ pathibhi steno dhāvatu taskaraḥ | (AV 19.47.7) matsvā suśipra mandibhi stomebhir viśvacarṣaṇe | (AV 20.71.9) ā nūnam aśvinor ṛṣi stomaṁ ciketa vāmayā | (AV 20.140.2) Examples showing maintained visargas: mā me sakhyuḥ stāmānam api ṣṭhātāśrāvayanto ni viṣe ramadhvam ||AV 5.13.5|| nirhastāḥ śatravaḥ sthanendro vo 'dya parāśarīt ||AV 6.66.2|| api nahyāmy asya meḍhraṁ ya itaḥ strī pumān jabhāra ||AV 7.95.3|| sa tau pra veda sa u tau ciketa yāv asyāḥ stanau sahasradhārāv akṣitau | (AV 9.1.17) yatra prepsantīr abhiyanty āvṛtaḥ skambhaṁ taṁ brūhi katamaḥ svid eva saḥ ||AV 10.7.4|| skambhe lokāḥ skambhe tapaḥ skambhe 'dhy ṛtam āhitam | (AV 10.7.29) ye tātṛṣur devatrā jehamānā hotrāvidaḥ stomataṣṭāso arkaiḥ | (AV 18.3.47) balavijñāyaḥ sthaviraḥ pravīraḥ sahasvān vājī sahamāna ugraḥ | (19.13.5) semaṁ naḥ stomaṁ jujuṣāṇa ā gahīndra pra citrayā dhiyā ||AV 20.97.2|| References Atharvaveda Saṁhitā: http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/1_sam/avs___u.htm Ṛktantra (a Prātiśākhya of Sāmaveda): https://archive.org/details/rktantram Ṛgveda Saṁhitā / Padapāṭha: http://www.detlef108.de/Rigveda.htm Ṛgveda Prātiśākhya: https://sites.google.com/site/detlef108/rv-pratishakhya 9 The Rgveda Pratisakhya Vol III (1937/00/00) - English translation Caturadhyāyikā (a Prātiśākhya of Atharvaveda): http://vedicreserve.mum.edu/pratishakhyas/atharva_veda_pratishakhya_chaturadhyayi.pdf Bondalakṣaṇa: https://sites.google.com/site/vedalaksana/Bondalakshana-with-commentary.pdf Mādhyandina Vājasaneyi Saṁhitā: http://vedicreserve.mum.edu/yajur_veda/shukla_yajur_veda.pdf Vājasaneyi Prātiśākhya: http://peterffreund.com/Vedic_Literature/shukl_yajur_veda_pratishakhya.htm http://vedicreserve.mum.edu/pratishakhyas/shukla_yajur_veda_pratishakhya.pdf Vyāsa Śikṣā: http://peterffreund.com/shiksha/vyasa_shiksha.html http://peterffreund.com/shiksha/vyasa_shiksha.pdf Śamāna(prakaraṇa) (Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda): http://vedicreserve.mum.edu/shiksha/yajur_veda_saptalakshana.html#shamana Śamāna Śikṣā (Ṛgveda): https://sites.google.com/site/vedalaksana/shamana-shiksha-with-commentary-T.pdf Śamāna (Sāmaveda): http://peterffreund.com/shiksha/sama_veda_saptalakshana.html#verse1 Sāmaveda Saṁhitā: http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/1_sam/samavedu.htm Śikṣās and Vedalakṣaṇa texts: Aithal, K.Parameswara, Veda-Lakṣaṇa: Vedic Ancillary Literature: A Descriptive Bibliography, Motilal Banarsidass: Delhi, 1993 http://vedicreserve.mum.edu/shiksha/shiksha_vedicreserve.html https://sites.google.com/site/vedalaksana/ https://sites.google.com/site/vedalaksana/links Last update by Detlef Eichler : 6 November 2018 10